203-462: Scientology is a set of beliefs and practices invented by the American author L. Ron Hubbard , and an associated movement. It is variously defined as a cult , a business , a religion , or a scam . Hubbard initially developed a set of ideas that he called Dianetics , which he represented as a form of therapy. An organization that he established in 1950 to promote it went bankrupt, and Hubbard lost
406-489: A rational choice . The application of the labels cult or sect to religious movements in government documents signifies the popular and negative use of the term cult in English and a functionally similar use of words translated as 'sect' in several European languages. Sociologists critical to this negative politicized use of the word cult argue that it may adversely impact the religious freedoms of group members. At
609-515: A "cult movement" is an actual complete organization, differing from a "sect" in that it is not a splinter of a bigger religion, while "audience cults" are loosely organized, and propagated through media, and "client cults" offer services (i.e. psychic readings or meditation sessions). One type can turn into another, for example the Church of Scientology changing from audience to client cult. Sociologists who follow their definition tend to continue using
812-414: A 'church' merely as a cover to pursue its economic interests." In the same decision, the court also found that Scientology uses "inhuman and totalitarian practices." Given the lessons of Germany's 20th-century history, in which the country came to be dominated by a fascist movement that started from similarly small beginnings, Germany is very wary of any ideological movement that might appear to be seeking
1015-633: A German board, German bylaws, and no evidence that the organization was "totally remote-controlled" from the United States. A foreign organization would have been much easier to ban than a German one. The second argument on which those proposing the ban had counted was Scientology's aggressive opposition to the constitution. Here, the report found that Scientology's behaviour gave no grounds to assume that Scientology aggressively sought to attack and overthrow Germany's free and democratic basic order. "Neither its bylaws nor any other utterances" supported
1218-533: A broad range of other issues in Germany, such as taxation and freedom of association. The Federal Court of Justice of Germany has not yet made an explicit decision on the matter, but implicitly assumed in 1980 that Scientology represented a religious or worldview community. The Upper Administrative Court in Hamburg explicitly asserted in 1994 that Scientology should be viewed as a worldview community. In 1995,
1421-576: A bust or large framed photograph of him on display. The Church of Scientology is headquartered at " Gold Base " in Riverside County, California , where the highest Sea Org officials work, and at "Flag Land Base" in Clearwater, Florida . The organization operates on a hierarchical and top-down basis, being largely bureaucratic in structure. It claims to be the only true voice of Scientology. The internal structure of Scientology organizations
1624-419: A calendar in which 1950, the year in which Hubbard's book Dianetics was published, is considered year zero, the beginning of an era. Years after that date are referred to as "AD" for "After Dianetics ". They have also buried copies of his writings preserved on stainless steel disks in a secure underground vault in the hope of preserving them against major catastrophes. The Church of Scientology's view of Hubbard
1827-609: A commercial company. Each franchise sends part of its earnings, which have been generated through beginner-level auditing, to the International Management. Bromley observed that an entrepreneurial incentive system pervades the organization, with individual members and organisations receiving payment for bringing in new people or for signing them up for more advanced services. The individual and collective performances of different members and missions are gathered, being called "stats". Performances that are an improvement on
2030-575: A conference in Philadelphia. Travolta later said Clinton assured him that he would "really love to help" with the "issue over in Germany with Scientology". According to Travolta, Clinton recalled that "he had a roommate years ago who was a Scientologist and had really liked him, and respected his views on it", stating that Scientologists "were given an unfair hand in [Germany] and that he wanted to fix it". In September 1997, John Travolta, Chick Corea and fellow Scientologist Isaac Hayes were heard by
2233-549: A confidence trick to obtain money from its targets. The scholar Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi observes that "the majority of activities conducted by Scientology and its many fronts and subsidiaries involve the marketing of secular products." In a report by the European Parliament , it is observed that the group "is a cool, cynical, manipulating business and nothing else." Scholars and journalists note that profit
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#17327795270262436-472: A congregation that believes in and helps spread its teachings. Allan W. Black analysed Scientology through the seven "dimensions of religion" set forward by the scholar Ninian Smart and also decided that Scientology met those criteria for being a religion. The sociologist David V. Barrett noted that there was a "strong body of evidence to suggest that it makes sense to regard Scientology as a religion", while scholar of religion James R. Lewis comments that "it
2639-404: A continuity with traditional beliefs and practices, whereas cults arise spontaneously around novel beliefs and practices. Scholars William Sims Bainbridge and Rodney Stark have argued for a further distinction between three kinds of cults: cult movements, client cults, and audience cults, all of which share a "compensator" or rewards for the things invested into the group. In their typology,
2842-438: A cult as a social group with socially deviant or novel beliefs and practices, although this is often unclear. Other researchers present a less-organized picture of cults, saying that they arise spontaneously around novel beliefs and practices. Cults have been compared to miniature totalitarian political systems. Such groups are typically perceived as being led by a charismatic leader who tightly controls its members. It
3045-428: A cult by the media, government and former members is a significant factor as to what lead to the deaths. The term was noted to carry "considerable cultural legitimacy". In the 1970s, with the rise of secular anti-cult movements , scholars (though not the general public) began to abandon the use of the term cult , regarding it as pejorative. By the end of the 1970s, the term cult was largely replaced in academia with
3248-519: A cult may be a common occurrence, but it is not scholarship". However, it has also been viewed as empowering for ex-members of groups that have experienced trauma. Religious scholar Catherine Wessinger argued the term was dehumanizing of the people within the group, as well as their children; following the Waco siege , it was argued by some scholars that the defining of the Branch Davidians as
3451-417: A dangerous cult and as a manipulative profit-making business . These institutions and scholars state that Scientology is not a religion. Scientology has experienced multiple schisms during its history. While the Church of Scientology was the original promoter of the movement, various independent groups have split off to form independent Scientology groups. Referring to the "different types of Scientology",
3654-516: A dangerous cult. The sociologist Stephen A. Kent views the Church of Scientology as "a multifaceted transnational corporation , only one element of which is religious". In his history of the Church of Scientology, the scholar Hugh Urban describes Scientology as a "huge, complex, and multifaceted movement". Government inquiries, international parliamentary bodies, scholars, law lords, and numerous superior court judgments describe Scientology both as
3857-563: A deity. They regard him as the preeminent Operating Thetan who remained on Earth in order to show others the way to spiritual liberation, the man who discovered the source of human misery and a technology allowing everyone to achieve their true potential. Church of Scientology management frames Hubbard's physical death as "dropping his body" to pursue higher levels of research not possible with an Earth-bound body. Scientologists often refer to Hubbard affectionately as "Ron", and many refer to him as their "friend". The Scientology organization operates
4060-691: A destructive cult by "anticult crusaders." In 2002, the German government was held by the Federal Constitutional Court to have defamed the Osho movement by referring to it, among other things, as a "destructive cult" with no factual basis. Some researchers have criticized the term destructive cult , writing that it is used to describe groups which are not necessarily harmful in nature to themselves or others. In his book Understanding New Religious Movements , John A. Saliba writes that
4263-492: A foreign state, working for a political information service and falsifying identity documents". The German government posted bail for the agent. He was eventually given a 30-day suspended jail sentence for spying on Scientology, and the German government apologized to Switzerland for the incident. A "sect filter", also known as a "protective declaration" ( Schutzerklärung ), is a document that requires prospective business partners or employees to acknowledge any association with
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#17327795270264466-590: A friend who had links to Scientology. In 2007, Günther Oettinger , the Minister-President of the German state of Baden-Württemberg , expressed concern that Scientologist John Travolta was to appear on Gottschalk's programme, and asked the ZDF TV station to consider revoking the invitation; the ZDF said that uninviting Travolta would cause greater damage, and that Scientology was not going to be discussed in
4669-672: A full-time office dedicated to opposing Scientology, the Scientology Task Force for the Hamburg Interior Authority , under the leadership of Ursula Caberta . In 2005, in a case brought by a Scientologist, the Federal Administrative Court of Germany ordered the city of Hamburg to cease recommending the use of protective declarations to its business community, finding that the practice infringed religious freedom. In June 2008,
4872-528: A healthy living discombobulated many observers when it first started. Dericquebourg comments that the same things can be found in established churches. The word Scientology , as coined by Hubbard, is a derivation from the Latin word scientia ("knowledge", "skill"), which comes from the verb scīre ("to know"), with the suffix -ology , from the Greek λόγος lógos ("word" or "account [of]"). Hubbard claimed that
5075-644: A mass audience. As noted by the religious scholar Hubert Seiwert, Scientology came to be seen as a "serious political danger that not only threatened to turn individuals into will-less zombies, but was also conspiring to overthrow the democratic constitution of the state". This view of Scientology as a public enemy , Seiwert adds, "became a matter of political correctness": senior political figures became involved in launching campaigns against Scientology, and being suspected of any association with it resulted in social ostracism. Stephen A. Kent , writing in 1998, noted that officials at all levels of German government shared
5278-460: A membership figure of around 12,000. The Church of Scientology has encountered particular antagonism from the German press and government and occupies a precarious legal, social, and cultural position in Germany. As of 2017 , German courts have so far not resolved whether to accord Scientology the legal status of a religious or worldview community, and different courts have reached contradictory conclusions. The German domestic intelligence service
5481-556: A minimum of payments to the Scientology organization of $ 350,000 to $ 400,000 (equivalent to $ 542,000 in 2023). OT levels six and seven are only available at Clearwater. The highest level, OT eight, is disclosed only at sea on the Scientology ship Freewinds , operated by the Flag Ship Service Org. Scholar of religion Aled Thomas suggested that the status of a person's level creates an internal class system within
5684-487: A mission wherever they wish but must fund it themselves; the missions are not financially supported by the central organization. Mission holders must purchase all of the necessary material from the central Church of Scientology; as of 2001, the Mission Starter Pack cost $ 35,000 (equivalent to $ 60,200 in 2023). Each mission or Org is a corporate entity, established as a licensed franchise, and operating as
5887-504: A newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune , drawing parallels between the "organized oppression" of Scientologists in Germany and Nazi policies espoused by Germany in the 1930s. The letter was conceived and paid for by Hollywood lawyer Bertram Fields , whose clients have included Tom Cruise and John Travolta, and was signed by 34 prominent figures in the U.S. entertainment industry, including
6090-410: A particular person, object, or goal is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. The term has different, and sometimes divergent or pejorative , definitions both in popular culture and academia and has been an ongoing source of contention among scholars across several fields of study. Beginning in the 1930s, new religious movements became an object of sociological study within the context of
6293-413: A position of absolute power. References in Scientology writings to the elimination of "parasites" and "antisocial" people who stand in the way of progress towards Scientology's utopian world "without insanity, without criminals, and without war" evoke uncomfortable parallels with Nazism , and have led to Scientology being classified as an "extremist political movement." To further justify its stance,
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6496-460: A pretext for purely commercial activity; if the latter were the case, this would most likely imply that Scientology would not qualify for protection as a "religious or worldview community" ( Religions- oder Weltanschauungsgemeinschaft ) under Article 4 of the German constitution , which guarantees the freedom of belief, religion and worldview. Status as a "religious or worldview community" also affects
6699-433: A religion is strongly opposed by the anti-cult movement . Its claims to a religious identity have been particularly rejected in continental Europe. Grünschloß writes that labelling Scientology a religion does not mean that it is "automatically promoted as harmless, nice, good, and humane".. The multi-faceted nature of the Church of Scientology that includes pedagogy, communication theories, management principles and methods for
6902-410: A religion. Recent years have seen a number of court decisions in Scientology's favour, despite the very widespread negative attitude to Scientology among politicians and the general public. Given the history of Nazism 's rise to power in Germany in the 1930s, the present German state has committed itself to taking active steps to prevent the rise of any ideology that threatens the values enshrined in
7105-411: A religion. The sociologist Bryan R. Wilson compares Scientology with 20 criteria that he associated with religion and concludes that the movement could be characterised as such. Wilson's criteria include: a cosmology that describes a human reality beyond terrestrial existence; ethics and behavior teachings that are based on this cosmology; prescribed ways for followers to connect with spiritual beings; and
7308-682: A religion: "We don't want a clinic. We want one in operation but not in name...It is a problem of practical business. I await your reaction on the religion angle". In reaction to a series of arrests of his followers, and the prosecution of Hubbard's Dianetics foundation for teaching medicine without a license, in December 1953 Hubbard incorporated three organizations – Church of American Science, Church of Scientology, and Church of Spiritual Engineering. In 1959, Hubbard purchased Saint Hill Manor in East Grinstead, Sussex, United Kingdom, which became
7511-409: A religious institution in the majority of countries in which it operates. An article in the magazine TIME , " The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power ", describes Scientology as a ruthless global scam . The Church of Scientology's attempts to sue the publishers for libel and to prevent republication abroad were dismissed. Scholarship in psychology and skepticism supports this view of Scientology as
7714-970: A result, they have responded more neutrally with regard to new religions. Scholars have suggested that the outrage which followed the mass murder/suicides perpetuated by the Solar Temple , have significantly contributed to European anti-cult positions. In the 1980s, clergymen and officials of the French government expressed concern that some orders and other groups within the Roman Catholic Church would be adversely affected by anti-cult laws which were then being considered. Scientology in Germany The Church of Scientology has operated in Germany since 1970. German authorities estimate that there are 3,500 active Scientologists in Germany as of 2019 . The Church of Scientology gives
7917-561: A risk to Germany's democratic society." Accordingly, the German government has taken a very strong stance against the organization. Germany is not alone in opposing Scientology; in France , the "Church" of Scientology was convicted of organized fraud in October 2009, after a court found that members had been manipulated into paying large sums for Scientology products, and the "Church" only narrowly escaped being banned altogether. Scientology
8120-531: A sect or new religious movement before entering a business or employment contract. Such sect filters, primarily used to screen out Scientologists, have been drafted by German government agencies for use by businesses. "Sect commissioner" offices exist in Germany as part of regional or local government. A work instruction introduced in 1996 requires government staff in the Arbeitsämter – local employment agencies and social security offices operated by
8323-498: A special emphasis on manoeuvring Scientologists into key positions in industry and government. As most religions seek to widen their influence in society, such a programme could of course also be defended as a missionary effort, much like those many religions engage in. However, according to the BfV , the strategy has not had any significant success. By 1998, 90 government officials had been suspected of being Scientologists and in 48 cases
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8526-489: A supernatural source. He published hundreds of articles and books over the course of his life. Scientologists regard his writings on Scientology as scripture . Much basic information about the Scientology belief system is kept secret from most practitioners. The scholar and historian of Scientology Hugh Urban observes that: A great many aspects of Scientology are shrouded in layers of secrecy, concealment, obfuscation , and/or dissimulation . In Scientology Hubbard's work
8729-722: A tax-exempt religious group in a number of countries, most notably in Australia in 1983 and the United States in 1993, and in 2007 won an important case at the European Court of Human Rights , which censured Russia for failing to register Scientology as a religion. The German government has said that it does not consider Scientology a religion, but a "commercial enterprise with a history of taking advantage of vulnerable individuals and an extreme dislike of any criticism" whose "totalitarian structure and methods may pose
8932-537: A true story, the film attracted widespread media attention and a viewership of 8.69 million. While there have been calls for Scientology to be banned, the "Church" of Scientology remains legal in Germany and is allowed to operate there. Its precise legal status however is unresolved. Two points are contested: first, whether or not the teachings of Scientology qualify as a "religion or worldview" ( Religion or Weltanschauung ; these are equal before German law ), and secondly, whether or not these teachings are only used as
9135-464: A way as to shape opinion have long been more important than the underlying realities. In Schön's words, this includes both the "efforts of German politicians to enhance their popularity with strong-worded statements" and "Scientology's efforts to present itself as the victim of unjust persecution"; commenting on foreign reporting on Scientology in Germany, she adds that "the American press may prefer sensationalist news to boring investigation and may frame
9338-430: Is "a business-driven, psychologically manipulative, totalitarian ideology with world-dominating aspirations," and that it tricks its members into parting with significant sums of money for Scientology courses. Scientology has fought innumerable lawsuits to defend itself against such charges and to pursue legal recognition as a religion. These efforts have been partly successful – Scientology has gained recognition as
9541-536: Is a cult with a primary interest in political action and ideology . Groups that some have described as "political cults", mostly advocating far-left or far-right agendas, have received some attention from journalists and scholars. In their 2000 book On the Edge: Political Cults Right and Left , Dennis Tourish and Tim Wohlforth discuss about a dozen organizations in the United States and Great Britain that they characterize as cults. In
9744-509: Is a shapeshifter, semantically morphing with the intentions of whoever uses it. As an analytical term, it resists rigorous definition." She argued that the least subjective definition of cult referred to a religion or religion-like group "self-consciously building a new form of society", but that the rest of society rejected as unacceptable. The term cult has been criticized as lacking "scholarly rigour"; Benjamin E. Zeller stated "[l]abelling any group with which one disagrees and considers deviant as
9947-463: Is an activity known as " auditing ". It takes place with two Scientologists — one is the "auditor" who asks questions, and the subject is termed the "preclear". The stated purpose is to help the subject to remove their mental traumas (ostensible recordings in the mind which Hubbard termed "engrams"). Scholarship in clinical psychology demonstrates that the purpose of auditing is to induce a light hypnotic state and to create dependency and obedience in
10150-399: Is considered an immortal being who has been reincarnated many times over. Someone who has died is said to have "dropped the body". Scientology refers to the existence of a Supreme Being , but practitioners are not expected to worship it. No intercessions are made to seek this being's assistance in daily life. The mythological framework which forms the basis for what Scientologists view as
10353-437: Is considered to be one of the most important and widely cited studies of the process of religious conversion. J. Gordon Melton stated that, in 1970, "one could count the number of active researchers on new religions on one's hands." However, James R. Lewis writes that the "meteoric growth" in this field of study can be attributed to the cult controversy of the early 1970s. Because of "a wave of nontraditional religiosity" in
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#173277952702610556-414: Is constantly monitoring the organization and mentions them in their annual review about anti-constitutional activities. The German government does not recognize Scientology as a religion ; rather, it views it as an abusive business masquerading as a religion and believes that it pursues political goals that conflict with the values enshrined in the German constitution . This stance has been criticized by
10759-577: Is in some contexts a pejorative term, also used for new religious movements and other social groups which are defined by their unusual religious , spiritual , or philosophical beliefs and rituals , or their common interest in a particular person, object, or goal . This sense of the term is weakly defined – having divergent definitions both in popular culture and academia – and has also been an ongoing source of contention among scholars across several fields of study. According to Susannah Crockford, "[t]he word ‘cult’
10962-428: Is mostly evangelical protestants. The Christian countercult movement asserts that Christian groups whose teachings deviate from the belief that the bible is inerrant, but also focuses on non-Christian religions like Hinduism. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to evangelize to followers of cults. Starting in the late 1960s, a different strand of anti-cult groups arose, with
11165-562: Is no protection from others selecting to not do business or accept membership based on the fact that an applicant is in Scientology, or other groups that are under surveillance by the domestic intelligence service . German federal and state interior ministers started a process aimed at banning Scientology in late 2007, but abandoned the initiative a year later, finding insufficient legal grounds. As of 2017, polls suggest that half of Germans supported banning Scientology, while over two-thirds considered Scientology dangerous. Scientology, founded in
11368-456: Is obvious that Scientology is a religion". The scholar Mikael Rothstein observes that the Scientology "is best understood as a devotional cult aimed at revering the mythologized founder of the organization". Numerous religious studies scholars have described Scientology as a new religious movement . Various scholars have also considered it within the category of Western esotericism , while the scholar of religion Andreas Grünschloß noted that it
11571-408: Is often criticized for the prices it charges for auditing, and examinations of the group have indicated that profit is the group's primary purpose. Hubbard stated that charging for auditing was necessary because the practice required an exchange, and should the auditor not receive something for their services it could harm both parties. During auditing, a device called an electropsychometer ( E-meter )
11774-423: Is posited as complete spiritual freedom in which one is able to do anything one chooses, create anything, go anywhere — an idea which has appealed to many. The scholar Hugh Urban describes the supernatural powers promoted as being gained by an Operating Thetan as: The liberated thetan could even freely create a personal paradise, populating it with heavenly beings and infinite pleasures at will. ... As such,
11977-403: Is presented in their hagiographical biography of him, seeking to present him as "a person of exceptional character, morals and intelligence". Critics of Hubbard and his organization claim that many of the details of his life as he presented it were false. Every Scientology Org maintains an office set aside for Hubbard in perpetuity, set out to imitate those he used in life, and will typically have
12180-445: Is regarded as perfect, and no elaboration or alteration is permitted. Hubbard described Scientology as an "applied religious philosophy", because, according to him, it consists of a metaphysical doctrine, a theory of psychology, and teachings in morality. Hubbard incorporated a variety of hypnotic techniques in Scientology auditing and courses. These are used as a means to create dependency and obedience in followers. Hubbard said of
12383-739: Is represented by a large number of independent associations or Vereine in Germany; their umbrella organisation is the Scientology Kirche Deutschland e.V. Germany's domestic intelligence service, the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz ( BfV , or Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution), estimates that there are 3,500 Scientologists in Germany, down from earlier estimates of 5,000 to 6,000. The Church of Scientology reported around 30,000 members from
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#173277952702612586-602: Is similarly controversial in Belgium , Greece , and the UK . On the subject of Scientology's status as a religion, the German government has pointed to a 1995 decision by the Federal Labor Court of Germany . That court, noting Hubbard's instruction that Scientologists should "make money, make more money – make other people produce so as to make more money," came to the conclusion that "Scientology purports to be
12789-435: Is sometimes presented in contrast to a "benign cult", which implies that not all "cults" would be harmful, though others apply it to all cults. Psychologist Michael Langone , executive director of the anti-cult group International Cultic Studies Association , defines a destructive cult as "a highly manipulative group which exploits and sometimes physically and/or psychologically damages members and recruits." In Cults and
12992-525: Is strongly bureaucratic with a focus on statistics-based management. Organizational operating budgets are performance-related and subject to frequent reviews. By 2011, the organization was claiming over 700 centres in 65 countries. Smaller centres are called "missions". The largest number of these are in the U.S., with the second largest number being in Europe. Missions are established by missionaries, who are referred to as "mission holders". Members can establish
13195-551: Is the primary motivating goal of Hubbard's Scientology groups. Those making this observation have often referred to a governing financial policy issued by Hubbard that is to be obeyed by all Scientology organization staff members, which includes the following [uppercase in original]: Make sure that lots of bodies move through the shop...A. MAKE MONEY. ... J. MAKE MONEY. K. MAKE MORE MONEY. L. MAKE OTHER PEOPLE PRODUCE SO AS TO MAKE MONEY...However you get them in or why, just do it. Some scholars of religion have referred to Scientology as
13398-457: Is the primary motivating goal of the Scientology organization. Following extensive litigation in numerous countries, the organization has managed to attain a legal recognition as a religious institution in some jurisdictions, including Australia, Italy, and the United States. Germany classifies Scientology groups as an anti-constitutional sect , while the French government classifies the group as
13601-720: Is unlikely to exceed a few hundred. Scientology formulated a "Clear Germany" strategy in 1994 – similar to equivalent strategies pursued by Scientology in other countries and regions of the world – with the long-term aim of transforming German society in line with the Scientological ideal: a non-pluralist society in which Scientology enjoys overriding influence. The programme sought to address Scientology's image problems in Germany, to identify weak points in Germany that could be exploited for political gain, such as Germany's National Socialist history, and to increase both membership figures and political influence in German society, with
13804-415: Is used. Scientology's primary road map for guiding a person through the sequential steps to attain Scientology's concepts of "clear" and OT is The Bridge to Total Freedom , a large chart enumerating every step in sequence. The steps past "clear" are kept secret from most Scientologists and include the founding myth that seeks to explain Scientology doctrine. Hubbard taught that there were three parts of man:
14007-428: Is very important not to go past a word one does not understand. A person should instead consult a dictionary as to the meaning of the word before progressing, something Scientology calls "word clearing". According to Scientology texts, its beliefs and practices are based on rigorous research, and its doctrines are accorded a significance equivalent to scientific laws. Blind belief is held to be of lesser significance than
14210-681: Is weirder still – not to mention disturbing." Alan Cowell , writing in The New York Times , wrote in 1997 that the German response to Scientology – motivated by officials' fear that Scientology "was a totalitarian movement growing, like the Nazi party, from inconsequential beginnings" – was itself redolent of "the Nazi era's authoritarianism". The U.S. Department of State has repeatedly claimed that Germany's actions constitute government and societal discrimination against minority religious groups and expressed its concerns over
14413-555: The APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control , literature from previous court cases in which brainwashing theories were used, and expert testimonies which were delivered by scholars such as Dick Anthony . The governments of France and Belgium have taken policy positions which accept "brainwashing" theories uncritically, while the governments of other European nations, such as those of Sweden and Italy, are cautious with regard to brainwashing and as
14616-619: The Berlin Office for the Protection of the Constitution and ordered it to stop the recruitment and deployment of staff and members of the Church of Scientology Berlin as paid informants. The court ruled that the use of informants was disproportionate. In 2003, the same court ruled that it was illegal for the Berlin Office for the Protection of the Constitution to include the activities of Scientology in its report, given that
14819-591: The Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE, also known as the Helsinki Commission), voicing their complaints about the treatment of Scientologists in Germany, and had a briefing with United States National Security Advisor Sandy Berger , whom Clinton had assigned to be "the administration's Scientology point person". The German ambassador responded with a letter to the CSCE stating that
15022-636: The Federal Labor Court of Germany decided that the Church of Scientology merely pursued commercial aims and did not represent a religious or worldview community entitled to protection under Article 4 of the German Constitution, although another decision by the same court left the question open again in 2003. In another 2003 decision, the Administrative Court of Baden-Württemberg in Mannheim said there were no indications that
15225-500: The Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs – to mark companies owned by Scientologists with the letter "S". Where companies are suspected of having Scientologist staff, prospective employees are alerted to this fact by government staff. Government officials have publicised the names of individual Scientologists and conducted media campaigns against their businesses; some businesspeople have placed advertisements in
15428-482: The Free Democratic Party . Existing Scientologist members of these parties have been "purged", according to Time magazine. Scientologists have been prevented from running employment and au pair agencies in Germany; Scientologists who were running such agencies had their permits revoked. In 1995, a sports scientist and former member of the German national fencing team was dismissed from his job at
15631-711: The German Lutheran Church in Berlin and Brandenburg , and the historian Guido Knopp both likened the Scientologist Hollywood actor Tom Cruise to Goebbels , the Nazi propaganda minister. Gandow and Knopp cited a leaked Scientology video in which Cruise was seen asking the audience whether Scientologists should "clean up" the world, the audience responding with enthusiastic cheers – cheers which Gandow and Knopp felt were reminiscent of
15834-496: The German constitution . The German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution ( German : Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz , or BfV ) regards the aims of Scientology as running counter to Germany's free and democratic order, and has been monitoring Scientology since 1997, as have the Offices for the Protection of the Constitution in a number of German Länder . Minister for Family Policy Claudia Nolte instituted
16037-472: The Introspection Rundown , a brutal and inhumane method to allegedly solve psychotic episodes. The rundown came under public scrutiny when in 1995 Scientologist Lisa McPherson suffered a mental breakdown and was removed from the hospital and held in isolation at a Church of Scientology for 17 days before she died. Scientologists view Hubbard as an extraordinary man, but do not worship him as
16240-484: The Jehovah's Witnesses , and other sects which were loosely referred to as " neo-Pentecostals ". In the 1970s, the scientific status of the " brainwashing theory " became a central topic in U.S. court cases where the theory was used to try to justify the use of the forceful deprogramming of cult members Meanwhile, sociologists who were critical of these theories assisted advocates of religious freedom in defending
16443-528: The Ontario Court of Appeal . The Church of Scientology was convicted of fraud by a French court in 2009, a judgment upheld by the supreme Court of Cassation in 2013. The Church of Scientology has been described by government inquiries, international parliamentary bodies, scholars, law lords, and numerous superior court judgments as both a dangerous cult and a manipulative profit-making business . Numerous scholars and journalists have observed that profit
16646-841: The Russian Interior Ministry prepared a list of "extremist groups". At the top of the list were Islamic groups outside of "traditional Islam", which is supervised by the Russian government. Next listed were " Pagan cults ". In 2009 the Russian Ministry of Justice created a council which it named the "Council of Experts Conducting State Religious Studies Expert Analysis." The new council listed 80 large sects which it considered potentially dangerous to Russian society, and it also mentioned that there were thousands of smaller ones. The large sects which were listed included: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ,
16849-437: The U.S. government . Scientologists in Germany do not enjoy tax benefits or protection as do real religions. They are, like other sects not granted status of a religion, barred from membership in some major political parties, and businesses and other employers use so-called "sect filters" to expose a prospective business partner's or employee's association with the organization. Unlike a formally accepted religious belief there
17052-530: The court case of United States v. Fishman (1990) ended the usage of brainwashing theories by expert witnesses such as Margaret Singer and Richard Ofshe . In the case's ruling, the court cited the Frye standard , which states that the scientific theory which is utilized by expert witnesses must be generally accepted in their respective fields. The court deemed brainwashing to be inadmissible in expert testimonies, using supporting documents which were published by
17255-573: The study of religious behavior . Since the 1940s, the Christian countercult movement has opposed some sects and new religious movements, labeling them cults because of their unorthodox beliefs . Since the 1970s, the secular anti-cult movement has opposed certain groups, which they call cults, accusing them of practicing brainwashing . Groups labelled cults are found around the world and range in size from small localized groups to some international organizations with up to millions of members. In
17458-564: The "conclusion that the organization had criminal aims". The BfV also considered whether there were grounds to act against the Church of Scientology on the basis that they were practising medicine without a licence, but expressed doubts that a court would accept this reasoning. Commenting on the decision to drop the ban attempt, Ehrhart Körting, Berlin's interior minister, said, "This organization pursues goals – through its writings, its concept and its disrespect for minorities – that we cannot tolerate and that we consider in violation of
17661-463: The 1930s, new religious movements perceived as cults became an object of sociological study within the context of the study of religious behavior . The term saw its origins in the work of sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). Weber is an important theorist in the academic study of cults, which often draws on his theorizations of charismatic authority , and of the distinction he drew between churches and sects . This concept of church-sect division
17864-433: The 1940s, the long-held opposition by some established Christian denominations to non-Christian religions and supposedly heretical or counterfeit Christian sects crystallized into a more organized Christian countercult movement in the United States. For those belonging to the movement, all religious groups claiming to be Christian, but deemed outside of Christian orthodoxy , were considered cults. The countercult movement
18067-455: The 1950s, American social psychologist Leon Festinger and his colleagues observed members of a small UFO religion called the Seekers for several months, and recorded their conversations both prior to and after a failed prophecy from their charismatic leader. Their work was later published in the book When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group that Predicted
18270-644: The 1970s, Hubbard's followers engaged in a program of criminal infiltration of the U.S. government , resulting in several executives of the organization being convicted and imprisoned for multiple offenses by a U.S. federal court. Hubbard himself was convicted of fraud in absentia by a French court in 1978 and sentenced to four years in prison. In 1992, a court in Canada convicted the Scientology organization in Toronto of spying on law enforcement and government agencies and criminal breach of trust, later upheld by
18473-705: The Berlin Administrative Court ruled that a poster placed by local city authorities on an advertising column next to a bus stop in front of the Berlin Scientology headquarters, warning passers-by of the potential dangers Scientology activities posed to democracy and individual freedom, should be removed. The decision was upheld in July 2009 by the Upper Administrative Court of Berlin-Brandenburg , which ruled that
18676-489: The Christian churches in Germany, which has made German academics wary of approaching the subject, because they fear repercussions for their research funding and for their prospects of future employment if they involve themselves in the debate. In 2010, a German public broadcaster, ARD , showed the film Until Nothing Remains , a dramatized account of the effect Scientology had on one German family. Said to be based on
18879-413: The Church of Scientology over its proselytizing in public places, and published an influential book, The Sect of Scientology and its Front Organizations . In 1981, the organization's founder, Ingo Heinemann, became the director of Aktion für geistige und psychische Freiheit ("Campaign for Intellectual and Psychic Freedom"), Germany's most prominent anti-cult organization. Warnings from sect experts about
19082-673: The Church of Scientology remains in limbo. The Constitutional Court and various courts at the state level have not explicitly ruled that Scientology is a religion. Government agencies at the federal and state level have rules and procedures that discriminate against Scientology as a group and against its members. Four of the major political parties (the Christian Democratic Union, Christian Social Union, Social Democratic Party, and Free Democratic Party) ban Scientologists from party membership. [...] Scientologists reported instances of governmental discrimination. Although courts at
19285-627: The Church of Scientology, visited German officials in late 1995 and wrote an article in Der Spiegel , a widely read weekly magazine, describing Scientology as a totalitarian system operating a gulag – the Rehabilitation Project Force – for members of Scientology's Sea Org found guilty of transgressions. From the mid-1990s onward, press articles, reports and essays on Scientology appeared on an almost daily basis, accompanied by books and television programmes that reached
19488-420: The Constitution and Usefulness of Knowledge , which used the term to mean the science of science . It is unknown whether Hubbard was aware of either prior usage of the word. As the 1950s developed, Hubbard saw the advantages of having his Scientology movement legally recognised as a religion. In an April 1953 letter to Helen O'Brien, his US business manager, he proposed that Scientology should be transformed into
19691-513: The Destruction of the World . In the late 1980s, doomsday cults were a major topic of news reports, with some reporters and commentators considering them a serious threat to society. A 1997 psychological study by Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter found that people turned to a cataclysmic world view after they had repeatedly failed to find meaning in mainstream movements. A political cult
19894-539: The English-speaking world, the term cult often carries derogatory connotations. The word "cult" is derived from the Latin term cultus , which means worship. An older sense of the word cult, which is not pejorative, indicates a set of religious devotional practices that is conventional within its culture, is related to a particular figure, and is frequently associated with a particular place, or generally
20097-454: The Family , the authors cite Shapiro, who defines a destructive cultism as a sociopathic syndrome , whose distinctive qualities include: "behavioral and personality changes , loss of personal identity , cessation of scholastic activities, estrangement from family, disinterest in society and pronounced mental control and enslavement by cult leaders." Writing about Bruderhof communities in
20300-762: The GO infiltrated the IRS and numerous other government departments and stole tens of thousands of documents pertaining to the Church, politicians, and celebrities. In July 1977, the FBI raided Church premises in Washington, DC, and Los Angeles, revealing the extent of the GO's infiltration into government departments and other groups. Eleven officials and agents of the Church were indicted; in December 1979, they were sentenced to between 4 and 5 years each and individually fined $ 10,000 (equivalent to $ 42,000 in 2023). Among those found guilty
20503-507: The German Olympic fencing centre after he stated in an interview that he had enjoyed reading books by L. Ron Hubbard and had participated in a course run by a Scientologist management and communication consultancy firm. Thomas Gottschalk , a German TV presenter, was falsely accused in 1993 of having taken part in Scientology courses; Gottschalk responded by announcing that he had not, and that he would henceforth cease all contact with
20706-562: The German after-school tutoring market. These concerns arose because customers of around 20 after-school tutoring centres operated by Scientologists in Frankfurt, Hamburg, Stuttgart and elsewhere might be unaware that their children were being taught by Scientologists, using Scientology methods. Brochures advertising the tutoring services would at most mention the name of L. Ron Hubbard , the founder of Scientology, but not Scientology itself. In early 2008, Thomas Gandow, Sect Commissioner of
20909-535: The German government had come to the conclusion that Scientology's "pseudo-scientific courses can seriously jeopardize individuals' mental and physical health and that it exploits its members", adding that "membership can lead to psychological and physical dependency, to financial ruin, and even to suicide. In addition, there are indications that Scientology poses a threat to Germany's basic political principles." A United Nations report in April 1998 raised concerns about
21112-523: The German government has also pointed to the long history of U.S. court cases involving Scientology, including the conviction of 11 top Scientologists in 1979 and 1980 for a conspiracy involving the infiltration of U.S. government agencies, wiretapping and the theft of government documents , a 1994 U.S. Supreme Court finding that Scientology practices took place in a "coercive environment," and Scientology's track record of pursuing its critics through malicious court cases and private investigators. In examining
21315-451: The German parliament launched an Enquete (Enquiry) Commission to investigate sects and similar groups, in large part because of public concerns about Scientology. Its final report, published in June 1998, concluded that Scientology, alone among new religious movements, required monitoring by Germany's domestic intelligence services. An area of widespread concern in the German media has been
21518-573: The Hamburg Administrative Court fined the city of Hamburg 5,000 Euros ($ 7,000) for not complying with court instructions banning the use of "sect filters." Internet links to sample filters to be used by businesses had continued to remain available. Eileen Barker , a professor of sociology at the London School of Economics , has noted that "Germany has gone further than any other Western European country in restricting
21721-592: The Nazi comparisons in the open letter as "outrageous" and distanced the U.S. government from Nazi comparisons made by the Church of Scientology, saying, "We have criticized the Germans on this, but we aren't going to support the Scientologists' terror tactics against the German government." Chancellor Kohl, commenting on the letter, said that those who signed it "don't know a thing about Germany and don't want to know." German officials argued that "the whole fuss
21924-523: The Nazis into mass murderers, and the Holocaust. The Scientology organization operates the anti-psychiatry group Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR), which operates Psychiatry: An Industry of Death , an anti-psychiatry museum. Though Hubbard had stated psychosis was not something Scientology dealt with, after noticing many Scientologists were suffering breakdowns after using his techniques he created
22127-411: The Protection of the Constitution pointed out that Hubbard had written that civil rights , for example, should be restricted to Scientologists, and they asserted that the Scientology organization was taking systematic steps to infiltrate society and government institutions in order to prevent anti-Scientology legislation. Opposing counsel acting for the Church of Scientology had contended that Scientology
22330-468: The Scientology organization stated that OT levels nine and ten would only be released when certain benchmarks in its expansion had been achieved. The Church of Scientology has gone to considerable length to try to maintain the secrecy of the texts, but they remain widely available on the internet. This is partly due to litigation involving Scientology, whereby the Fishman Affidavit was leaked to
22533-496: The Scientology organization. The Scientology organization claims that the material taught in the OT levels can only be comprehended once its previous material has been mastered and is therefore kept confidential until a person reaches the requisite level. Higher-level members typically refuse to talk about the contents of these OT levels. Those progressing through the OT levels are taught additional, more advanced auditing techniques; one of
22736-486: The Scientology organization. Despite its efforts to maintain the secrecy of the texts, they are freely available on various websites, including at the media organization WikiLeaks . These texts say past lives took place in extraterrestrial cultures . They involve an alien called Xenu , described as a planetary ruler 70 million years ago who brought billions of aliens to Earth and killed them with thermonuclear weapons . Despite being kept secret from most followers, this forms
22939-859: The Sea Org, rose to prominence. Hubbard died at his ranch in Creston, California, on January 24, 1986, and David Miscavige succeeded Hubbard as head of the Church. In 1993, the Internal Revenue Service dropped all litigation against the Scientology organization and recognized it as a religious institution. Hubbard lies at the core of Scientology and his writings remain the source of its ideas and practices. Sociologist of religion David G. Bromley describes Scientology as Hubbard's "personal synthesis of philosophy, physics, and psychology". Hubbard claimed that he developed his ideas through research and experimentation, rather than through revelation from
23142-851: The United States." Mark Rathbun , a (former) top Church of Scientology official, said that although Scientology had not orchestrated the case, "there would have been nothing improper if it had." In 2003, Joachim Güntner, writing in the Swiss Neue Zürcher Zeitung , noted that Gerhard Besier , a German Christian theologian, director of the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research into Totalitarianism in Dresden and recipient of an honorary doctorate from Lund University , Sweden, for his championing of religious freedom, had been pressured to forego publication of his scientific study of Scientology after having found himself
23345-494: The Xenu myth can be harmful for those unprepared for it, and the documents discussing Xenu are kept secret from most members. The teachings about Xenu were later leaked by ex-members, becoming a matter of public record after being submitted as evidence in court cases. They are now widely available online. Members who have been given the teachings routinely deny these teachings exist. Hubbard however talked about Xenu on several occasions,
23548-507: The Xenu story bears similarities with some of the science-fiction stories Hubbard published, and substantial themes from the Xenu story are in Hubbard's book Scientology – A History of Man . The degrees above the level of Clear are called "Operating Thetan" or OT. Hubbard described there being 15 OT levels, although he had only completed eight of these during his lifetime. OT levels nine to 15 have not been reached by any Scientologist. In 1988
23751-628: The abrogation of the principle of equality and other essential human rights. In Saarland , surveillance was stopped by a court as inappropriate in 2005, because there is no local branch of Scientology and few members. As of 6 May 2008, the Church of Scientology in Germany dropped the legal battle to prevent surveillance of its activities by the BfV after the North Rhine-Westphalia Higher Administrative Court in Münster refused to hear an appeal on
23954-605: The activities of Unification Church members in California in trying to promote their beliefs and win new members. Lofland noted that most of their efforts were ineffective and that most of the people who joined did so because of personal relationships with other members, often family relationships. Lofland published his findings in 1964 as a doctoral thesis entitled "The World Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes", and in 1966 in book form by as Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization and Maintenance of Faith . It
24157-404: The activities of Scientology. Government publications on the dangers of sects increased between 1996 and 1998, and a significant number of them dealt with the "Church" of Scientology. The German courts had approved such publications in 1989, seeing them as part of the government's responsibility to keep the public informed, and finding that they did not interfere with religious freedom. In 1996,
24360-671: The activities of a very small minority of new religious groups, mass culture often extends them to any religious group viewed as culturally deviant , however peaceful or law abiding it may be. While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part sceptical of their ability to explain conversion to NRMs . In the late 1980s, psychologists and sociologists started to abandon theories like brainwashing and mind control. While scholars may believe that various less dramatic coercive psychological mechanisms could influence group members, they came to see conversion to new religious movements principally as an act of
24563-685: The alleged "infiltration" of businesses by Scientologists, in line with Scientology's declared aim to penetrate society, politics and business in preparation for world domination. Attempts to infiltrate businesses have reportedly been most successful among small and medium-size companies, such as estate agents, management consultants and management-training companies. Management-consultancy firms led by Scientologists often conceal their association with Scientology; once they have recruited members of their clients' upper management, these managers may send employees to Scientology trainers, as part of company education and training programmes, without informing them as to
24766-493: The asylum case had been part of an "orchestrated effort" by Scientology undertaken "for political gain", and "a spectacular abuse of the U.S. system". German expatriate Scientologists resident in Clearwater, in turn, accused Caberta of stoking a "hate campaign" in Germany that had "ruined the lives and fortunes of scores of Scientologists" and maintained that Scientologists had not "exaggerated their plight for political gain in
24969-680: The audience's response to Goebbels' famous question, " Do you want total war? " Gandow's and Knopp's comments found few critics in Germany. Most Germans consider Scientology a subversive organization. In 1997, Time reported that 70% of Germans favoured banning Scientology; a poll conducted in September 2008 by Der Spiegel found 67% support for a ban. German scholars such as Brigitte Schön and Gerald Willms have commented that rhetoric dominates public discourse around Scientology in Germany: in their view, efforts to " frame " information in such
25172-629: The beginning of more intense lobbying efforts by the Church of Scientology in Washington, using paid lobbyists. The State Department's 1996 human rights report on Germany, released in January 1997, warned that artists and businesses with Scientology connections "may face boycotts and discrimination, sometimes with government approval." Past targets of such actions had included Scientologist actors Tom Cruise and John Travolta , as well as jazz pianist Chick Corea . Also in January 1997, an open letter to then-Chancellor Helmut Kohl appeared, published as
25375-441: The beliefs that: A civilization without insanity, without criminals and without war; where the world can prosper and honest beings can have rights, and where man is free to rise to greater heights, are the aims of Scientology. Hubbard developed thousands of neologisms during his lifetime. The nomenclature used by the movement is termed "Scientologese" by members. Scientologists are expected to learn this specialist terminology,
25578-732: The big cities – Munich , Hamburg , Berlin , Düsseldorf , Frankfurt am Main , Hannover , and Stuttgart . Of the Scientology Missions, nine are in Baden-Württemberg , and three in Bavaria . Following German re-unification , Scientology proved unable to gain significant numbers of followers in the territories of the former German Democratic Republic ; most adherents are found in Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, and North Rhine-Westphalia . Scientology
25781-611: The book Misunderstanding Cults , Julius H. Rubin said that American religious innovation created an unending diversity of sects. These "new religious movements…gathered new converts and issued challenges to the wider society. Not infrequently, public controversy, contested narratives and litigation result." In his work Cults in Context author Lorne L. Dawson writes that although the Unification Church "has not been shown to be violent or volatile," it has been described as
25984-406: The case at hand. The Federal Administrative Court for example ruled in 1997 that the question whether or not Scientology was a religion was irrelevant, and that its legal status should be judged by its business activities. The German government does not consider the Church of Scientology to be a religious or worldview community and asserts that Scientology is a profit-making enterprise, rather than
26187-441: The central mythological framework of Scientology's ostensible soteriology . These aspects have become the subject of popular ridicule. Since its formation, Scientology groups have generated considerable opposition and controversy. This includes deaths of practitioners while under Church of Scientology care, several instances of extensive criminal activities, and allegations by former adherents of exploitation and forced abortions. In
26390-592: The children's parents of her membership in Scientology. According to Erin Prophet in Handbook of Scientology some German companies have specifically asked applicants if they are Scientologist, and denied employment to those who are affiliated with the Church. Prophet says that similar claims have been made against the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Catholic Church. In March 2007, it
26593-779: The civil rights of Scientologists." The Hamburg task force was closed down in August 2010 as a result of budget cuts; Caberta moved to a position within the Hamburg interior authority, where she continues her work on Scientology. Scientologists have been banned from joining major political parties in Germany such as the Christian Democratic Union , the Christian Social Union of Bavaria , the Social Democratic Party of Germany and
26796-423: The classification of a religion as xiejiao did not necessarily mean that a religion's teachings were believed to be false or inauthentic; rather, the label was applied to religious groups that were not authorized by the state, or it was applied to religious groups that were believed to challenge the legitimacy of the state. Groups branded xiejiao face suppression and punishment by authorities. In 2008
26999-470: The collective participation in rites of religion. References to the imperial cult of ancient Rome , for example, use the word in this sense. A derived sense of "excessive devotion" arose in the 19th century, and usage is not always strictly religious. The term is variously applied to abusive or coercive groups of many categories, including gangs, organized crime, and terrorist organizations. Sociological classifications of religious movements may identify
27202-501: The constitution. But they put very little of this into practice. The appraisal of the Government at the moment is that [Scientology] is a lousy organization, but it is not an organization that we have to take a hammer to." The Church of Scientology expressed satisfaction with the decision, describing it as the "only one possible". Monitoring of Scientology's activities by the German intelligence services continues. In February 2009,
27405-430: The course of painful experiences, which can be cleared through a type of counselling called "auditing" made available by the Church of Scientology. That Scientologists have to pay large fees for auditing and other Scientology services has brought controversy to Scientology throughout much of its history, with governments classing it as a profit-making enterprise rather than as a religion. Critics maintain that Scientology
27608-484: The courts. Sabine Weber, president of the Church of Scientology in Berlin, called the accusations "unrealistic" and "absurd" and said that the German interior ministers' evaluation was based on "a few sentences out of 500,000 pages of Scientological literature". She added, "I can also find hundreds of quotes in the Bible that are totalitarian but that doesn't mean I will demand the ban of Christianity." In November 2008,
27811-519: The deeper their involvement became, the less likely they were to continue practicing other traditions. Debate as to whether Scientology should be regarded as a cult, a business, a scam, or a religion has continued over many years. Many Scientologists consider it to be their religion. Its founder, L. Ron Hubbard , presented it as a religion, but the early history of the Scientology organization, and Hubbard's policy directives, letters, and instructions to subordinates, indicate that his motivation for doing so
28014-437: The early 1950s in the United States by L. Ron Hubbard and today claiming to be represented in 150 countries, has been a very controversial new religious movement . Its stated utopian aim is to "clear the planet," to bring about an enlightened age in which every individual has overcome their psychological limitations. Scientology teaches that the source of people's unhappiness lies in "engrams," psychological burdens acquired in
28217-400: The early 1950s. Hubbard and his early Dianetics organization were prosecuted for practicing medicine without a license in the early 1950s. Hubbard taught that psychiatrists were responsible for a great many wrongs in the world, saying that psychiatry has at various times offered itself as a tool of political suppression and that psychiatry was responsible for the ideology of Hitler, for turning
28420-673: The eight dynamics , the ARC and KRC triangles , the "S and double triangle" symbol, the Scientology cross , and many others . Scientology celebrates seven calendar events including L. Ron Hubbard's birthday, Auditor's Day, and New Year's. There is a Sunday service which is primarily of interest for non-members and beginners. Weddings and funerals are also held. Scientology is vehemently opposed to psychiatry and psychology, and wants to replace them with its own methods. The clinical and academic psychiatry community rejected Hubbard's theories in
28623-467: The entirety of Scientology's "Bridge to Total Freedom" (equivalent to $ 542,000 in 2023). In a 1964 letter, Hubbard stated that a 25-hour block of auditing should cost the equivalent of "three months' pay for the average middle class working individual." In 2007, the fee for a 12 and a half hour block of auditing at the Tampa Org was $ 4000 (equivalent to $ 5,880 in 2023). The Scientology organization
28826-567: The formation of the secular anti-cult movement (ACM). This was in response to the rise of new religions in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly the events at Jonestown and the deaths of nearly 1000 people. The organizations that formed the secular anti-cult movement (ACM) often acted on behalf of relatives of "cult" converts who did not believe their loved ones could have altered their lives so drastically by their own free will . A few psychologists and sociologists working in this field suggested that brainwashing techniques were used to maintain
29029-442: The government abandoned its attempts to ban Scientology, after finding insufficient evidence of illegal or unconstitutional activity. The report by the BfV cited knowledge gaps and noted several points that would make the success of any legal undertaking to ban Scientology doubtful. First, the BfV report stated there was no evidence that Scientology could be viewed as a foreign organization; there were German churches and missions,
29232-622: The groups. Since the 2000s, some governments have again distanced themselves from such classifications of religious movements. While the official response to new religious groups has been mixed across the globe, some governments aligned more with the critics of these groups to the extent of distinguishing between "legitimate" religion and "dangerous", "unwanted" cults in public policy . For centuries, governments in China have categorized certain religions as xiéjiào ( 邪教 ), translated as "evil cults" or " heterodox teachings ". In imperial China ,
29435-555: The height of the counter-cult movement and ritual abuse scare of the 1990s, some governments published lists of cults. Groups labelled "cults" are found around the world and range in size from local groups with a few members to international organizations with millions. While these documents utilize similar terminology, they do not necessarily include the same groups nor is their assessment of these groups based on agreed criteria. Other governments and world bodies also report on new religious movements but do not use these terms to describe
29638-478: The influence of new religious movements gained media attention which put political pressure on the government to deal with the situation; as the movements were not doing anything illegal, the government resorted to issuing a range of leaflets and public statements giving general warnings about religious sects, the earliest of these publications appearing in 1979. Fueled by events such as the Waco Siege in 1993,
29841-459: The insistence that Scientology should be suppressed. Scientology was viewed as "a totalitarian, business-driven organization [...] guilty of significant human rights abuses." Officials examining primary and secondary sources, legal documents, and the testimony of former members, concluded that the organization was "antithetical to a democratic state". Federal ministries and state governments were asked to use all legal means at their disposal to check
30044-527: The interpretation of these beliefs: some academics regard them as religious in nature; other scholars regard them as merely a means of extracting money from Scientology recruits. After attaining "clear" status, adherents can take part in the Operating Thetan levels, which require further payments. The Operating Thetan texts are kept secret from most followers; they are revealed only after adherents have typically given hundreds of thousands of dollars to
30247-478: The issue according to American stereotypes". Both Willms and Schön assert that the situation is compounded by the general paucity of scientific studies of Scientology. Schön as well as Irving Hexham , Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Calgary in Canada, have remarked in particular on the lack of academic studies by German scholars. Hexham attributes this situation to the strong influence of
30450-435: The late 1960s and early 1970s, academics perceived new religious movements as different phenomena from previous religious innovations. Destructive cult is a term frequently used by the anti-cult movement . Members of the anti-cult movement typically define a destructive cult as a group that is unethical, deceptive, and one that uses "strong influence" or mind control techniques to affect critical thinking skills. This term
30653-619: The legitimacy of new religious movements in court. In the United States the religious activities of cults are protected under the First Amendment of the United States Constitution , which prohibits governmental establishment of religion and protects freedom of religion , freedom of speech , freedom of the press , and freedom of assembly ; however, no members of religious groups or cults are granted any special immunity from criminal prosecution . In 1990,
30856-456: The letter as "absurd" and cited German court rulings stating that Scientology had primarily economic goals and could legitimately be referred to using phrases such as a "contemptuous cartel of oppression". In February 1997, a United States immigration court judge granted asylum to a German Scientologist who claimed she would be subject to religious persecution in her homeland. In April 1997, John Travolta met U.S. President Bill Clinton at
31059-609: The loyalty of cult members. The belief that cults brainwashed their members became a unifying theme among cult critics and in the more extreme corners of the anti-cult movement techniques like the sometimes forceful " deprogramming " of cult members was practised. In the mass media , and among average citizens, "cult" gained an increasingly negative connotation, becoming associated with things like kidnapping , brainwashing, psychological abuse , sexual abuse , and other criminal activity , and mass suicide . While most of these negative qualities usually have real documented precedents in
31262-533: The massacre, several of the officers in Xenu's service rebelled against him, ultimately capturing and imprisoning him. Hubbard claimed to have discovered the Xenu myth in December 1967, having taken the "plunge" deep into his "time track". Scientology teaches that attempting to recover this information from the "time track" typically results in an individual's death, caused by the presence of Xenu's implants, but that because of Hubbard's "technology" this death can be avoided. The Scientology organization says that learning
31465-492: The matter. Being suspected of maintaining "ambitions against the free, democratic basic order", the Scientology organization added a declaration on human rights and democracy to its bylaws . There is at least one example of surveillance of Scientology by the German intelligence services outside of Germany. In 1998, the Swiss government detained an agent of the German government, charging him with "carrying out illegal business for
31668-591: The mid-1990s onwards; this number remained stable for many years. However more recently Scientology has said it has only 12,000 members. Discrepancies in Scientology membership numbers arise because the Church of Scientology applies more inclusive criteria in establishing its figures, essentially including anyone who has purchased a book or participated in courses, regardless of their subsequent involvement. The number of contractually bound Scientology staff members working in German Scientology organizations
31871-400: The most part, by all". Government bodies and other institutions maintain that the Scientology organization is a commercial business that falsely claims to be religious, or alternatively a form of therapy masquerading as religion. The French government characterises the movement as a dangerous cult, and the German government monitors it as an anti-democratic sect. The notion of Scientology as
32074-604: The murders and suicides associated with the Order of the Solar Temple , and the 1995 Aum Shinrikyo incidents in Japan , German fears and concerns about new religious movements gained in intensity in the 1990s, with Scientology attracting particular attention. Perceptions that Scientology had a totalitarian character were reinforced when Robert Vaughn Young , an American ex-Scientologist and former public relations official for
32277-442: The number of Scientologists at under 40,000 worldwide. Key Scientology beliefs include reincarnation , and that traumatic events cause subconscious command-like recordings in the mind (termed " engrams ") that can be removed only through an activity called " auditing ". A fee is charged for each session of "auditing". Once an "auditor" deems an individual free of "engrams" they are given the status of " clear ". Scholarship differs on
32480-423: The origin of the training methods used. An expensive commercial version of Scientology's Oxford Capacity Analysis , usually offered free as part of Scientology proselytizing in public places, temporarily entered some major German companies (who were unaware of its provenance) via such a management-consultancy firm. In the mid-2000s, German sect experts expressed concerns that Scientologists were becoming active in
32683-404: The poster violated Scientologists' basic religious rights. The United States media, while generally reporting negatively on Scientology in domestic news, has taken an at least partially supportive stance towards Scientology in relation to Germany. Richard Cohen for example, writing in The Washington Post , said in 1996: "Scientology might be one weird religion, but the German reaction to it
32886-725: The potential dangers posed by cults date back to the early 1970s, when widespread debate took place about "youth religions" such as the Unification Church , ISKCON , Children of God , and the Divine Light Mission . The most prominent critics of these new religious movements were the "sect commissioners" ( Sektenbeauftragte ) of Germany's Protestant Churches , who also actively promoted the establishment of private "initiatives of parents and concerned persons". Aktion Bildungsinformation ("Educational Information Campaign") became an important organization dedicated to opposing Scientology; taking an activist stance, it warned people not to get involved with Scientology, filed successful lawsuits against
33089-409: The potential for espionage. To assuage these concerns, Microsoft Germany agreed to provide a means to disable the utility. Following letters of complaint about discrimination from Scientology lawyers, some American companies such as General Electric , IBM and Ford Motor Company instructed their German subsidiaries to cease the use of protective declarations. The city-state of Hamburg set up
33292-520: The potential threat posed by Scientology the German government has noted that Scientology organizations are "structured so as to make the individual psychologically and financially dependent on a Scientology system," and that members often abandon contact with friends and family. Scientology first became active in Germany in 1970. By 2007, there were ten major centres ("Scientology Churches"), as well as fourteen minor centres ("Scientology Missions") in Germany. The German Scientology Churches are located in
33495-527: The practical application of Scientologist methods. Adherents are encouraged to validate the practices through their personal experience. Hubbard put it this way: "For a Scientologist, the final test of any knowledge he has gained is, 'did the data and the use of it in life actually improve conditions or didn't it? ' " Many Scientologists avoid using the words "belief" or "faith" to describe how Hubbard's teachings impacts their lives, preferring to say that they "know" it to be true. The central practice of Scientology
33698-465: The press saying they are not Scientologists in order to avoid the associated stigma. Due to concerns about possible government infiltration by Scientologists, applicants for civil service positions in Bavaria are required to declare whether or not they are Scientologists, and a similar policy has been instituted in Hesse . Companies tendering for government contracts were likewise required to state they are not Scientologists; in 2001, this requirement
33901-546: The previous week are termed "up stats"; those that show a decline are "down stats". According to leaked tax documents, the Church of Scientology International and Church of Spiritual Technology in the US had a combined $ 1.7 billion in assets in 2012, in addition to annual revenues estimated at $ 200 million a year. Cult Cult is a term often applied to new religious movements and other social groups which have unusual, and often extreme, religious , spiritual , or philosophical beliefs and rituals . Extreme devotion to
34104-537: The private nature of personal beliefs. Later sociological formulations built on such characteristics, placing an additional emphasis on cults as deviant religious groups, "deriving their inspiration from outside of the predominant religious culture." This is often thought to lead to a high degree of tension between the group and the more mainstream culture surrounding it, a characteristic shared with religious sects. According to this sociological terminology, sects are products of religious schism and therefore maintain
34307-476: The programme. In 2010, the Bavarian Administrative Court ruled that a woman working in a children's daycare centre, whose employment had been terminated when her ex-husband identified her as a Scientologist, should be reinstated. The woman had demonstrated to the court's satisfaction that her Scientological beliefs were irrelevant to her work. According to the agreement that concluded the case, she promised not to use Scientology methods in her work, and to inform
34510-408: The public. Materials have also been passed on to other sources and made available by publishers such as the media organization WikiLeaks . To gain the OT levels of training, a member must go to one of the Advanced Organisations or Orgs, which are based in Los Angeles, Clearwater, East Grinstead, Copenhagen, Sydney, and Johannesburg. Conservative estimates indicate that getting to OT VIII would require
34713-421: The report did not document any activities that were opposed to the constitution. At the federal level, Scientology lost a complaint against continued surveillance by the BfV in November 2004. The federal court based its opinion on its judgment that the aims of Scientology, as outlined by L. Ron Hubbard in his writings, were incompatible with the German constitution. Lawyers acting for the Federal Office for
34916-415: The right to equal treatment", and asked Germany's domestic intelligence agencies to collect and evaluate the information required for a possible judicial inquiry aimed at banning the organization. The move was criticized by German politicians from all sides of the political spectrum, with legal experts and intelligence agencies expressing concern that an attempt to ban the organization would likely fail in
35119-411: The rights to his book Dianetics in 1952. He then recharacterized his ideas as a religion, likely for tax purposes, and renamed them Scientology. By 1954, he had regained the rights to Dianetics and founded the Church of Scientology , which remains the largest organization promoting Scientology. There are practitioners independent of the Church, in what is referred to as the Free Zone . Estimates put
35322-526: The scholar of religion Aled Thomas suggests it was appropriate to talk about "Scientologies". Urban describes Scientology as representing a "rich syncretistic blend" of sources, including elements from Hinduism and Buddhism , Thelema , new scientific ideas, science-fiction, and from psychology and popular self-help literature available by the mid-20th century. The ceremonies, structure of the prayers, and minister attire suggested by Hubbard reflect his own Protestant traditions. Hubbard claimed that Scientology
35525-471: The spirit, mind, and body. The first of these is a person's inner self which he calls a " thetan ". It is akin to the idea of the soul or spirit found in religious traditions. Hubbard stated that "the thetan is the person. You are YOU in a body." Hubbard referred to the physical universe as the MEST universe , meaning "Matter, Energy, Space and Time", which includes your body. Scientologists believe that thetans can exteriorize ; leave their body. The thetan
35728-419: The subject of widespread criticism in the German media for advocating a more tolerant attitude towards Scientology. Güntner concluded that "alarmism" had "triumphed" over science and noted an apparent lack of confidence in Germany's ability to engage in open public discourse on the matter. The U.S. Department of State's 2012 report on religious freedom in Germany, published in 2013, stated that "The status of
35931-406: The subject. When deemed free of engrams they are given the status of "clear", and then continue doing further auditing until they are deemed to have reached the level Operating Thetan . Hubbard assigns vitality, good health and increased intelligence to those who are given the status of " clear ", having removed the source of their "psychosomatic illnesses". The further status of Operating Thetan (OT)
36134-415: The surveillance, saying that the church had totalitarian tendencies and that she would oppose Scientology with all the means at her disposal. The German Church of Scientology has repeatedly challenged the legality of this surveillance in court, but was ultimately unsuccessful on appeal by the Ministry of the Interior to a federal court. In December 2001, the Administrative Court in Berlin ruled against
36337-506: The suspicions were confirmed, but apart from some isolated cases, most of the officials concerned had not used their positions to advertise Scientology. According to Fifka & Sydora (2009), it is unknown to what degree the "Clear Germany" programme is still being pursued. German public discourse does not regard Scientology as a religion, but generally characterizes it as a Sekte (cult or sect), or as an exploitative profit-making venture preying on vulnerable minds. Public concerns about
36540-424: The system's path to salvation is the story of Xenu . Reflecting a strong science-fiction theme within its theology, Scientology's teachings make reference to " space opera ", a term denoting events in the distant past in which "spaceships, spacemen, [and] intergalactic travel" all feature. Hubbard wrote about a great catastrophe that took place 75 million years ago. According to this story, 75 million years ago there
36743-425: The teachings of Scientology merely served as a pretext for commercial activity. In 2005, the Federal Administrative Court of Germany explicitly granted a Scientologist protection under Article 4.1 of the German Constitution, which declares the freedom of religion and worldview inviolate. Many courts have declined to assess the religious status of Scientology, finding that the question was irrelevant to deciding
36946-575: The techniques taught is a method of auditing oneself, which is the necessary procedure for reaching OT level seven. Scientology has its own unique definitions for ethics and procedures for justice . According to scholar Stephen Kent, "The purpose of Scientology ethics is to eliminate opponents, then eliminate people's interests in things other than Scientology. In this 'ethical' environment, Scientology would be able to impose its courses, philosophy, and 'justice system' – its so-called technology—onto society." Hubbard created many symbolism concepts, including
37149-405: The term "new religion" or " new religious movement ". Other proposed alternative terms that have seen use were "emergent religion", "alternative religious movement", or "marginal religious movement", though new religious movement is the most popular term. The anti-cult movement mostly regards the term "new religious movement" as a euphemism for cult that hides their harmful nature. Beginning in
37352-441: The term is overgeneralized. Saliba sees the Peoples Temple as the "paradigm of a destructive cult", where those that use the term are implying that other groups will also commit mass suicide . Doomsday cult is an expression which is used to describe groups that believe in apocalypticism and millenarianism , and it can also be used to refer both to groups that predict disaster , and groups that attempt to bring it about. In
37555-429: The thetan who truly realized his power to create and destroy universes would in effect be "beyond God". ... The thetan has been deceived into worshipping such a God by mainstream religion and so forgotten its own godlike power to create and destroy universes. The prices to undertake a full course of auditing with the Church of Scientology are not often advertised publicly. As of 2011 it can easily cost $ 400,000 to do
37758-517: The top executives of MGM , Warner Bros. , Paramount , Universal and Sony Pictures Entertainment as well as actors Dustin Hoffman and Goldie Hawn , director Oliver Stone , writers Mario Puzo and Gore Vidal and talk-show host Larry King . It echoed similar parallels drawn by the Church of Scientology itself, which until then had received scant notice, and was followed by lobbying efforts of Scientology celebrities in Washington. U.S. Department of State spokesman Nicholas Burns rejected
37961-420: The use of which separates followers from non-Scientologists. The Scientology organization refers to its practices as "technology", a term often shortened to "Tech". Scientologists stress the "standardness" of this "tech", by which they express belief in its infallibility. The Church's system of pedagogy is called "Study Tech" and is presented as the best method for learning. Scientology teaches that when reading, it
38164-413: The violation of Scientologists' individual rights posed by sect filters. The U.S. Department of State began to include the issue of Scientology in Germany in its annual human rights reports after the 1993 agreement between the Church of Scientology and the U.S. Internal Revenue Service , through which Scientology gained the status of a tax-exempt religion in the United States. That decision also marked
38367-463: The violation of individual rights posed by sect filters. However, it rejected the comparison of the treatment of Scientologists with that of Jews during the Nazi era. In 2000, the German Stern magazine published the results of its investigation of the asylum case. It asserted that several rejection letters which the woman had submitted as part of her asylum application – ostensibly from potential employers who were rejecting her because she
38570-741: The word "Scientology" meant " knowing about knowing or science of knowledge ". The name "Scientology" deliberately makes use of the word "science", seeking to benefit from the "prestige and perceived legitimacy" of natural science in the public imagination. In doing so, Scientology has been compared to religious groups like Christian Science and the Science of Mind , which employed similar tactics. The term "Scientology" had been used in published works at least twice before Hubbard. In The New Word (1901), poet and lawyer Allen Upward first used scientology to mean blind, unthinking acceptance of scientific doctrine (compare scientism ). In 1934, philosopher Anastasius Nordenholz published Scientology: Science of
38773-399: The word "cult", unlike most other academics; however Bainbridge later stated he regretted having used the word at all. Stark and Bainbridge, in discussing the process by which individuals join new religious groups, have even questioned the utility of the concept of conversion , suggesting that affiliation is a more useful concept. In the early 1960s, sociologist John Lofland studied
38976-497: The worldwide headquarters of the Church of Scientology and his personal residence. With the organization often under heavy criticism, it adopted strong measures of attack in dealing with its critics. In 1966, the organization established the Guardian's Office (GO), a department devoted to undermining those hostile towards Scientology. The GO launched an extensive program of countering negative publicity, gathering intelligence, and infiltrating organizations. In " Operation Snow White ",
39179-411: Was "all-denominational", and members of the Scientology organization are not prohibited from active involvement in religions. Scholar of religion Donald Westbrook encountered members who also practiced Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism , and the Nation of Islam ; one was a Baptist minister. In practice, however, Westbrook noted that most Church members consider Scientology to be their only commitment, and
39382-506: Was "closely linked" to UFO religions , as science-fiction themes are evident in its theology. Scholars have also varyingly described it as a "psychotherapeutically oriented religion", a "secularized religion", a "postmodern religion", a "privatized religion", and a "progressive-knowledge" religion. According to scholar of religion Mary Farrell Bednarowski, Scientology describes itself as drawing on science, religion, psychology and philosophy but "has been claimed by none of them and repudiated, for
39585-401: Was Hubbard's then-wife, Mary Sue Hubbard. Public revelation of the GO's activities brought widespread condemnation of the Church. In 1967, Hubbard established a new group, the Sea Organization or "Sea Org", the membership of which was drawn from the most committed members of the Scientology organization. By 1981, the 21-year-old David Miscavige , who had been one of Hubbard's closest aides in
39788-426: Was a Galactic Confederacy of 76 planets ruled over by a leader called Xenu . The Confederacy was overpopulated and Xenu transported millions of aliens to earth and killed them with hydrogen bombs . The thetans of those killed were then clustered together and implants were inserted into them, designed to kill any body that these thetans would subsequently inhabit should they recall the event of their destruction. After
39991-421: Was a Scientologist – had in fact been written by fellow Scientologists at her request and that of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs , and that she was in personal financial trouble and about to go on trial for tax evasion at the time she applied for asylum. On a 2000 visit to Clearwater, Florida , Ursula Caberta of the Scientology Task Force for the Hamburg Interior Authority likewise alleged that
40194-411: Was as a legally pragmatic move to minimize his tax burden and escape the possibility of prosecution. In many countries, the Church of Scientology has engaged in extensive litigation to secure recognition as a tax-exempt religious organization, and it has managed to obtain such a status in a few jurisdictions, including the United States, Italy, and Australia. The organization has not received recognition as
40397-424: Was changed, and firms are now asked to sign a form stating that "the technology of L. Ron Hubbard will not be used in executing the contract". When it became known that Microsoft 's Windows 2000 operating system included a disk defragmenter developed by Executive Software International (a company headed by a Scientologist), this caused concern among German government officials and clergy over data security and
40600-406: Was cranked up by the Scientologists to achieve what we won't give them: tax-exempt status as a religion. This is intimidation, pure and simple." Officials explained that precisely because of Germany's Nazi past, Germany took a determined stance against all "radical cults and sects, including right-wing Nazi groups", and not just against Scientology. Kohl's Christian Democratic Union party denounced
40803-469: Was further elaborated upon by German theologian Ernst Troeltsch , who added a "mystical" categorization to define more personal religious experiences. American sociologist Howard P. Becker further bisected Troeltsch's first two categories: church was split into ecclesia and denomination ; and sect into sect and cult . Like Troeltsch's "mystical religion", Becker's cult refers to small religious groups that lack in organization and emphasize
41006-430: Was non-political, its aims were the liberation of the human being, and that Hubbard's instructions were valid only within the Church of Scientology and were subject to interpretation, and at any rate there was no effort to implement these instructions in Germany. The court disagreed and ruled that many sources, some of them not accessible to the general public, indicated that the aims of the Church of Scientology did include
41209-408: Was reported that German authorities were increasing their efforts to monitor Scientology in response to the opening of a new Scientology headquarters in Berlin. On December 7, 2007, German federal and state interior ministers expressed the opinion that the Scientology organization was continuing to pursue anti-constitutional goals, restricting "essential basic and human rights like the dignity of man or
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