Misplaced Pages

#909090

120-671: Niger , officially the Republic of the Niger , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast , Chad to the east , Nigeria to the south , Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest , Mali to the west , and Algeria to the northwest . It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km (490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and

240-539: A French-style semi-presidential system . This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year. The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs. After winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn into office on 22 December 1999 as

360-612: A Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed. Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later. Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under

480-638: A border with a coastal country but any path to a coast would still lead across at least two borders. The Free City of Frankfurt which was independent between 1815 and 1866 was doubly landlocked as it bordered the Electorate of Hesse , the Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , and Nassau . In the German Confederation there were several other landlocked states that only bordered landlocked states and landlocked exclaves of coastal states:

600-525: A burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered. The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the Aïr Mountains , Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane , Mammanet and Dabous ; the art spans the period from 10,000 BC to 100 AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'. By at least

720-537: A country's development. It cuts a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing , and impedes or prevents direct access to maritime trade , a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such, coastal regions, or inland regions that have access to the World Ocean, tended to be wealthier and more heavily populated than inland regions that have no access to the World Ocean. Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion argues that being landlocked in

840-667: A development that is to some degree reflected in the dialect names. It is realized as h in Tamahaq (Tahaggart), as š in Tamasheq and as simple z in the Tamajaq dialects Tawallammat and Tayart. In the latter two, *z is realised as ž before palatal vowels, explaining the form Tamajaq . In Tawallammat and especially Tayart, this kind of palatalization actually does not confine itself to z . In these dialects, dentals in general are palatalized before /i/ and /j/ . For example, tidət

960-469: A further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to found the so-called 'Banza ( illegitimate ) Bakwai': Zamfara , Kebbi , Nupe , Gwari , Yauri , Ilorin and Kwararafa . A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni , centred on Birni-N'Konni . The Fulani (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s. During

1080-456: A group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion ), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000). The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for

1200-403: A large group of IS-GS militants assaulted a Nigerien military base at Chinagodrar, in Niger's Tillabéri Region , killing at least 89 Nigerien soldiers. On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a peaceful transition of power . No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. Per

1320-471: A military unit in the capital, Niamey . Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected president Mohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident. On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger . Late on 26 July 2023, a coup by the military overthrew Bazoum, putting an end to

SECTION 10

#1732768916910

1440-683: A much lower proportion of Arabic loanwords than most Berber languages. The Tuareg languages are traditionally written in the indigenous Tifinagh alphabet. However, the Arabic script is commonly used in some areas (and has been since medieval times), while the Latin script is official in Mali and Niger . Blench (ms, 2006) lists the following as separate languages, with dialects in parentheses: Speakers of Tin Sert (Tetserret) identify as Tuareg, but

1560-517: A new military agreement, and the US agreed to withdraw troops from Niger following the termination of a Niger–US agreement that had allowed US personnel to be stationed in the country. Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to

1680-494: A number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009. The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country. In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency , which was opposed by other political parties, and went against

1800-572: A number of smaller kingdoms. In c.  1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez . Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515, Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591. In

1920-443: A poor geographical neighbourhood is one of four major development "traps" by which a country can be held back. In general, he found that when a neighbouring country experiences better growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading activity with the rest of the world. He states, "If you are coastal, you serve

2040-510: A series of droughts. While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction of groundnut cultivation. Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920, and 1931 were introduced. During the Second World War , during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany , Charles de Gaulle issued

2160-557: A six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996. Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign. Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an IMF and World Bank -approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by

2280-470: A year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested. Issoufou's time in office was marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict , an insurgency in western Niger by al-Qaeda and Islamic State , the spillover of Nigeria's Boko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger, and

2400-754: Is "doubly landlocked" or "double-landlocked" when it is surrounded entirely by landlocked countries (i.e. requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a coastline). There are two such countries: After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire , the Kingdom of Württemberg became a doubly landlocked state, bordering Bavaria , Baden , Switzerland , the Grand Duchy of Hesse ( Wimpfen exclave), Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen , and Hohenzollern-Hechingen . The latter two were themselves landlocked between each other, Württemberg, and Baden. In 1866 they became an exclave of Prussia , giving Württemberg

2520-655: Is CV(C)(C), including glottal stops (see above). Contrastive stress may occur in the stative aspect of verbs. Different dialects have slightly different consonant inventories. Some of these differences can be diachronically accounted for. For example, Proto-Berber *h is mostly lost in Ayer Tuareg, while it is maintained in almost every position in Mali Tuareg. The Iwellemmeden and Ahaggar Tuareg dialects are midway between these positions. The Proto-Berber consonant *z comes out differently in different dialects,

SECTION 20

#1732768916910

2640-708: Is also followed by a phonetic glottal stop . Gemination is contrastive. Normally /ɣɣ/ becomes [qː] , /ww/ becomes [ɡː] , and /dˤdˤ/ becomes [tˤː] . /q/ and /tˤ/ are predominantly geminate. In addition, in Tadɣaq /ɡ/ is usually geminate, but in Tudalt singleton /ɡ/ may occur. Voicing assimilation occurs, with the first consonant taking the voicing of the second (e.g. /edˤkăr/ > [etˤkăr] ). Cluster reduction turns word/morpheme-final /-ɣt, -ɣk/ into [-qː] and /-kt, -ɟt, -ɡt/ into [-kː] (e.g. /tămaʃăɣt/ > [tămaʃăq] 'Tamasheq' ). Syllable structure

2760-593: Is also used. Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous , Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region . Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC. It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. During

2880-500: Is derived from /u/. Comparative evidence shows that /ə/ derives from a merger of Proto-Berber */ĭ/ and */ŭ/. Sudlow classes the "semivowels" /w, j/ with the vowels, and notes the following possible diphthongs: /əw/ (> [u]), /ăw/, /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/, /əj/ (> [i]), /ăj/, /aj/, /ej/, /ij/, /oj/, /uj/. The consonant inventory largely resembles Arabic: differentiated voicing; uvulars, pharyngeals (traditionally referred to as emphatics) /tˤ/, /lˤ/, /sˤ/, /dˤ/, /zˤ/ ; requiring

3000-723: Is pronounced [tidʲət] in Tayart. Other differences can easily be traced back to borrowing. For example, the Arabic pharyngeals ħ and ʻ have been borrowed along with Arabic loanwords by dialects specialized in Islamic ( Maraboutic ) learning. Other dialects substitute ħ and ʻ respectively with x and ɣ . The basic word order in Tuareg is verb–subject–object . Verbs can be grouped into 19 morphological classes; some of these classes can be defined semantically. Verbs carry information on

3120-425: Is required, and in letter-writing. The Arabic script is mostly in use by tribes more involved in Islamic learning, and little is known about its conventions. The DNAFLA system is a somewhat morphophonemic orthography, not indicating initial vowel shortening, always writing the directional particle as < dd⟩, and not indicating all assimilations (e.g. ⟨Tămašăɣt⟩ for [tămašăq]). In Burkina Faso

3240-1274: Is the Niger River , with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2,022 m (6,634 ft). Niger's terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes , with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north. Landlocked country Generally, being landlocked creates political and economic disadvantages that having access to international waters would avoid. For this reason, nations large and small throughout history have fought to gain access to open waters, even at great expense in wealth, bloodshed, and political capital . The economic disadvantages of being landlocked can be alleviated or aggravated depending on degree of development, surrounding trade routes and freedom of trade , commonality of language, and other considerations. Some landlocked countries in Europe are affluent, such as Andorra , Austria , Liechtenstein , Luxembourg , San Marino , Switzerland , and Vatican City , all of which, excluding Luxembourg (a founding member of NATO ), frequently employ neutrality in global political issues. However, 32 out of

3360-507: Is usually not considered a continent but a geographical region by the English-speaking countries ) also has no landlocked countries. All landlocked countries, except Bolivia and Paraguay , are located on the continental mainland of Afro-Eurasia . Tuareg language The Tuareg ( English: / ˈ t w ɑːr ɛ ɡ / ) languages constitute a group of closely related Berber languages and dialects . They are spoken by

3480-464: Is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km or 930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km or 594 mi), and Mali at 821 km (510 mi). Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km (390 mi) and Benin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km (220 mi). The lowest point in Niger

3600-475: The Algerian War . Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception of Dahomey (Benin), owing to a border dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964. In

3720-771: The Baltic Sea , Black Sea , and Pacific Ocean . On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the ocean through the Paraguay and Paraná rivers. Several countries have coastlines on landlocked bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea . Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although

Niger - Misplaced Pages Continue

3840-517: The Bayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo. Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or ( Abu Yazid according to certain historians) who came from Baghdad . The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were: Daura (state of queen Daurama ), Kano , Rano , Zaria , Gobir , Katsina and Biram . An extension of the legend states that Bawo had

3960-545: The Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , Nassau (all until 1866), Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld , Saxe-Hildburghausen (both until 1826), and Reuss, elder line (until 1871). All of these bordered Prussia but not the main territory with sea access. There were no doubly landlocked countries from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I . Liechtenstein bordered the Austro-Hungarian Empire , which had an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan

4080-707: The Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Mali Empire before more significant parts of its territory became included in states such as the Sultanate of Agadez and the Songhai Empire . It was colonized by France during the Scramble for Africa as part of French West Africa , becoming a distinct colony in 1922. Since obtaining independence in 1960, Niger has experienced five coups d'état and four periods of military rule . Niger's seventh and most recent constitution

4200-626: The Nigerien Progressive Party ( Parti Progressiste Nigérien , or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or Rassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori , as was the left-wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA), led by Djibo Bakary . Following the Overseas Reform Act ( Loi Cadre ) of 23 July 1956 and

4320-509: The Oudney - Denham - Clapperton expedition (1822–25), Heinrich Barth (1850–55 with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg ), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865–1867), Gustav Nachtigal (1869–1874) and Parfait-Louis Monteil (1890–1892). Some European countries already possessed coastal colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of

4440-529: The Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union , gained its independence with the dissolution of the latter in 1991 and became the second doubly landlocked country. However, Uzbekistan's doubly landlocked status depends on whether the Caspian Sea is considered a lake or a sea. In the latter case, Uzbekistan is not doubly landlocked, since its neighbors Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to

4560-740: The Sound Dues , a toll needed to be paid to reach Western European waters. Sweden bypassed it by conquering Scania in 1658. Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having direct access to the high seas , two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making a country doubly landlocked. Three countries are landlocked by a single country ( enclaved countries): Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbours (semi-enclaved countries): To this group could be added three landlocked territories, two of them de facto states with limited or no international recognition : A country

4680-538: The Termit Massif . The Kiffian (circa 8000–6000 BC) and later Tenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period. Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the Bura culture (circa 200–1300 AD) named for the Bura archaeological site where

4800-783: The Tuareg Berbers in large parts of Mali , Niger , Algeria , Libya and Burkina Faso , with a few speakers, the Kinnin , in Chad . Tuareg dialects belong to the South Berber group and are sometimes regarded as a single language (as for instance by Karl-Gottfried Prasse ). They are distinguished mainly by a few sound shifts (notably affecting the pronunciation of original z and h ). The Tuareg varieties are unusually conservative in some respects; they retain two short vowels where Northern-Berber languages have one or none, and have

4920-569: The Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu —with the aim of linking France's African possessions. The three eventually met at Kousséri (in the far north of Cameroon ) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the Battle of Kousséri . The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger. On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for

Niger - Misplaced Pages Continue

5040-455: The 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery by Mossi , Wolof , Tuareg and Songhai peoples. A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until the 1600s. The Songhai Empire was named for its main ethnic group, the Songhai or Sonrai , and was centred on

5160-613: The 1600s. As detailed in the Epic of Sundiata , Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the Sosso Empire which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire . Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240. From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during

5280-529: The 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were attached to Niger in 1926–1927, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–1947 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger; and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931. The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within

5400-543: The 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime. The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme , with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987. The first action of

5520-763: The 45 landlocked countries, including those in Africa , Asia , and South America , have been classified as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) by the United Nations . Nine of the twelve countries with the lowest Human Development Index rankings are landlocked. International initiatives are aimed at reducing inequalities resulting from issues such as these, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 , which aims to reduce inequality substantially by 2030. In 1990, there were only 30 landlocked countries in

5640-402: The 5th century BC the territory of what is now Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert. This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and

5760-479: The Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold). The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them. The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to

5880-541: The Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised French Union . The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that

6000-583: The Caspian Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man-made Volga–Don Canal , large oceangoing ships are unable to traverse it. Some countries or important parts of countries have coastlines or river ports reachable by oceangoing ships, but only through a strait or river part of the territory of another country. The other country can put restriction on passage. Between 1429 and 1857 Poland , Sweden , Russia and more Baltic countries were suffering from

6120-597: The Caspian Sea. Notes: The landlocked countries and de facto states can be grouped in contiguous groups as follows: Notes: There are the following 12 "single" landlocked countries (each of them borders no other landlocked country or de facto state): According to the United Nations geoscheme (excluding the de facto states ), Africa has the most landlocked countries, at 16, followed by Europe (14), Asia (12), and South America (2). However, if Armenia , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , and South Ossetia (de facto state) are counted as parts of Europe, then Europe has

SECTION 50

#1732768916910

6240-551: The Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of what later became Niger. Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua ). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by

6360-504: The Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks. Another rebellion, led by dissatisfied Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country. In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into

6480-554: The Restoration of Democracy , headed by Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011. Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and presidential elections a year later, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was then re-elected in 2016. The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished

6600-407: The Seventh Republic and the government of Prime Minister Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou . On 28 July, General Abdourahamane Tchiani was proclaimed as the de facto head of state of the country. Former finance minister Ali Lamine Zeine was declared the new Prime Minister of Niger . The coup was condemned by ECOWAS, which in the 2023 Nigerien crisis threatened to use military intervention to reinstate

6720-632: The bend of the Niger River in Mali . Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries; by the 11th century Gao (capital of the former Kingdom of Gao ) had become the empire's capital. From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375. Under king Sonni Ali (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during

6840-590: The blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905 – March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements. While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France

6960-473: The buildup to the August ECOWAS deadline, the junta requested help from the Russian Wagner Group , though Wagner mercenaries were not known to have entered the country as a result. In October the junta expelled French troops from the country, presenting the move as a step towards sovereignty from the former colonial power, and in December it suspended cooperation with the Francophonie alleging its promotion of French interests. UN resident coordinator Louise Aubin

7080-442: The colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy. The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger. Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region (1905–1906), led by

7200-418: The constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system , the suspension of the 1999 Constitution, and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest. In a coup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led by Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term. The Supreme Council for

7320-407: The constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, who rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists. The north saw the outbreak of a Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice (MNJ). With

SECTION 60

#1732768916910

7440-538: The constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission. At the start of 2021 with the Tchoma Bangou and Zaroumdareye massacres , IS-GS began killing civilians en masse. On 21 March 2021, the IS-GS militants attacked several villages around Tillia , killing 141 people, mostly civilians. On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an attempted coup by

7560-406: The continent. This process, known as the ' Scramble for Africa ', culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River (roughly equivalent to the present territory of Mali and Niger). France then set about making a reality of their rule on

7680-449: The country undergo periodic drought and desertification . The economy is concentrated around subsistence agriculture , with some export agriculture in the less arid south, and the export of raw materials , including uranium ore . It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, low literacy rate , jihadist insurgencies , and the world's highest fertility rates due to birth control not being used and

7800-473: The cultural-linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles what later became the Niger-Nigeria border . The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded. They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as

7920-403: The current responsible Undersecretary-General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury . Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia 's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm-water port was a major motivator of Russian expansion towards

8040-456: The decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers. The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of

8160-402: The emphasized concept to be placed first, be it the subject or object, the latter giving an effect somewhat like the English passive. Sudlow uses the following examples, all expressing the concept "Men don't cook porridge" (e denotes Sudlow's schwa): Again like Japanese, the "pronoun/particle 'a' is used with a following relative clause to bring a noun in a phrase to the beginning for emphasis,"

8280-615: The emphatics are denoted by "hooked" letters, as in Fula , e.g. ⟨ɗ ƭ⟩ . The vowel system includes five long vowels, /a, e, i, o, u/ and two short vowels, /ə, ă/ (on this page, /ă/ is used to represent IPA [æ] ). Some of the vowels have more open "emphatic" allophones that occur immediately before emphatic consonants, subject to dialectal variation. These allophones include [ɛ] for /e/ and /i/ (although /i/ may be less open), [ɔ] for /o/ and /u/ (although /u/ may be less open), and [ă] for /ə/ . Karl Prasse argued that /e/ goes back to Proto-Berber , while /o/

8400-470: The establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community . On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance. On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960; Diori thus became

8520-401: The face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system . On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when

8640-467: The first president of the country. For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation. Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in

8760-679: The first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin. In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey , Diffa , and Nguigmi , and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by

8880-548: The following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts. When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century, most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French ( see below ). To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for a period. It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in Njimi , north-east of

9000-472: The former landlocked country of Czechoslovakia ceased to exist on 1 January 1993. On 30 September 2022, the Luhansk People's Republic (de facto state) was annexed by Russia and ceased to exist as a landlocked de facto state. On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a new offensive against the Republic of Artsakh (de facto state) and achieved a decisive victory. The Government of Artsakh

9120-544: The future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government ; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated

9240-657: The government of Bazoum if the coup leaders did not by 6 August. The deadline passed without military intervention, though ECOWAS imposed sanctions, including cuts of Nigerian energy exports to Niger which had previously provided 70–90% of Niger's power. In November the coup-led governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger formed the Alliance of Sahel States in opposition to potential military intervention. On 24 February 2024 several ECOWAS sanctions against Niger were dropped, reportedly for humanitarian and diplomatic reasons, and Nigeria agreed to resume electricity exports to Niger. In

9360-429: The government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups. The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane ,

9480-679: The ground. In 1897, the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger. He reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898, and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga. He was later killed, as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. In 1899–1900, France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo , the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and

9600-643: The head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly. President Tandja Mamadou sought to extend his presidency by modifying

9720-572: The invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr , it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France. Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom , a Zarma polity founded in 1750, which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states. In the 19th century, some European explorers travelled in the area that would become known as Niger, such as Mungo Park (in 1805–1806),

9840-477: The lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of the Sayfawa dynasty which began in c.  1075 under Mai (king) Hummay . The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, including Bilma and Kaouar ,

9960-561: The language is Western Berber . The Tuareg languages may be written using the ancient Tifinagh (Libyco-Berber) script, the Latin script or the Arabic script . The Malian national literacy program DNAFLA has established a standard for the Latin alphabet, which is used with modifications in Prasse's Lexique and the government literacy program in Burkina, while in Niger a different system

10080-586: The later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio (from Gobir) declared a jihad in 1804. After conquering most of Hausaland (though not the Bornu Kingdom, which remained independent), he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809. Some of

10200-407: The military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic. Maïnassara headed a Conseil de Salut National (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out

10320-612: The military government was to address the food crisis. Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished. Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in Agadez Region . Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there

10440-708: The most landlocked countries, at 20 (including all three landlocked de facto states). If these transcontinental or culturally European countries are included in Asia, then both Africa and Europe (including Kosovo and Transnistria ) have the most, at 16. Depending on the status of Kazakhstan and the South Caucasian countries, Asia has between 9 and 13 (including South Ossetia ). South America only has two landlocked countries: Bolivia and Paraguay . Australia and North America have no landlocked countries, while Antarctica has no countries at all. Oceania (which

10560-447: The north and Chad to the east. Niger lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N , and longitudes 0° and 16°E . Its area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it less than twice the size of France , and the world's 21st largest country. Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border

10680-558: The overall direction of a single party (the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement , or MNSD). A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989. General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989. President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in

10800-411: The pharynx muscles to contract and influencing the pronunciation of the following vowel, and no voiceless bilabial plosive . The glottal stop is non-phonemic. It occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words to fill the place of the initial consonant in the syllable structure (see below), although if the words is preceded by a word ending in a consonant, it makes a liaison instead. Phrase-final /a/

10920-458: The population. French is the country's official language, although it is spoken mainly as a second language and by a minority of the population; ten indigenous languages have the status of national language , of which Hausa is the most spoken one. According to the UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report of 2023, Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world. Some non-desert portions of

11040-475: The prehistoric African humid period , the climate of the Sahara was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the "Green Sahara", which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding. The Neolithic era, beginning circa 10,000 BC, saw a number of changes such as the introduction of pottery (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene),

11160-544: The previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992. Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993. Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995, and an economic slump. The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting

11280-473: The ratio is 3:1). Historically, traveling between a landlocked country and a country which did not border said country required the traveler to pass border controls twice or more. In recent times the advent of air travel has largely negated this impediment. Countries have acted to overcome being landlocked by acquiring land that reaches the sea: Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbouring countries: Losing access to

11400-469: The reign of Askia Mohammad I (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez which was conquered in 1496. The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into

11520-477: The resistance of queen Sarraounia , captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history". The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he

11640-510: The resulting rapid population growth . The name comes from the Niger River which flows through the west of the country. The origin of the river's name is uncertain. Alexandrian geographer Ptolemy wrote descriptions of the wadi Gir (in neighbouring modern Algeria ) and the Ni-Gir ' Lower Gir ' to the south, possibly referring to the Niger River. The modern spelling Niger

11760-479: The rule of Mai Idris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland. Circa 1730–40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram , centred on

11880-409: The rule of Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337). At this point parts of what are now Niger's Tillabéri Region fell under Malian rule. A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the hajj in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread of Islam in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion". The empire began "declining" in

12000-520: The sea is generally a great loss to a nation, politically, militarily, and economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries, and

12120-420: The second largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in the Sahara . Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million lives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner along the namesake Niger River . Following the spread of Islam to the region, Niger was on the fringes of some states, including

12240-623: The south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906. The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully fledged colony within French West Africa . The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by

12360-546: The spread of Islam . It was aided by the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in the 7th century, the result of three Arab invasions, which resulted in population movements to the south. Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires. The Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita (r. 1230–1255) in c.  1230 and existed until

12480-488: The spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli . As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out , forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east. Agriculture spread, including the planting of millet and sorghum , and pottery production. Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at Azawagh , Takedda , Marendet and

12600-691: The subject of the sentence in the form of pronominal marking. No simple adjectives exist in the Tuareg languages; adjectival concepts are expressed using a relative verb form traditionally called 'participle'. The Tuareg languages have very heavily influenced Northern Songhay languages such as Sawaq , whose speakers are culturally Tuareg but speak Songhay; this influence includes points of phonology and sometimes grammar as well as extensive loanwords. Tamasheq prefers VSO order; however it contains topic–comment structure (like in American Sign Language, Modern Hebrew, Japanese and Russian), allowing

12720-549: The town of Zinder . The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion. The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate ( see below ), and was later captured by the French in 1899. Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms , encompassing

12840-471: The trade unions. Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime. In unknown circumstances (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999. Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with

12960-659: The use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (often organised by people-smuggling gangs ). French and American forces assisted Niger in countering these threats. On 10 December 2019, a large group of fighters belonging to the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (IS-GS) attacked a military post in Inates , killing over seventy soldiers and kidnapping others. The attack was the deadliest single incident Niger's military has ever experienced. On 9 January 2020,

13080-429: The world. However, the dissolutions of the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia ; the breakup of Yugoslavia ; the independence referendums of South Ossetia (de facto state), Eritrea , Montenegro , South Sudan , and the Luhansk People's Republic (de facto state); and the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo (de facto state) created 15 new landlocked countries and five landlocked de facto states while

13200-431: The world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors." Others have argued that being landlocked has an advantage as it creates a "natural tariff barrier" that protects the country from cheap imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems. Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia

13320-529: Was also expelled in October after the junta alleged "underhanded maneuvers" by U.N secretary-general António Guterres to prevent the country's participation in the UN General Assembly. In October the U.S. officially designated the takeover as a coup, suspending most Niger–US military cooperation as well as hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign assistance programs. In April 2024, Russian military trainers and equipment began to arrive in Niger under

13440-410: Was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish. In the 1980s, Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime. The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and IMF -led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens. In 1985,

13560-403: Was enacted in 2010, establishing a multiparty, unitary semi-presidential system. Following the most recent coup in 2023 , the country is once again under a military junta . Its society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state. The Hausa are the country's largest ethnic group, making up more than half

13680-537: Was first recorded by Berber scholar Leo Africanus in 1550, possibly derived from the Tuareg phrase the (e)gărăw-n-gărăwăn meaning ' river of rivers ' . There is broad consensus among linguists that it does not derive from the Latin niger ' black ' as was first erroneously believed. The standard pronunciation in English is / n iː ˈ ʒ ɛər / , while in some Anglophone media / ˈ n aɪ dʒ ər /

13800-527: Was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland , Klobb's former officer, and Lt. Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed. The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony (later Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey . The border with Britain's colony of Nigeria to

13920-465: Was officially dissolved on 1 January 2024. As a result, Artsakh ceased to exist as a landlocked de facto state and the Nagorno-Karabakh region was reintegrated into Azerbaijan. As of 1 April 2024, there were 44 landlocked countries and three landlocked de facto states ( Kosovo , South Ossetia , and Transnistria ) in the world. Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to

14040-645: Was then part of the Russian Empire , which had both ocean and sea access. With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked Austria , Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the Anschluss that year, Austria was absorbed into Nazi Germany , which possessed a border on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea . After World War II, Austria regained its independence and Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked. Uzbekistan, which had been part of

14160-583: Was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906. Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916–1917, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen , with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan ; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed. A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by

14280-592: Was under Kanem's control in this period. Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries. Attacks by the Bulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on what is later the Niger-Nigeria border . Bornu "prospered" during

14400-552: Was used. There is also some variation in Tifinagh and in the Arabic script. Early uses of the Tifinagh script have been found on rock art and in various sepulchres . Among these are the 1,500 year old monumental tomb of the Tuareg matriarch Tin Hinan , where vestiges of a Tifinagh inscription have been found on one of its walls. Tifinagh usage is now restricted mainly to writing magical formulae, writing on palms when silence

#909090