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178-865: The RDA was formed at a conference in Bamako , in the colony of French Sudan , in 1946. The aim of the conference was to unite African leaders affiliated with the French Socialist Party with those affiliated with the French Communist Party together to work on reconfiguring the relationship between France and the African colonies. However, the French Socialist leaders in France saw the proposal as undermining their relationships and so forced their African members to withdraw from

356-564: A pan-African party in the National Assembly, Houphouët-Boigny convinced Lamine Guèye of Senegal (who was the most prominent socialist in Africa at the time) to work towards establishing a wider political movement with the goal of autonomy for the colonies of Africa. These two leaders then brought together many of the other African delegates in the National Assembly to sign a manifesto calling for all leaders to come to Bamako (today

534-666: A Third Party Congress to bring together all the members. The last party congress had been in 1949 and, despite calls for an open congress from the Communist wing of the RDA for years, it had been resisted by the party leadership. The main debate at the congress focused on the issue of federalism and the relationship with France for the future. Houphouët-Boigny, who saw the Congress as an opportunity to show off political power to his French guests (including Mitterrand) in attendance, argued that

712-582: A biannual Bamako photography festival. The National Museum of Mali is an archeological and anthropological museum, presenting permanent and temporary exhibits on the prehistory of Mali, as well as the musical instruments, dress, and ritual objects associated with Mali's various ethnic groups . The National Museum began under French rule as the Sudanese Museum, part of the Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (IFAN) under Théodore Monod . It

890-651: A block of countries including the Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta, and Dahomey which worked to maintain connections to France while becoming independent. French Sudan initially joined a brief federation with Senegal called the Mali Federation , bringing RDA leader Keïta and PRA leader Senghor together. However, this broke apart and the French Sudan (now the independent country called Mali ) instead joined an informal grouping with Ghana and Guinea called

1068-665: A coalition with the French Communist Party in the French National Assembly . However, this coalition alienated many RDA delegates who eventually split with the RDA and formed the rival Indépendants d'Outre-Mer (IOM) party. Continued French hostility to the RDA, a weakening of the Communist Party in France, and the defection of delegates to the IOM, resulted in the RDA ending its coalition with

1246-433: A decree of August 1947 indicated the special precautions to be taken "to protect workers spraying paint or varnish". An Order of 10 September 1947 laid down the terms in which warnings must be given "of the dangers of benzene poisoning" while a circular of October 1947 indicated "how such poisoning can be prevented". In addition, a Decree of August 1947 instituted the original measures on health and safety committees. During

1424-648: A diverse population composed of different ethnic groups in Mali and from neighboring countries. The National Library of Mali was first created by the Institut Français d'Afrique Noire , an arm of the French colonial government, in 1944. Following Mali's 1960 independence, this library became the Government Library; it would later be renamed again as the National Library of Mali. In 1968, the library

1602-596: A free-market economy and multiparty democracy. In 1990, the National Congress for Democratic Initiative ( Congrès National d'Initiative démocratique , CNID) was set up by the lawyer Mountaga Tall , and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali ( Alliance pour la démocratie au Mali , ADEMA) by Abdramane Baba and historian Alpha Oumar Konaré . These with the Association des élèves et étudiants du Mali (AEEM) and

1780-564: A long relationship between Pleven's party, the Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance ( French : Union démocratique et socialiste de la Résistance , UDSR), and particularly with the young politician François Mitterrand , and the RDA. Although Mitterrand tried to change French policy towards the RDA, the colonial administration was still focused primarily on removing the RDA from any power it had remaining. In preparation for

1958-618: A military coup deposed Traoré. The Comité de Transition pour le Salut du Peuple was set up, headed by General Amadou Toumani Touré . Alpha Oumar Konari officially became president on 26 April 1992. Bamako had been the target of numerous jihadist terrorist attacks during the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel . On 20 November 2015, two gunmen took 170 people hostage in the Radisson Blu hotel. Twenty-one people were killed along with

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2136-690: A month to organize for the French legislative elections in November 1946 , they were able to secure a number of seats by using the political organizations established by the various members. The National Assembly votes in France once again supported the three party center-left coalition of the MRP (29% of the vote), the PCF (28.6% of the vote) and the SFIO (16.5% of the vote). In French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa,

2314-462: A number of important structures being built. In recent years, China has become an important investor in Bamako, developing its infrastructure and facilities. Agriculture is active in Bamako, with the presence of Bozo fisherman, and it is common to see cattle crossing the streets. Much of the electricity is generated from the hydroelectric Sélingué Dam . The drinking water supply in Bamako and Kati

2492-462: A number of parties opposed the RDA and worked against the party. Party affiliations of the RDA (approximate dates) Bibliography Bamako Bamako is the capital and largest city of Mali , with a 2022 population of 4,227,569. It is located on the Niger River , near the rapids that divide the upper and middle Niger valleys in the southwestern part of the country. Bamako

2670-472: A number of tourists, record producers, and aspiring musicians to the city to try to follow in their footsteps. It is common to see musicians in the streets with djembes and percussion bands playing traditional Bamana rhythms. In 2011, four universities were founded; the University of Social Sciences and Management of Bamako (USSGB), the University of Humanities and Social Sciences of Bamako (ULSHB),

2848-519: A part of their ruling governmental bodies. This introduced significant differences between the parties which had before been set aside and meant that the Communists saw decreasing power to offer their RDA allies. Second, the French divided the Upper Volta from the Ivory Coast in order to try and reduce the power of Houphouët-Boigny and the RDA. The plan appeared to work when in 1948, Zinda Kaboré

3026-484: A popular front which would include the liberal Radical Party. The Popular Front strategy was adopted in the 1936 French legislative election and the coalition gained a majority, with SFIO obtaining for the first time more votes and seats than the Radical Party . Léon Blum became France's first Socialist prime minister in 1936 while the PCF supported without participation his government. A general strike applauded

3204-489: A population of 159,805 people (2009) and covers 18.3 square kilometres (7.1 sq mi). It is bounded to the east by the backwater of Korofina at the west foot of the Point G hill, and to the south by Niger River . The municipality has eleven neighborhoods: Niaréla (the oldest), Bagadadji, Medina-Coura, Bozola, Missira, Hippodrome, Quinzambougou, Bakaribougou, TSF, Industrial Area, and Bougouba. The new Cité du Niger island

3382-528: A population of 414,668 people (2009) and covers 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi). It is bounded to the north by the Niger River, south by the airport and the commune of Kalabancoro , and to the east by the Commune VI and Niger. It consists of eight neighborhoods: Badalabougou, Sema I, Quartier Mali, Torokorobougou, Baco-Djicoroni, Sabalibougou, Daoudabougou and Kalaban-Coura. Commune VI has

3560-1172: A population of 470,269 people (2009) and covers 87 square kilometres (34 sq mi). This is the largest of the communes that make up Bamako. It consists of ten neighborhoods: Banankabougou, Djanékéla, Faladié, Magnambougou, Missabougou, Niamakoro, Sénou, Sogoniko, Sokorodji and Yrimadio. Bamako contains the following neighborhoods (quartiers): ACI-2000, Badalabugu, Bajalan I, Bajalan II, Bako Jikoroni, Bagadaji, Bamako Kura, Bankoni, Bolibana, Bozola, Bugudani, Bulkasumbugu, Dar Salam, N'tomikorobougou, Dawdabugu, Dravela, Fajigila, Falaje, Garantigibugu, Jalakoroji, Janekela, Janjigila, Jelibugu, Jikoroni Para, Jumanzana, Hamdallaye, Hippodrome , Kalaban Koro, Kalaban Kura, Korofina, Kuluba, Kulubleni, Lafiabugu, Madina Kura, Magnambugu (Magnambugu Faso Kanu), Misabugu, Misira, Niarela, Ntomikorobugu, Point G, Quartier du Fleuve, Quartier Mali, Quinzanbugu, Sabalibugu I, Sabalibugu II, Safo, Same, Sangarebugu, Saranbugu, Sebeninkoro, Sikoroni, Sirakoro, Senu, Sibiribugu, Sokoniko, Sokoroji, Sotuba, Titibugu, Torokorobugu, TSF-Sans Fil, Wolofobugu, Yirimanjo, Zone Industrielle The District of Bamako concentrates 70% of industrial activity in

3738-498: A rail link to San-Pédro in Ivory Coast is proposed. The road network links Bamako to Koulikoro , Kati, Kolokani , Ségou , and Sikasso . The Bamako-Sénou International Airport is 15 kilometres (9 mi) from the city and opened to passengers in 1974. Passenger traffic steadily increased in the early 2000s. Government figures revealed 403,380 passengers in 1999, 423,506 in 2003, 486,526 in 2004, and 516,000 in 2005, and

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3916-486: A regional party which would have a significant regional infrastructure, the members viewed it as an alliance of the different political forces operating in each of the colonies. Thus they created a Committee of Coordination to be tasked with selecting which party in each colony would be the representative of the RDA party and named Houphouët-Boigny as chairman and Sissoko, Apithy, Tchicaya, d'Arboussier, and Mamadou Konate (the key Malian politician who convinced Sissoko to join

4094-526: A regional party, essentially ended with the independence vote in 1958. Guinea was the only country to vote for independence, incurring the immediate wrath of DeGaulle and Houphouët-Boigny who cut off aid to the colony and the French removed all personnel and equipment that was in the colony. Ivory Coast voted for the French Community and Houphouët-Boigny became a leader of the Conseil de l'Entente ,

4272-484: A seasonal causeway between the eastern neighborhoods of Sotuba and Misabugu was inherited from colonial times (alternated traffic on one lane with five crossing sections). The Sotuba Causeway ( Chaussée submersible de Sotuba in French, and Babilikoroni in Bamanankan ) is typically under water from July to January. A third bridge (1.4 km long, 24 m wide, four-lane with two motorcycle and two pedestrian sections)

4450-461: A strong federation linking France with the colonies, while the PRA, led by Senghor, pushed for a looser confederation arrangement. In a meeting on 18 July 1958, the PRA and RDA agreed that the eventual arrangement must include the right to self-determination for the colonies. This resulted in a law which would give each colony the right to vote to join a newly organized French Community which would keep

4628-641: A unique architectural style. The area of the city has evidence of settlements since the Palaeolithic era. The fertile lands of the Niger River Valley provided the people with an abundant food supply and early chiefdoms in the area grew wealthy as they established trade routes linking across west Africa, the Sahara , and leading to northern Africa and Europe as early as 600s BCE. The early inhabitants traded gold , ivory , kola nuts , and salt. By

4806-413: A very close vote. During the debate on this cabinet, Apithy presented Schuman with a number of questions regarding the future of the colonial arrangement. When Schuman gave the closing speech before a vote to confirm his cabinet, Apithy's questions were the only ones which he did not address at all. Apithy was infuriated by this perceived slight and so cast the whole seven votes of the IOM (including those of

4984-538: Is a successor to some of the organizations responsible for the 2015 attack. The 2024 attack was downplayed by the Malian military junta (led by Assimi Goïta ), which seized control over the country in a 2021 coup d'état . Bamako is situated on the Niger River floodplain, which hampers development along the riverfront and the Niger's tributaries. Bamako is relatively flat, except to the immediate north where an escarpment

5162-504: Is also ensured by a pumping station on the Niger River. However, the capacity of 135,000 cubic metres (4,800,000 cu ft) to provide drinking water per day is insufficient for the needs estimated at 152,000 cubic metres (5,400,000 cu ft) during the hot season between April and June. During this period, frequent water shortages are experienced. A new pumping station was to open in Kabala in 2009. The BCEAO Tower at 20 stories

5340-621: Is also located in the Commune II. The area is the most important in the industry sector in Bamako. Commune III has a population of 128,872 people (2009) and covers 20.7 square kilometres (8.0 sq mi). It is bounded on the north by the Kati , east by the Boulevard du Peuple, which separates it from the Commune II, south by the portion of the Niger River, between the Pont des Martyrs and

5518-522: Is being built at the same location to reduce downtown congestion, notably by trucks. Under the Köppen climate classification , Bamako features a tropical savanna climate ( Köppen Aw ). Located in the Sudano - Sahelian zone, Bamako is very hot on average all year round with the hottest months being between March and May. The mildest months are between November and February. During the dry season, rainfall

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5696-492: Is being developed at the junction between ACI-2000 and the King Fadh Bridge, containing most of the state departments (ministries) and administrative services in a central location. Bamako is also the headquarters of many large companies and administrative institutions. Air Mali (formerly Compagnie Aérienne du Mali) has its head office in Bamako. Bamako received much investment by Saudi Arabia for decades which saw

5874-557: Is found, being what remains of an extinct volcano. The Presidential Palace and main hospital are located here. Originally, the city developed on the northern side of the river, but as it grew, bridges were developed to connect the north with the south. The first of these was the Pont des Martyrs (2-lane with two pedestrian sections) and the King Fahd Bridge (four-lane with two motorcycle and two pedestrian sections). Additionally,

6052-436: Is predicted to reach over 900,000 by 2015 under a low (4%) yearly growth-rate scenario. To date this growth rate has been surpassed. Total air traffic the airport increased by 12.4% in 2007 and 14% in 2008. Most of this increase came in passenger transport, with the number of passengers served increasing by 20% in 2007 and 17% in 2008. Twenty-seven airline carriers operated weekly or better at Bamako-Sénou International Airport in

6230-516: Is scarce: virtually none falls between November and April due to the dominance of the Saharan anticyclone and the dry trade winds . The rainy season occurs in the summer with the peak occurring with a few storms beginning in May, then transitioning to the monsoon from June to October. In 2015, the Bamako city government privatized waste collection in the city. Before the introduction of this program there

6408-459: Is sprawling at a rapid pace within a radius of 30 kilometres (19 mi). The largest urbanized area now lies on the southern bank of the Niger River. A modern central business district is rapidly developing immediately west of the downtown area in the ACI-2000 district, taking advantage of a well-designed geometric layout, legacy of the old airport runways and taxiways. A large administrative area

6586-1137: Is the Muso Kunda Museum , the Bamako Regional Museum , Bamako Zoo , the Bamako Botanical Gardens , the National Conference Center Tower (NCC), the Souvenir Pyramid, the Independence Monument, Al Quoods Monument, the triangular Monument de la paix , the Hamdallaye obelisk, the Modibo Keita Memorial and many other monuments, the Palais de la Culture Amadou Hampaté Ba and the Point G hill, containing caves with rock paintings . In 1988, Bamako

6764-722: Is the Gabriel Touré Hospital named after a young doctor and humanist Gabriel Touré who was born in 1910 in Ouagadougou and died in 1935 after having been contaminated by a patient with the pneumonic plague . The hospital was established in 1959. French Section of the Workers%27 International The French Section of the Workers' International ( French : Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière , SFIO )

6942-448: Is the nation's administrative center. The city proper is a cercle in its own right. Bamako's river port is located in nearby Koulikoro , along with a major regional trade and conference center. Bamako is the seventh-largest West African urban center after Lagos , Abidjan , Kano , Ibadan , Dakar , and Accra . Locally manufactured goods include textiles, processed meat, and metal goods as well as mining. Commercial fishing occurs on

7120-586: Is the tallest building in the West African nation. It sits on the north ("left") bank of the River Niger in the city centre. The BCEAO Tower is the Malian headquarters of the Central Bank of West African States , which provides development banking and government financial and currency services in several Francophone West African nations. Classified as Neo-Sudanic architecture, it is modeled on

7298-524: The Loi Cadre which significantly reformed the relationship between France and the colonies by granting expanded power to Territorial Assemblies in each colony. Because the reform did not go far enough in expanding self-rule to the colonies, the African legislators largely opposed it. The Socialists were the only political faction to vote for the law and although Houphouët-Boigny was required to vote for it because of his ministerial post, he organized to have

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7476-403: The 1951 French elections , RDA supporters were removed from voter rolls by French authorities, areas with high RDA support experienced a number of voting problems, and members were arrested and intimidated from political activity. All this resulted in a significant loss to the RDA throughout Africa and only Houphouët-Boigny, Konate, and Tchicaya were National Assembly members from the RDA following

7654-597: The Algerian War of Independence became the major issue of the political debate. During the 1956 French legislative election campaign, the party took part in the Republican Front , a centre-left coalition led by Radical Pierre Mendès France , who advocated a peaceful resolution of the conflict. Guy Mollet took the lead of the cabinet, but he led a very repressive policy. After the May 1958 crisis , he supported

7832-656: The Association Malienne des Droits de l'Homme (AMDH) aimed to oust Moussa Traoré. Under the old constitution, all labor unions had to belong to one confederation, the National Union of Malian Workers (UNTM). When the leadership of the UNTM broke from the government in 1990, the opposition grew. Groups were driven by paycuts and layoffs in the government sector, and the Malian government acceding to pressure from international donors to privatise large swathes of

8010-763: The Brutus Network in which Gaston Defferre , later mayor of Marseilles for years, participated along with Daniel Mayer . In 1942–1943, Pétain's regime judged the French Third Republic by organising a public trial, the Riom Trial , of personalities accused of having caused the country's defeat in the Battle of France . They included Léon Blum , the Radical Édouard Daladier and the conservatives Paul Reynaud and Georges Mandel , among others. At

8188-669: The Cartel des gauches , when capital flight was an issue, giving rise to the so-called "myth of the 200 families") in the context of the Great Depression and also over the issue of the Spanish Civil War . The demoralised left fell apart and was unable to resist the collapse of the Third Republic after the fall of France in the military defeat of 1940 during World War II. A number of SFIO members were part of

8366-401: The Communist International , also known as the Comintern and the Third International, created by the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution. Led by Boris Souvarine and Ludovic-Oscar Frossard , they created the French Section of the Communist International (SFIC). Another smaller group also favoured membership in the Comintern, but not all 21 conditions . The minority led by Léon Blum and

8544-408: The Conseil de l'Entente in the era after independence. With the end of World War II, the French colonial empire set about a significant reorganization of the relationship between France and the colonies. Before the establishment of the French Fourth Republic , the only colony in French West Africa or French Equatorial Africa with any elections for political authorities was Senegal . The rest of

8722-400: The Federation of the Democratic and Socialist Left (FGDS), a centre-left coalition led by Mitterrand. It split after the May 68 events and the electoral disaster of June 1968. Defferre was the SFIO candidate in the 1969 French presidential election . He was eliminated in the first round, with only 5% of votes. One month later at the Issy-les-Moulineaux Congress , the SFIO was refounded as

8900-402: The French Communist Party , while the minority continued as the SFIO. In the 1930s, mutual concern over fascism drew the communists and socialists together, prompting them to form the Popular Front . The coalition won the 1936 election and formed a government under SFIO leader Léon Blum , which lasted until 1938. After the outbreak of World War II and German conquest of France in 1940,

9078-405: The Ivory Coast colony. Houphouët-Boigny had spent a brief period as a delegate in the French National Assembly, where he had aligned most closely with the French Communist Party and had taken an active role in trying to get the recall of André-Jean-Gaston Latrille , the French governor of the Ivory Coast. Following the collapse of the National Assembly elected in July 1946 and wanting to establish

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9256-523: The Labour and Socialist International (1923–1940), and finally the Socialist International (1951–1969). The SFIO's symbol was a red and black circle with the Three Arrows . After the failure of the Paris Commune of 1871, French socialism was severely weakened, with its leaders dead or in exile. During the 1879 Marseille Congress , workers' associations created the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France (FTSF). Three years later, Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue (the son-in-law of Karl Marx ) left

9434-404: The National Bloc coalition which played on the middle-classes' fear of Bolshevism (posters with a Bolshevik with a knife between his teeth were used to discredit the socialist movement). The National Bloc won 70% of the seats, forming what became known as the Chambre bleue horizon (Blue Horizon Chamber). During the Tours Congress on 25 December 1920, a majority of SFIO members voted to join

9612-420: The Pont de l'amitié sino-malienne funded by the People's Republic of China. Located in Sotuba area, it has the objective to decongest traffic in the city. The Point G hospital, built between 1906 and 1913, covers 25 hectares (62 acres). A former military hospital, it became a civilian hospital shortly before the independence of Mali, and is situated on a hill overlooking Bamako. The second hospital of Bamako

9790-435: The Popular Front government. Léon Jouhaux was the CGT's main leader until 1947 and the new split leading to the creation of the reformist union confederation Workers' Force (CGT-FO). In both 1924 and 1932, the Socialists joined with the Radicals in the Cartel des Gauches coalition. They supported the government led by Radical Édouard Herriot (1924–1926 and 1932), but they did not participate. The first Cartel saw

9968-445: The Sudano-Sahelian architecture of the famous mosques of Djenne and Timbuktu . The building is located in the busy Commune III neighbourhood, where "Avenue Moussa Tavele" meets the waterside boulevard between the two main Bamako bridges: King Fahd Bridge a block west and Martyrs Bridge three blocks east. Just to the east of the BCEAO complex, a park and formal garden mark where the diagonally running "Boulevard du Peuple" reaches

10146-430: The Union of African States which pushed for pan-African alternatives to Senghor's socialism and the Conseil de l'Entente continued linkages with France. Although the name Rassemblement Démocratique Africain and identification with this regional grouping remained in many of the local parties, the RDA as a regional party would never form again after the vote of 1958. The following were parties which were directly members of

10324-665: The University of Science, Technology and Technologies of Bamako (USTTB) and the University of Legal and Political Sciences of Bamako (USJPB). In 1972, the Union Malienne Des Aveugles , an integrated school and centre for the blind and partially sighted, was established. Among the places of worship , they are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bamako ( Catholic Church ), Église Chrétienne Évangélique du Mali ( Alliance World Fellowship ), Assemblies of God . The Dakar-Niger Railway links Bamako to Dakar via Kati , Négala , Kita , and Kayes . In 2015,

10502-456: The Vichy 80 who refused to vote extraordinary powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain in July 1940, following which the latter proclaimed the Révolution nationale reactionary program and the establishment of the Vichy regime . Although some engaged in collaborationism , an important part also took part in the Resistance and they eventually went on to be part of the National Council of the Resistance . Pierre Fourcaud created with Félix Gouin

10680-502: The assimilation pathway which the SFIO had helped write into the constitution of the Fourth Republic did not provide enough for the African colonies. More globally, the issue of independence from colonial rule had become a prominent topic throughout Africa and Asia. Many British and UN Trusteeship colonies in Africa had begun the process towards independence in the mid-1940s. Ghana constantly served as an example giving rise to demands by political movements in French West Africa throughout

10858-497: The right-wing terrorised and capital flight destabilised the government while the divided Radicals did not all support their Socialist allies. The monetary crisis, also due to the refusal of Germany to pay the World War I reparations , caused parliamentary instability. Édouard Herriot, Paul Painlevé and Aristide Briand succeeded each other as prime minister until 1926, when the French right came back to power with Raymond Poincaré . The newly elected Communist deputies also opposed

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11036-493: The 11th century, the Empire of Ghana became the first kingdom to dominate the area, later succeeded by the Mali Empire . The kafu (chiefdom) of Bamako was founded around 1650 by the Niare family, perhaps associated with a Soninke man named Bamba Sanogo. The Toure and Drave families, mostly clerics and merchants, were also prominent in early Bamako. It was a client state of the Segou Empire . The Scottish explorer Mungo Park visited Bamako in 1806 during his exploration of

11214-426: The 1880s, the FTSF saw their first electoral success, winning control of some municipalities. Jean Allemane and some FTSF members criticised the focus on electoral goals. In 1890, they created the Revolutionary Socialist Workers' Party (POSR). Their main objective was to win power through the tactic of the general strike . Besides these groups, some politicians declared themselves as independent socialists outside of

11392-423: The 1950s. During the same period, violent anti-colonial struggles reached significant levels in many other French colonies: including the Malagasy Uprising in Madagascar and violence in the First Indochina War in Vietnam. Within the context of a realignment between France and the colonies, one of the elected deputies pushing most significantly for increased autonomy of the colonies was Félix Houphouët-Boigny of

11570-467: The 1957 Territorial Assembly elections, the RDA gained clear majorities in Guinea, Chad, the Ivory Coast, and, under the new leadership of Modibo Keïta, the French Sudan. Of the 474 seats up for election, 236 went to RDA politicians (49.79%), 62 went to the Socialists, 58 went to the African Convention, and the rest were split between national parties without regional influence in Mauritania and Dahomey. From this position of power, Houphouët-Boigny called for

11748-436: The 2007–2008 period. This continued growth was offset by cargo flights' decline of 16.75% in 2007, and 3.93% in 2008. The highest frequency route is on the Bamako-Dakar sector with 29 weekly non-stop connections. Domestic flights also serve Mali's regional capitals Kayes , Mopti , Timbuktu , Sikasso , Gao , and Kidal . Bamako Senou International Airport is managed by Aéroports du Mali (ADM). Its operations are overseen by

11926-414: The 800 delegates who did arrive included few socialist moderates and instead was dominated by those who sought to align the party with the communists. Reflecting on the way this shaped the party, Houphouët-Boigny recalled in 1952 that "If Lamine and Senghor had been at Bamako, we would have written another page of history." The conference also got off to a rocky start as a result of the different factions in

12104-481: The African colonies earning nine seats in the French legislative elections of 1956 (from only having 3 in the period of 1951-1955). The IOM saw the largest losses going from having fourteen deputies to only seven. The remaining seats saw six deputies go to persons allied with the Gaullist Party , four deputies allied with the Socialist party, and two who affiliated with Catholic conservatives (Apithy and Barthélemy Boganda ). The RDA legislators were now more than half of

12282-407: The Commune III. Commune IV has a population of 300,085 people (2009) and covers 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi). It is bounded to the east by Commune III, north, west by Kati Cercle and south by the left bank of the Niger River. Commune IV consists of eight neighborhoods: Taliko, Lassa, Sibiribougou, Djikoroni Para, Sébénikoro, Hamdallaye, Lafiabougou and Kalabambougou. Commune V has

12460-432: The Communist ministers were excluded from the cabinet led by Socialist Paul Ramadier . Anti-communism prevented the French left from forming a united front. The Communists had taken control of the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) union. This was relatively weakened by the 1948 creation of a social-democratic trade union Workers' Force (FO) which was supported by the American Central Intelligence Agency . This split

12638-518: The Communist party (and particularly Aimé Césaire from Martinique) which relied significantly on their voting block. This bond was further strengthened when the coalition government named Popular Republican Movement politician Paul Coste-Floret as the Ministre de la France d'Outre-mer governing the colonies. Coste-Floret began an era of very rigid policy towards the colonies and particularly towards movements perceived to be pushing for independence. However, two changes served to exacerbate divisions within

12816-565: The Communists in France with d'Arboussier arguing that the alliance was necessary but a number of other members questioning the alliance. However the issue was not resolved at the second party congress. Unlike other parts of the French empire (notably Madagascar and Indochina), independence movements in French Africa had remained largely peaceful. This changed in 1949 when French authorities used divisions between Houphouët-Boigny and other politicians to begin active and violent suppression of

12994-622: The Forties, the SFIO was partly responsible for setting up the welfare state institutions of the Liberation period and helping to bring about France's economic recovery. In May 1946, the Socialist-led government of Félix Gouin passed a law that generalised social security, making it obligatory for the whole population. A number of progressive reforms were also introduced during Paul Ramadier's tenure as prime minister in 1947, including

13172-858: The French National Assembly , and some limited autonomy for local councils. The 1946 French elections in June largely split the legislature between a coalition of the Popular Republican Movement ( French : Mouvement Républicain Populaire or MRP) the French Communist Party ( French : Parti Communiste Français or PCF), and the French Section of the Workers' International ( French : Section Française de l'Internationale Ouvrière or SFIO). This split meant that each party needed to court African deputies to

13350-617: The French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) under pressure from the Second International . The new SFIO party was hemmed between the middle-class liberals of the Radical Party and the revolutionary syndicalists who dominated the trade unions . The General Confederation of Labour (CGT) proclaimed its independence from political parties at this time and the non-distinction between political and industrial aims. In addition, some CGT members refused to join

13528-436: The French Sudan colony which was hosting the conference. When Houphouët-Boigny, Apithy, and d'Arboussier arrived on the morning of 18 October at the airport in Bamako (in a plane which was formerly the private plane of Hermann Göring and was provided by the communist party) they were greeted by a hostile Sissoko, worried the party would give support to other French Sudanese political leaders and weaken his leadership. Sissoko, as

13706-644: The French Sudan, who had left the RDA right after the meeting, and Diallo from Guinea. Because the second college of the National Assembly was not directly elected, the Socialist party was able to use political strategies to secure 12 of the 20 seats from West and Equatorial Africa in the 1947 election (including making Moutet himself a representative from the French Sudan). When the RDA members arrived in Paris, they were provided significant support and advice from

13884-437: The French colonists in the colony, used this opportunity to foment general unrest between the RDA party and its opponents and then used the unrest to justify the arrest of RDA members and violent suppression of party activities. This pattern of partisan outbursts, French violence against RDA supporters at these incidents, and the mass arrests of RDA supporters continued throughout 1949 and into early 1950. Although an arrest warrant

14062-509: The French parties resulted in antagonism between their African allies. The rise of the IOM meant that the RDA no longer had party affiliates and any significant presence in Togo or French Dahomey, and weakened colony affiliates elsewhere. At the same time that the IOM was increasing in strength, the Socialist party in Senegal saw a split between Guèye and Senghor with the later creating a new party,

14240-405: The French state. Second, it settled a dispute in Niger with multiple parties claiming to be the RDA affiliate: supporting Hamani Diori 's party over that of Djibo Bakary . The party building activities set the RDA up to perform well in the upcoming election. Without the active suppression of earlier elections and the end of the temporary IOM-RDA rapprochement, the RDA became the largest party from

14418-607: The IOM), Upper Volta, Cameroon, and Ubangi-Shari while the RDA would be the representative of the alliance in French Sudan, Ivory Coast, Chad, and the Middle Congo. As both had a member of the National Assembly from Niger, the agreement was to keep that colony split. After this rapprochement between the two parties, the RDA broke with the Communist party and in December 1950 voted for the government of René Pleven . This would begin

14596-535: The Ivory Coast, as the wealthiest colony in French West Africa, opposed the proposal from Keïta that the colonies should become independent together as an African federation. Mortimer claims that the key person holding the party together and working towards a compromise had been Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly who died suddenly on 7 September, thus sealing the fate of the party. The result was that the RDA, as

14774-633: The Left but in the East". At the beginning of the 1950s, the disagreements with its governmental partners about denominational schools and the colonial problem explained a more critical attitude of the SFIO membership. In 1954, the party was deeply divided about the European Defense Community . Against the instructions of the party lead, the half of the parliamentary group voted against the project and contributed to its failure. Progressively,

14952-552: The Malian Ministry of Equipment and Transports. Today, with the new administrative arrangement, the territory of Mali will henceforth comprise twenty (20) Regions instead of eight (08), plus the District of Bamako which will henceforth comprise ten (10) urban communes instead of six (06). [4] Much of the transportation is either by the Niger River, or by paved roads linking Bamako to other major urban areas. Navigating

15130-582: The Motel de Bamako, and west by the Farako River and Avenue Cheick Zayed El Mahyan Ben Sultan with the neighborhood of ACI-2000. Commune III is the administrative and commercial center of Bamako. It accommodates in particular the two largest markets in the capital, the Grand Market and Dibida. Twenty neighborhoods make up this commune and the villages of Koulouninko and Sirakorodounfing were attached to

15308-419: The National Assembly in order to further their legislative causes. The SFIO was the only party with actual party branches established in the African colonies, while the Communist party had established Groupes d’Etudes Communistes (Communist Study Groups) in many of the capitals of the African colonies in 1943 and the MRP had various networks arranged by the church. Combined with the need for African deputies by

15486-591: The National Assembly stopped going to sessions because they were largely ignored, following the French Army shooting in Dimbokro, Senghor led much of the African membership to demand an inquiry into the incident. The French government secretly informed RDA politicians in March that it had no intentions of implementing the 1 February decree banning all activities by the RDA and gradually the tension relaxed. Following

15664-460: The National Assembly, disappeared in the Ivory Coast. Upset by this event, the RDA held a protest in Dimbokro which resulted in a French army shooting of 13 Ivorian civilians. The next day (February 1), the French declared all RDA meetings illegal throughout all of French West Africa. The end result of the year of violence was over 50 dead and 3000 RDA partisans imprisoned. Although RDA members of

15842-750: The Niger River. In recent years, Bamako has seen significant urban development, with the construction of modern buildings, shopping malls, and infrastructure projects aimed at improving the quality of life for its residents. The city is home to many notable institutions such as the University of Bamako , the National Museum of Mali , the Mali National Zoo, the Grand Mosque of Bamako , and the Modibo Keita International Airport . The buildings of Bamako have

16020-618: The Niger River. He estimated that the city at the time held 6000 inhabitants, similar to many other commercial settlements across West Africa at the time. In February 1882, Samory Toure defeated the French at the Battle of Samaya outside Kinieran . Faced with Toure's expanding Wassoulou Empire , some of the leaders of the Dyula community in Bamako began making overtures to join the anti-French alliance. The French commander Gustave Borgnis-Desbordes , eager to possess this key strategic location on

16198-420: The Niger, rushed a force to establish a fort there on 1 February 1883. Kebe Brema, Samory's brother, led a force to Bamako to lure the French out of their defenses. They fought two battles at Woyo Wayanko creek in early April, with Kebe Brema winning the first but eventually being forced to retreat. In 1904 a railroad was built connecting Bamako to Kayes , and the city began growing quickly upon being named

16376-682: The PRS to form the Socialist Republican Union (USR). The Cartel was again the victim of parliamentary instability while various scandals led to the 6 February 1934 riots organised by far-right leagues. The Radical Édouard Daladier resigned on the next day, handing out the power to conservative Gaston Doumergue . It was the first time during the French Third Republic that a government had to resign because of street pressure. Following 6 February 1934 crisis, which

16554-507: The RDA in the colony. The catalyst for the chaos was the removal of Étienne Djaument by Houphouët-Boigny from the RDA in early 1949. Djaument responded by forming a rival party, the Bloc Démocratique Eburnén. At the first meeting of this rival congress, supporters of Houphouët-Boigny responded with protests or rioting and in the resulting clash one person was killed and a number were injured. The French authorities, and

16732-499: The RDA vote against the legislation. Despite this opposition, the legislation passed and Territorial Assembly elections were held in March 1957. For these elections, the IOM had reformed itself into the African Convention ( French : Convention Africaine ), in order to try to have a larger domestic base. The only other regional party of significance for these elections was a newly focused set of Socialist politicians. In

16910-979: The RDA was able to win 10 seats for the National Assembly: with members being Houphouët-Boigny, Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly , and Zinda Kaboré from the Ivory Coast (which included the Upper Volta at this point), Apithy represented Dahomey (present-day Benin ), Tchicaya represented the Middle Congo (present-day Republic of the Congo ), Konate represented French Sudan, Hamani Diori represented Niger, Gabriel Lisette represented Chad, Martin Aku from Togo, and Mamba Sano from Guinea. The Socialists won six seats with continued support in Senegal (where Guèye and Senghor were both elected to positions) and from other longtime supporters like Sissoko and an associate from

17088-401: The RDA, the Socialist block, and MRP politicians. However, the IOM also saw a change in leadership as Apithy was replaced with Louis-Paul Aujoulat as a result of dissatisfaction by the Upper Volta members who wanted their votes cast to support the MRP government of Schuman. These changes brought the IOM closer to the MRP while the RDA remained tied to the Communist party. The antagonisms between

17266-551: The RDA. His importance to the RDA's wider objectives was so large that he was named the head of the RDA coalition in the National Assembly in 1953. In the 1955 meeting of the Coordinating Council the party similarly consolidated around the new party identity. First, they decided that Ruben Um Nyobé 's Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) was no longer affiliated with the RDA because of its radical positions against

17444-632: The Radical Party amongst the left-wing movement and opposed the colonial wars. The SFIO received its lowest vote in the 1960s. It was discredited by the contradictory policies of its leaders during the Fourth Republic . Youth and the intellectual circles preferred the PSU and workers the PCF. The French Fifth Republic's constitution had been tailored by Charles de Gaulle to satisfy his needs and his Gaullism managed to gather enough people from

17622-690: The Radical Party to form the coalition that would win the 1936 French legislative election and bring about the Popular Front. In June 1934, Leon Trotsky proposed the French Turn into the SFIO, the origin of the strategy of entrism . The Trotskyist leaders of the Communist League (the French section of the International Left Opposition ) were divided over the issue of entering the SFIO. Raymond Molinier

17800-482: The SFIO because they considered it extremist. They created the Republican-Socialist Party (PRS). In contrast to other European socialist parties, the SFIO was a decentralised organization. Its national and executive institutions were weakened by the strong autonomy of its members and local levels of the party. Consequently, the function of secretary general, held by Louis Dubreuilh until 1918,

17978-489: The SFIO was banned, and many of its members took part in the Resistance . The SFIO was part of France's tripartisme government from 1944 to 1947, but after the war faced a resurgent Communist Party, which achieved a higher share of the vote in every election for the next three decades. From 1956 to 1957, SFIO leader Guy Mollet served as prime minister, but the party continued its period of decline and disunity. In 1969,

18156-458: The SFIO, in order to block the opposition of the Communists on the one hand, and of the Gaullists on the other. Besides, in spite of Léon Blum 's support, the party leader Daniel Mayer was defeated in aid of Guy Mollet . If the new secretary general was supported by the left wing of the party, he was very hostile to any form of alliance with the PCF. He said that "the Communist Party is not on

18334-536: The Senegalese Democratic Bloc ( French : Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais , BDS), which he aligned with the IOM movement. This split made the alignment of parties in the National Assembly much more complex and allowed options for new groupings between the different factions. By 1948, the RDA had active parties as a primary faction in six of the colonies of French Africa: Ivory Coast, Middle Congo, Ubangi-Shari , Chad, Guinea, and in French Sudan. At

18512-616: The Socialists. By mid-1958, French Africa along the Atlantic had developed largely a two-party system. With the dissolution of the French Fourth Republic , the RDA became a key party shaping the colonial relationship that would exist in the next French state. DeGaulle appointed Houphouët-Boigny to assist in developing the specific laws for the new constitution which would govern the colonies. Houphouët-Boigny pushed for

18690-464: The UDSR which allowed Houphouët-Boigny to become a prominent French minister after the 1956 elections. As minister, Houphouët-Boigny crafted the 1958 option to the colonies to vote for immediate independence or to join a community linking the colonies with France but with increased autonomy. The vote, however, divided the RDA over the issues of independence and federalism and the party largely split. Despite

18868-549: The breakup of the party after the 1958 vote, the national parties and the connections established regionally through the party remained important. The RDA parties in Guinea and Mali , which were the dominant parties in those countries during and after independence, joined together with the former British colony of Ghana to form the Union of African States . In contrast, the Ivory Coast , Niger and Dahomey were joined together with

19046-523: The capital of French Sudan in 1908. The cercle of Mali at this time had around 160 000 inhabitants living in 4-500 villages. A railroad connecting Bamako to Dakar was completed in 1923. Mali gained independence from France in April 1960, and the Republic of Mali was later established. At this time, Bamako had a population of around 160,000. During the 1960s, the country became socialist and Bamako

19224-479: The capital of Mali ) for a meeting to establish a regional political party. In addition to Houphouët-Boigny and Guèye, the leaders who signed this manifesto were: Jean-Félix Tchicaya from French Congo , Sourou-Migan Apithy from French Dahomey , Fily Dabo Sissoko from French Sudan , Yacine Diallo from Guinea , and Gabriel d'Arboussier from Senegal. Although he did not sign it at the time of its composition, Léopold Sédar Senghor from Senegal openly endorsed

19402-469: The colonies had few Africans who were considered citizens of France, no elections, and suppression of most political movements. With the establishment of the French Union ( French : Union française ) in 1946 all of the colonies of French Africa (except for the trusteeship of Togo ) became overseas departments which would provide to the colonies expanded citizenship, the right to elect members to

19580-579: The colonies linked to France but also provide some degree of self-rule, or to declare independence immediately. The RDA was divided on this position. The leaders with the most linkages to the trade-unions, mainly Touré in Guinea, generally believed that it was best for the French colonies to declare independence immediately. Houphouët-Boigny and others, instead, pushed for joining the French Community and remaining very close with France. In addition,

19758-458: The colonies should enter into a federal relationship with France remaining the center of political life. Touré and Keïta, the younger RDA leaders, in contrast pushed for an independent African federation. The situation led to many embarrassing political votes for Houphouët-Boigny and eventually the adoption of a compromise position that the party would commit itself to working for democratization of any federal arrangements which existed. When many of

19936-399: The communists and joining the small Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance (UDSR). Following a number of years of electoral defeats and French repression of the party, the RDA returned to prominence in regional politics by performing very well in the 1956 and 1957 elections throughout the colonies. The RDA became the largest political party in French Africa and the largest group in

20114-403: The conference. The result was that the resulting party was exclusively supported by the Communist Party, a situation which shaped the early positions of the party and its political opportunities. The leader of the party from this first conference until the very end was Félix Houphouët-Boigny of the Ivory Coast . Because of the withdrawal of the socialists from the party, the RDA was initially in

20292-500: The contents of the letter. The congress was held from 18 to 21 October 1946. However, the start of the conference was undermined as a result of French Socialist opposition and conflict between some of the members. The Communist party offered full support to the meeting, which only led the other parties to approach the meeting with suspicion. Most importantly the Socialist Minister of colonial affairs, Marius Moutet , viewed

20470-482: The country. The service sector is the most developed, and the city thrives in crafts and trade. The traditional commercial center of Bamako was located to the north of the river, and contained within a triangle bounded by Avenue du Fleuve, Rue Baba Diarra, and Boulevard du Peuple. This area contains the Marché Rose and Street Market. The downtown area is highly congested, polluted, and expensive, and urbanization

20648-433: The economy that had remained in public hands even after the overthrow of the socialist government in 1968. Students, even children, played an increasing role in the protest marches in Bamako, and homes and businesses of those associated with the regime were ransacked by crowds. On 22 March 1991, a large-scale protest march in central Bamako was violently suppressed, with estimates of those killed reaching 300. Four days later,

20826-464: The election. In the same election, the IOM gained most consistently becoming the largest political party in Africa. Although electoral results showed significant support of the IOM over the RDA, the IOM remained largely a legislative coalition in Paris with limited support as a regional party in Africa. The RDA, in contrast, continued its efforts to build broad political bases and build the national RDA parties throughout Africa. The result of these efforts

21004-422: The end to the chaos in the Ivory Coast, Houphouët-Boigny began to see the alliance with the Communist party in France as counterproductive to his larger goals. He began meetings simultaneously with both the IOM legislators and the radical wing of the RDA, led by d'Arboussier who he convinced to resign his position in the party. On 9 August 1950, the RDA and the IOM entered into a secret accord aiming to bring together

21182-773: The end, the BDS won both seats allocated to Senegal. In 1956, another SFIO splinter group appeared in Senegal, the Socialist Movement of the Senegalese Union . In 1957, the history of the SFIO in West Africa came to an end. The federations of SFIO in Cameroon, Chad, Moyen-Congo, Sudan, Gabon, Guinea, Niger, Oubangui-Chari and Senegal all met in Conakry from 11 January to 13 January 1957. At that meeting it

21360-430: The extension of social security to government workers the introduction of a national minimum wage and the granting from April 1947 onwards of allowances to all aged persons in need. Various measures were also introduced during the SFIO's time in office to improve health and safety in the workplace. An Order of July 1947 prescribed the installation of showers for the use of staff "employed on dirty or unhealthy work" and

21538-614: The federation, which they considered too moderate, and founded the French Workers' Party (POF). The FTSF led by Paul Brousse was defined as possibilist because it advocated gradual reforms whereas the POF promoted Marxism. At the same time, Édouard Vaillant and the heirs of Louis Auguste Blanqui founded the Central Revolutionary Committee (CRC) which represented the French revolutionary tradition. In

21716-534: The ferocious repression of strikes by Radical prime minister Georges Clemenceau after 1906, following the creation of a Minister of Labour, a post held by PRS leader René Viviani . During the July 1914 international crisis, the party was ideologically torn between its membership in the Socialist International and the wave of patriotism within France. The assassination of Jaurès on 31 July 1914

21894-494: The first Cartel, refusing to support bourgeois governments. The second Cartel acceded to power in 1932, but this time the SFIO only gave their support without the participation of the Radicals which allied themselves with right-wing radicals. After years of internal feuds, the reformist wing of the party led by Marcel Déat and Pierre Renaudel split from the SFIO in November 1933 to form a neosocialist movement and merged with

22072-465: The host of the conference, refused to open up the discussion. Eventually pressure from within his own political party and from the leaders assembled led him to agree to open the meeting at 4:00 PM (although he insisted on calling it "your congress" and not "our congress" throughout his opening speech). The conference agreed to a few different issues. First, they agreed to form a regional political alliance among many of their different movements. Rather than

22250-569: The institutions (parliamentary system or presidential government). The SFIO re-emerged and participated in the three-parties alliance with the PCF and the Christian-democratic Popular Republican Movement (MRP). This coalition led the social policy inspired by National Council of Resistance 's programme, installing the main elements of the French welfare state , nationalising banks and some industrial companies. While serving in government during

22428-566: The issue many times and when his efforts to end the coalition failed, he formed a new regional political party in September 1948, the Indépendants d'Outre-Mer (IOM). The IOM included Apithy, the three new members from the Upper Volta, and three other members from throughout West and Equatorial Africa. The formation of the IOM coincided precisely with the naming of a new Prime Minister, Robert Schuman , to present his cabinet in what would be

22606-573: The land obtained compensation for the improvements that they made on the land. The sharecroppers also had the right to join a marketing cooperative, while their conflicts with owners were to be resolved at arbitration tribunals to which both sides elected an equal number of representatives. In the early years of the French Fourth Republic, the SFIO played an instrumental role in securing appropriations for 1,000 additional state elementary school teachers and in bringing in bills to extend

22784-417: The left and the right to govern without the other parties' help. Furthermore, the SFIO hesitated between allying with the non-Gaullist centre-right (as advocated by Gaston Defferre ) and reconciliation with the Communists. Mollet refused to choose. The SFIO supported François Mitterrand to the 1965 French presidential election even if he was not a member of the party. The SFIO and the Radicals then created

22962-453: The main French political parties, many African leaders believed that the pathway to improved conditions for the colonies lay largely in working with the French government rather than leading revolutionary movements. The result was a marriage of convenience linking the French political parties with newly elected African deputies. While the SFIO had the most institutionalized linkages to African political leaders prior to 1946, many leaders felt that

23140-543: The majority of the Socialists' elected members decided in Blum's words to "keep the old house" and remain within the Second International. Marcel Sembat , Léon Blum and Albert Thomas refused to align themselves with Moscow. Paul Faure became secretary general of the SFIO, but its most influential figure was Blum, leader of the parliamentary group and director of a new party paper Le Populaire . L'Humanité ,

23318-406: The meeting as a threat to his colonial policies and thus instructed his allies not to attend and for colonial authorities to do what they could to hinder the meeting. Moutet convinced some of the signatories of the document to renounce the manifesto and persuaded Guèye, Senghor, and Diallo not to attend. In addition, the colonial authorities confiscated Tchicaya's funds for travel. The result was that

23496-440: The meeting) as vice-chairmen. Second, as the parties' main activity would be in the National Assembly, there were active discussions about what coalitions to form with French political parties. The debate largely focused on whether to form a permanent coalition with the Communist party or to align with them while they served RDA interests. The group agreed to compromise language that the party would form coalitions with whichever party

23674-405: The membership of the RDA. First, in May 1947 the coalition between the MRP, the SFIO, and the Communists had dissolved. It is important to note that this dissolution coincides with American financing of Europe, including France, in the post-World War II period. The United States warned European nations that they would not receive financial support to reconstruct their nations if communist parties were

23852-749: The modern-day Socialist Party . Mollet passed on the leadership to Alain Savary . The SFIO suffered a split in Senegal in 1934 as Lamine Guèye broke away and formed the Senegalese Socialist Party (PSS). As the Senegalese Popular Front committee as formed, the SFIO and the PSS branch cooperated. In 1937, a joint list of both the SFIO and the PSS won the municipal elections in Saint-Louis . Maître Vidal became mayor of

24030-560: The museum's collections. On 30 March 1956, the National Museum moved into a new cemented structure, created by architect Jean-Loup Pivin from traditional Malian designs. Since the 1996 election of former archaeologist Alpha Oumar Konaré to Mali's presidency, the museum's funding has increased considerably, becoming among the best in West Africa. The museum often hosts part of the biannual African Photography Encounters , photography festival held in Bamako since 1994. Also of note

24208-458: The national laic school system to kindergarten and nursery school levels. During the spring of 1946, the SFIO reluctantly supported the constitutional plans of the PCF. They were rejected by a referendum . The party supported the second proposal prepared with the PCF and the MRP which was approved in an October 1946 referendum . However, the coalition split in May 1947. Because of the Cold War ,

24386-410: The new boundaries of Communes III and IV. Each commune is administered by the municipal council and a mayor elected from among its members. The last elections were held on 26 April 2009 and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali hold the majority of representatives for the communes. Commune I has a population of 335,407 people (2009) and covers 35 square kilometres (14 sq mi). It is bounded to

24564-411: The north by the rural commune of Djalakorodji ( Kati Cercle ), west by the Commune II, north-east by the rural commune of Sangarebougou (Kati Cercle), on the east by the rural commune of Gabakourou and south by the Niger River. Nine neighborhoods comprise this commune: Banconi, Boulkassombougou, Djelibougou, Doumanzana Fadjiguila, Sotuba Korofina North, and South Korofina Sikoroni. Commune II has

24742-406: The other parties in West and Equatorial Africa proposed another attempt at rapprochement between the parties, the RDA responded with little enthusiasm. This eventually led to the creation of the African Regroupment Party ( French : Parti du Regroupement Africain , PRA) which would serve as a rival to the RDA between the various other parties: including bringing together the African Convention and

24920-408: The participation of the socialist Alexandre Millerand in Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau 's cabinet, which included the Marquis de Gallifet , who had directed the bloody repression of the Paris Commune. In 1902, Guesde and Vaillant founded the Socialist Party of France while Jaurès, Allemane and the possibilists formed the French Socialist Party . During the 1905 Globe Congress, the two groups merged into

25098-401: The party rose from 10 percent in the 1906 election to 17 percent in 1914 , and during World War I it participated in France's national unity government , sacrificing its ideals of internationalist class struggle in favor of national patriotism , as did most other members of the Second International. In 1920, the SFIO split over views on the 1917 Russian Revolution ; the majority became

25276-451: The party. The Matignon Accords (1936) set up collective bargaining , and removed all obstacles to union organisation . The terms included a blanket 7–12% wage increase and allowed for paid vacation (two weeks) and a 40-hour work week. The eight-hour day had been established following the war of 1914–1918 of attrition and its mobilisation of industrial capacities. Within a year, Blum's government collapsed over economic policy (as during

25454-452: The political parties. They tended to have moderate opinions. In the 1890s, the Dreyfus affair caused debate in the socialist movement. While Jules Guesde believed socialists should not intervene in this internal conflict of the bourgeoisie, Jean Jaurès urged the socialist movement to join the republican movement's struggle to defend republican values. In 1899, another debate polarised the socialist groups, pitted Guesde against Jaures over

25632-430: The present Socialist Party of France was formed from a merger of the SFIO and smaller parties. Between 1909 and 1920, the SFIO published the newspaper L'Humanité . In French politics, it affiliated with the Left Cartel (1924–1934), the Popular Front (1936–1938), the Tripartisme (1944–1947), and the Third Force (1947–1958). Internationally, the party was first affiliated with the Second International (1905–1916), then

25810-399: The prevalence of waste in Bamako's streets, including informal dumping sites near a school, citizens have taken to protesting, marching and it has even escalated to the point of property damage. The District of Bamako has been divided into six communes (distinguished by numbers, and not named) since Ordinance No. 78-34/CNLM of 18 August 1978, and amended by a law in February 1982 establishing

25988-416: The previous party newspaper, was controlled by the founders of the SFIC. However, Frossard later resigned from the SFIC and rejoined the SFIO in January 1923. One year after the Tours Congress, the CGT trade union made the same split. Those who became Communists created the Confédération générale du travail unitaire (United General Confederation of Labour; CGTU) which fused again with the CGT in 1936 during

26166-503: The regional RDA at some point. Some of the parties directly integrated RDA into their names, and these names remained even after the regional coalition ended. The RDA maintained ties with a number of parties in France and in West Africa. Brief rapprochements with African parties never formed into solid coalitions, but the relationships with some French political parties lasted for many years. These included formal coalitions, brief partnerships, and loose affiliations. In addition,

26344-418: The return of Charles de Gaulle and the establishment of the French Fifth Republic . Moreover, the SFIO was divided about the repressive policy of Guy Mollet in Algeria and his support to De Gaulle's return. If the party returned in opposition in 1959, it could not prevent the constitution of another Unified Socialist Party (PSU) in 1960, joined the next year by Pierre Mendès France , who was trying to anchor

26522-414: The river is possible from Koulikoro to Mopti and Gao. The bush taxi is one of the main modes of transport. Bamako is situated on both sides of the Niger River and three bridges connect the two banks: the Bridge of Martyrs completed in 1960 and renamed in memory of protesters killed in March 1991 by the regime of Moussa Traoré , the King Fahd Bridge , named after the Saudi Arabian donor, and a third bridge,

26700-405: The river. By contrast, small market gardens and launching points or river canoes lie along the river front. The Cité Administrative (Administrative City) is a complex of buildings located just west of the northern end of the King Fahd Bridge. The complex was begun in 2003 by then President Konaré with the help of funding from the government of Libya. The 10-hectare (25-acre) Cité Administrative

26878-399: The same time, Marcel Déat and some neosocialists who had split from the SFIO in 1933, participated to the Vichy regime and supported Pétain's policy of collaboration. Paul Faure , secretary general of the SFIO from 1920 to 1940, approved of this policy too. He was excluded from the party when it was reconstituted in 1944. In total, 14 of the 17 SFIO ministers who had been in government before

27056-409: The same time, it was actively suppressed in Upper Volta and French Sudan by the opposition parties. In response to these shifting political environments, the RDA held its second party congress in January 1949 in Treichville , Ivory Coast. The congress appointed Houphouët-Boigny as the President of the party and named d'Arboussier as the General Secretary. The main issue for debate was the alliance with

27234-435: The socialists' victory while Marceau Pivert cried "Tout est possible!" ("Everything is possible!"), but Pivert would later split and create the Workers and Peasants' Socialist Party (PSOP), with historian Daniel Guérin also being a member of the latter. Trotsky advised the GBL to break with the SFIO, leading to a confused departure by the Trotskyists from the SFIO in early 1936, which drew only about six hundred people from

27412-411: The three absent Upper Volta members) against the cabinet. Schuman lost by six votes and was replaced by Radical Party politician Henri Queuille . Queille made a point of meeting with Apithy before the presentation of his cabinet and answered all of his questions in his first speech to the National Assembly. In 1948, the IOM increased its membership in the French National Assembly by adding members from

27590-421: The total membership of the UDSR party, which actually resulted in the party changing its name to the UDSR-RDA during this period. Because of this, when the IOM tried once again to form an alliance with the RDA, they were rebuffed because the RDA had a solid alliance with significant power and the IOM wanted to remain with the MRP. In addition, because of the important role of the RDA within the UDSR, Houphouët-Boigny

27768-438: The town. The congress of the PSS held 4–5 June 1938 decided to reunify with the SFIO. Following that decision, the 11–12 June 1938 congress of the new federation of SFIO was held in Thiès . In 1948, Léopold Sédar Senghor broke away from the Senegalese federation of SFIO and formed the Senegalese Democratic Bloc (BDS). During the 1951 French legislative election campaign, violence broke out between BDS and SFIO activists. In

27946-420: The two groups in the French National Assembly, based primarily on the RDA ending their coalition with the Communist party. In domestic politics in the colonies, it was decided that the IOM and the RDA would largely retain power in the colonies which they controlled and thus prevent political conflict. The IOM was to be the main political party of the union in Guinea, Dahomey, Togo, Senegal (as Senghor had now joined

28124-413: The two gunmen during the seven-hour siege. In a series of attacks on 17 September 2024 , a group of gunmen from Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM), an al-Qaeda affiliate, attacked a military training school, killing many gendarme and trainees, and set aircraft ablaze at the international airport . At least 77 people were killed. This was the first jihadist attack on Bamako since 2016. JNIM

28302-414: The war were expelled for collaboration. After the liberation of France in 1944, the PCF became the largest left-wing party and the project to create a labour -based political party rallying the non-Communist Resistance failed in part due to the disagreements opposing notably the Socialists and the Christian Democrats about laïcité and the conflict with Charles de Gaulle about the new organisation of

28480-405: The whole of the socialist movement saw as a fascist conspiracy to overthrow the Republic, a goal pursued by the royalist Action Française and other far-right leagues, anti-fascist organisations were created. The Comintern abandoned its social-fascism directive of social democracy in favor of united front directives. The French Communist Party (PCF) got closer to the SFIO, the USR and

28658-513: The years of the French Fourth Republic , the SFIO was also active in pressing for changes in areas such as education and agriculture. Through the efforts of the SFIO, a comprehensive Farm Law was passed in 1946 which provided that sharecroppers had the right to renew their options at the expiration of their leaseholds and that the owner could repossess the land only if he or his children worked it. In addition, sharecroppers could acquire ownership at low interest rates while those who were forced to leave

28836-448: Was a long standing informal waste collection system carried out by "Economic interest groups." Before the privatization these independent groups collected waste throughout the city. After privatization, not only did many waste collectors become unemployed but the corporation that they enlisted to do the job was collecting only 30% of Bamako's waste. The garbage build up creates toxic living conditions and it only worsens when it rains. Due to

29014-429: Was a major socialist political party in France which was founded in 1905 and succeeded in 1969 by the present Socialist Party . The SFIO was founded in 1905 as the French representative to the Second International , merging the Marxist Socialist Party of France led by Jules Guesde and the social-democratic French Socialist Party led by Jean Jaurès , who became the SFIO's leading figure. Electoral support for

29192-420: Was a setback for the pacifist wing of the party and contributed to the massive increase in support for the wartime government of national unity . Participation in World War I caused divisions within the party which were accentuated after 1917. Furthermore, internal disagreements appeared about the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. In 1919, the anti-war socialists were heavily defeated in elections by

29370-413: Was able to become a Minister within the French cabinet, the first representative from French West Africa or French Equatorial Africa to achieve this. Further empowering the RDA during this time was a shift in the French colonial administration not wanting to see additional colonial violence like had been experienced in Madagascar, Indochina, and Algeria. During this time, the French political parties passed

29548-559: Was completed in 2010 and houses many of the offices of the government. Bamako has experienced staggering population growth. In 1884, it had only 2,500 inhabitants, 8,000 in 1908, 37,000 in 1945, and 100,000 in 1960. Today, the population is over 42 times what it was in 1960, with a population of 4,227,569 recorded at the 2022 census, and continues to attract a rural population in search of work. This uncontrolled growth has caused significant difficulties in terms of traffic, sanitation (including access to safe water), and pollution. Bamako hosts

29726-437: Was decided that the African federations would break with their French parent organisation and form the African Socialist Movement (MSA), an independent pan-African party. The Senegalese section of MSA was the Senegalese Party of Socialist Action (PSAS) and it was led by Lamine Guèye . The first meeting of the leading committee of MSA met in Dakar from 9 February to 10 February 1957 the same year. Two SFIO delegates attended

29904-408: Was essentially administrative and the real political leader was Jean Jaurès , president of the parliamentary group and director of L'Humanité , the party's newspaper, Unlike the PRS, SFIO members did not participate in Left Bloc governments, although they supported a part of its policy, notably the laïcité , based on the 1905 Act of separation between church and state. However, they criticized

30082-400: Was issued for Houphouët-Boigny, he was able to use immunity as a member of the National Assembly to avoid arrest. In December 1949, the RDA and its supporters began a general strike involving many different groups of workers, a boycott of European goods sold in the country, and a hunger strike in the prisons. The tension came to a head on 28 January 1950 when Victor Biaka Boda , an RDA member of

30260-408: Was killed and the Mossi chiefs in Upper Volta, who had renounced the RDA and connected with the MRP, were able to appoint Nazi Boni to fill the position. These two factors combined to make many of the National Assembly delegates, particularly those with large Catholic constituencies in their colonies, feel uneasy about the coalition with the Communist party. Apithy, from Dahomey, in particular raised

30438-465: Was led by former CGT secretary general Léon Jouhaux , who was granted the Nobel Peace Prize three years later. The teachers' union ( Federation for National Education , FEN) chose to gain autonomy towards the two confederations in order to conserve its unity, but SFIO syndicalists took the control of the FEN which became the main training ground of the SFIO party. A Third Force coalition was constituted by centre-right and centre-left parties, including

30616-435: Was most useful for African issues. Third, although it was briefly mentioned, the conference agreed not to call for complete independence of the colonies, but instead for an end to the unequal colonial relationship with France. Although the party was to be anti-colonial and focus on increased autonomy for the French colonies, they were not advocating secession or withdrawal from France as an immediate goal. Although they only had

30794-586: Was opened on 14 February 1953, under the direction of Ukrainian archeologist Yuriy Shumovskyi . Shumovskyi had worked in the museum for nine years, gathering half (nearly 3,000) of today's finds. The museum also houses indoor and outdoor exhibitions of works by local artists. With the independence of the Republic of Mali in 1960, the Sudanese Museum became the National Museum of Mali, with the new objectives of promoting national unity and celebrating Malian traditional culture. However, lack of financial means and absence of qualified personnel caused some deterioration in

30972-401: Was subject to Soviet investment and influence. However, the economy declined as state enterprises collapsed and unrest was widespread. Eventually, Moussa Traoré led a successful coup and ruled Mali for 23 years. However his rule was characterised by severe droughts and poor government management and problems of food shortages. In the late 1980s the people of Bamako and Mali campaigned for

31150-408: Was that the RDA saw increasing power from 1951 until 1955. This was most punctuated with the rise in Guinea of Sékou Touré to political prominence as the head of the Democratic Party of Guinea French : Parti Démocratique de Guinée . As a union organizer, Touré had significant ties with the Communists throughout French West Africa and thus connected quickly with the Communist-affiliated members of

31328-409: Was the location of a WHO conference known as the Bamako Initiative that helped reshape health policy of sub-Saharan Africa . The yearly held Budapest-Bamako rally has the endpoint in Bamako, with the Dakar Rally often passing through Bamako. A music boom in Bamako took off in the 1990s, when vocalist Salif Keita and singer-guitarist Ali Farka Touré achieved international fame. It attracted

31506-405: Was the most supportive of Trotsky's proposal while Pierre Naville was opposed to it and Pierre Frank remained ambivalent. The League finally voted to dissolve into the SFIO in August 1934, where they formed the Bolshevik-Leninist Group ( Groupe Bolchevik-Leniniste , GBL). At the Mulhouse party congress of June 1935, the Trotskyists led a campaign to prevent the united front from expanding into

31684-401: Was transferred from its initial home in Koulouba to Ouolofobougou, a section of Bamako. The library holds more than 60,000 works, including books, periodicals, audio documents, videos, and software. These materials are available free to the public, though a small subscription fee is required for borrowing privileges. The library also hosts some of the exhibits for African Photography Encounters ,

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