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107-483: On the viewer's right is Septimius Severus, and to the left Julia Domna. In front of them are the boys Caracalla and Geta. All wear jeweled gold wreaths and imperial insignia, some details of which have been lost. The dating of the piece has caused some debate among scholars, with the final consensus being c.  200 AD . The tondo has many stylistic connections to Fayum Mummy portraiture including materials and artistic elements, and its production has been located in

214-463: A Fayum mummy portrait artist, which could explain the stylistic connections of this work to that of Fayum mummy portraiture. The image is probably an example of imperial portraits that were mass-produced to be displayed in offices and public buildings throughout the Roman Empire; as part of Roman legal procedure, some documents had to be signed in front of an image of the emperor, which gave them

321-641: A combination of Egyptian and Roman funerary practices , since it appears only after Egypt was established as a Roman province . The images depict the heads or busts of men, women and children. They probably date from c. 30 BC to the 3rd century. To the modern eye, the portraits appear highly individualistic. Therefore, it has been assumed for a long time that they were produced during the lifetime of their subjects and displayed as "salon paintings" within their houses, to be added to their mummy wrapping after their death. Newer research rather suggests that they were only painted after death, an idea perhaps contradicted by

428-412: A combination of several factors appears to have led to changes of fashion and ritual. No clear causality can be asserted. Considering the limited nature of the current understanding of portrait mummies, it remains distinctly possible that future research will considerably modify the image presented here. For example, some scholars suspect that the centre of production of such finds, and thus the centre of

535-650: A date before about 205, when a more mature portrait style was introduced for him. Along with coin evidence and the dating of the Egyptian trip, the family portrait is now assumed to have been constructed between 199 and 200. The history of the painting after its creation is not known until the Antikensammlung Berlin acquired it in 1932 from an art dealer in Paris. It is in the Altes Museum , one of

642-425: A fact which consistently lowers the quality of archaeological and culture-historical information they provide. As a result, their overall significance as well as their specific interpretations remain controversial. A majority of images show a formal portrait of a single figure, facing and looking toward the viewer, from an angle that is usually slightly turned from full face. The figures are presented as busts against

749-533: A few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten million native Egyptians , or possibly a total of three to five million for all ethnicities, according to lower estimates. Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans and cleruchs (elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed lands. Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over

856-611: A further portrait back to Florence . It is so similar to de Laborde's specimens that it is thought to be from the same source. During the 1820s, the British Consul General to Egypt, Henry Salt , sent several further portraits to Paris and London. Some of them were long considered portraits of the family of the Theban Archon Pollios Soter, a historical character known from written sources, but this has turned out to be incorrect. Once again,

963-568: A horizontal bar from which two or three, occasionally four, vertical rods are suspended, usually each decorated with a white bead or pearl at the bottom. Other common ornaments include gold hairpins, often decorated with pearls, fine diadems , and, especially at Antinoopolis, gold hairnets . Many portraits also depict amulets and pendants , perhaps with magical functions. The mummy portraits have immense art-historical importance. Ancient sources indicate that panel painting rather than wall painting (i.e., painting on wood or other mobile surfaces)

1070-429: A large extent by the financial means and status of the deceased, modified by local customs. Portrait mummies have been found both in rock-cut tombs and in freestanding built grave complexes, but also in shallow pits. It is striking that they are virtually never accompanied by any grave offerings, with the exception of occasional pots or sprays of flowers. For a long time, it was assumed that the latest portraits belong to

1177-412: A long period elapsed before more mummy portraits came to light. In 1887, Daniel Marie Fouquet heard of the discovery of numerous portrait mummies in a cave. He set off to inspect them some days later, but arrived too late, as the finders had used the painted plaques for firewood during the three previous cold desert nights. Fouquet acquired the remaining two of what had originally been fifty portraits. While

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1284-460: A mixing of different ethnicities in the ruling classes of Roman Egypt. Only in the sphere of religion is there evidence for a continuation of Egyptian traditions. Egyptian temples were erected as late as the 2nd century. In terms of burial habits, Egyptian and Hellenistic elements now mixed. Coffins became increasingly unpopular and went entirely out of use by the 2nd century. In contrast, mummification appears to have been practised by large parts of

1391-474: A monochrome background which in some instances are decorated. The individuals are both male and female and range in age from childhood to old age. The majority of preserved mummy portraits were painted on boards or panels, made from different imported hardwoods, including oak , lime , sycamore , cedar , cypress , fig , and citrus . The wood was cut into thin rectangular panels and made smooth. The finished panels were set into layers of wrapping that enclosed

1498-569: A nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore even while he slept. Years before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co- augustus with his father, and later his younger brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter less than a year after their father's death. Reigning alone, Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty by authorising numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. Caracalla

1605-442: A predecessor introducing use of wigs in portraiture. Although the portrait depicts Julia as being notably paler than Severus, the subjects' true complexions are probably not accurately represented, as artistic conventions of the era often depicted women with fairer skin and men with darker skin. One son's face has been obliterated in a deliberate act of iconoclasm , and the vacant space smeared with excrement. Most scholars believe it

1712-499: A ruler's Greek or Roman images onto Egyptian statues in the dress and posture of Egyptian kings and queens. The possible combinations of Greek and Egyptian elements can be elucidated by imposing a (somewhat artificial) distinction between form and content, where 'form' is taken as the system of representation, and 'content' as the symbol, concept, or figure being portrayed. The religious meaning of mummy portraits has not, so far, been fully explained, nor have associated grave rites. There

1819-412: A square or rectangular shape, and later cut into a circle. The loss of some of the original painting is most apparent with the sceptres that the males are holding: the upper parts, once adorned with imperial symbols, are now missing. It seems likely that the panel was cut down in modern times to improve its saleability on the art market. The Severan Dynasty lasted from 193 to 235 AD. Septimius Severus ,

1926-405: A standardization of the imperial portraiture, which began in the third century with the tondo, and would become the norm in the fourth century. Some elements include the non-engaging oversized eyes, frontal placement of the figures, and the details of upper class dress. Severan portraiture during Septimius Severus's reign was categorized by two distinct styles: Antonine-inspired, and one that combined

2033-411: A variety of different Roman hairstyles . They are one of the main aids in dating the paintings. The majority of the deceased were depicted with hairstyles then in fashion. They are frequently similar to those depicted in sculpture . As part of Roman propaganda, such sculptures, especially those depicting the imperial family, were often displayed throughout the empire. Thus, they had a direct influence on

2140-581: A wide range of painterly expertise and skill in presenting a lifelike appearance. The naturalism of the portraits is often revealed in knowledge of anatomic structure and in skilled modelling of the form by the use of light and shade, which gives an appearance of three-dimensionality to most of the figures. The graded flesh tones are enhanced with shadows and highlights indicative of directional lighting. Under Hellenic rule, Egypt hosted several Greek settlements, mostly concentrated in Alexandria , but also in

2247-412: Is Geta whose face has been removed, probably after his murder by Caracalla's Praetorian Guard and the ensuing damnatio memoriae . However, it is also possible that Geta (as the younger son) is the smaller boy, and it is Caracalla's face which was eradicated, perhaps as a compensatory retaliation for Caracalla's mass execution of young Alexandrian men in the year 215. The tondo was probably created in

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2354-457: Is a cloak worn over a chiton. It is common to have a traditionally Roman decorative line, clavus (plural clavi ), on the subject's clothing. Most of the decorative lines are dark colored. While painted mummy portraits are shown to bear the traditional Roman decorative lines, not a single portrait has been definitely shown to depict the toga. It should, however, be kept in mind that Greek cloaks and togas are draped very similarly on depictions of

2461-427: Is a possibility that the dynastic occupation of Saqqara may have been." Most of the portraits depict the deceased at a relatively young age, and many show children. According to Susan Walker, C.A.T. scans reveal a correspondence of age and sex between mummy and image. She concludes that the age distribution reflects the low life expectancy at the time. It was often believed that the wax portraits were completed during

2568-476: Is defined by the civil war that took place during the establishment of their dynasty. To help with the transition of power and their public image, the Severan imperial family expertly preserved the earlier Antonine period in the process of associated iconography . Septimius Severus needed to overcome the uncertainty of succession by creating a strong dynastic line through portraits. This was also accomplished with

2675-534: Is generally used as a stylistic, rather than a geographic, description. While painted cartonnage mummy cases date back to pharaonic times, the Faiyum mummy portraits were an innovation dating to the time of Roman rule in Egypt . The portraits date to the Imperial Roman era , from the late 1st century BC or the early 1st century AD onwards. It is not clear when their production ended, but some research suggests

2782-763: Is incomplete, many of his finds remain without context. Today, mummy portraits are represented in all important archaeological museums of the world. Many have fine examples on display, notably the British Museum , the National Museum of Scotland , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Louvre in Paris. Because they were mostly recovered through inappropriate and unprofessional means, virtually all are without archaeological context,

2889-405: Is not known whether such inscriptions always reflect reality, or whether they may state ideal conditions or aspirations rather than true conditions. One single inscription is known to definitely indicate the deceased's profession (a shipowner) correctly. The mummy of a woman named Hermione also included the term γραμματική ( grammatike ). For a long time, it was assumed that this indicated that she

2996-400: Is one of the only surviving pieces of artwork which illustrates physical defacement in an act of damnatio memoriae; the act of smearing mud, offal , paint or even excrement was recorded as a practice in ancient sources. The tondo may have functioned as an icon display for either a public or private setting, perhaps even functioning as a relic for the imperial cult . It may have been a way for

3103-583: Is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals, married his male lover (who was later referred to as the "empress's husband") and married a Vestal Virgin called Aquilia Severa . Dio suggests that he was transgender and offered large sums to the physician who could give him female genitalia. Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behaviour could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his young cousin Severus Alexander as caesar (and thus

3210-521: Is some indication that it developed from genuine Egyptian funerary rites, adapted by a multi-cultural ruling class. The tradition of mummy portraits occurred from the Delta to Nubia , but it is striking that other funerary habits prevailed over portrait mummies at all sites except those in the Faiyum (and there especially Hawara and Achmim) and Antinoopolis. In most sites, different forms of burial coexisted. The choice of grave type may have been determined to

3317-812: The Septimian dynasty , was an Ancient Roman imperial dynasty that ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235, during the Roman imperial period . The dynasty was founded by the emperor Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ), who rose to power after the Year of the Five Emperors as the victor of the civil war of 193–197, and his wife, Julia Domna . After the short reigns and assassinations of their two sons, Caracalla ( r.  211–217 ) and Geta ( r.  211 ), who succeeded their father in

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3424-491: The Berlin State Museums (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin). 52°31′08″N 13°23′53″E  /  52.519°N 13.398°E  / 52.519; 13.398 Fayum mummy portraits Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits are a type of naturalistic painted portrait on wooden boards attached to upper class mummies from Roman Egypt . They belong to the tradition of panel painting , one of

3531-606: The Tetrarchy instituted in the reign of Diocletian ( r.  284–305 ). The women of the Severan dynasty, beginning with Septimius Severus's wife Julia Domna, were notably active in advancing the careers of their male relatives. Other notable women who exercised power behind the scenes included Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, and Maesa's two daughters Julia Soaemias , mother of Elagabalus , and Julia Avita Mamaea , mother of Severus Alexander. Also of interest, Publia Fulvia Plautilla , daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus ,

3638-503: The atrium of their house . In funeral processions, these wax masks were worn by professional mourners to emphasize the continuity of an illustrious family line, but originally perhaps to represent a deeper evocation of the presence of the dead. Roman festivals such as the Parentalia as well as everyday domestic rituals cultivated ancestral spirits (see also veneration of the dead ). The development of mummy portraiture may represent

3745-512: The epochal event beginning the troubled Crisis of the Third Century , where a succession of briefly-reigning military emperors, rebellious generals, and counter-claimants presided over governmental chaos, civil war , general instability and great economic disruption. He was succeeded by Maximinus Thrax ( r.  235–238 ), the first of a series of weak emperors, each ruling on average only 2 to 3 years, which ended 50 years later with

3852-436: The " Tomb of Aline " is interesting in this regard. It contained four mummies: those of Aline, of two children and of her husband. Unlike his wife and children, the latter was not equipped with a portrait but with a gilt three-dimensional mask. Perhaps plaster masks were preferred if they could be afforded. Based on literary, archaeological and genetic studies, it appears that those depicted were native Egyptians, who had adopted

3959-858: The 1st and early 2nd centuries. In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, togas should be distinguishable, but fail to occur. Apart from the gold wreaths worn by many men, with very few exceptions, only women are depicted with jewellery. This generally accords with the common jewellery types of the Graeco-Roman East. Especially the Antinoopolis portraits depict simple gold link chains and massive gold rings. There are also depictions of precious or semi-precious stones like emerald , carnelian , garnet , agate or amethyst , rarely also of pearls . The stones were normally ground into cylindrical or spherical beads. Some portraits depict elaborate colliers , with precious stones set in gold. The gold wreath

4066-648: The 3rd century reliefs and then painted images are found. The Fayum mummy images were used to recreate Jewish faces from first-century Judaea for the 2021 Israeli film Legend of Destruction . A further specimen discovered since: B. T. Trope; S. Quirke; P. Lacovara (2005). Excavating Egypt: great discoveries from the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University College, London . Atlanta, Georgia: Michael C. Carlos Museum. p. 101. ISBN   1-928917-06-2 . (chronological order) Severan dynasty The Severan dynasty , sometimes called

4173-601: The Baron of Minotuli acquired several mummy portraits for a German collector, but they became part of a whole shipload of Egyptian artifacts lost in the North Sea . In 1827, Léon de Laborde brought two portraits, supposedly found in Memphis, to Europe, one of which can today be seen at the Louvre , the other in the British Museum . Ippolito Rosellini , a member of Jean-François Champollion 's 1828–29 expedition to Egypt, brought

4280-663: The Egyptians only slowly developed an interest in the Greek-Hellenic culture that dominated the East Mediterranean since the conquests of Alexander . This situation changed substantially with the arrival of the Romans. Within a few generations, all Egyptian elements disappeared from everyday life. Cities like Karanis or Oxyrhynchus are largely Greco-Roman places. There is clear evidence that this resulted from

4387-704: The Faiyum mummy burials were said to be the same as 'native' Egyptians of the Pharaonic era. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians, than to Greeks or other European populations. This conclusion was seen again in 2009, by Joel D. Irish, where he noted: "Interestingly, Roman period Hawara in Lower Egypt seems not to have been composed of migrants-while there

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4494-565: The Faiyum portraits instead reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Greek minority in the city. According to Walker, the early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek. The portraits are said to represent both descendants of ancient Greek mercenaries , who had fought for Alexander

4601-468: The Fayum district of Egypt during this period. Later on the tondo re-emerged from the antiquities trade ; the provenance is unknown before entering the Antikensammlung Berlin (inventory number 31329) in the 20th century. It is now in the Altes Museum . The work is a tempera , or egg-based painting, on a circular wooden panel, or tondo , with a diameter of 30.5 centimetres (12.0 in). It depicts

4708-630: The Great , settled in Egypt and married local women, as well as native Egyptians who were the majority, many of whom had adopted Greek or Latin names, then seen as 'status symbols'. A DNA study showed genetic continuity between the Pre-Ptolemaic, Ptolemaic and Roman populations of Egypt, indicating that foreign rule impacted Egypt's population only to a very limited degree at the genetic level. In terms of anthropological characteristics, academic Alan K. Bowman stated that based on skull analysis,

4815-542: The Imperial family wearing sumptuous ceremonial garments. Septimius Severus and his sons are also holding sceptres and wearing gold wreaths decorated with precious stones. Julia Domna has her distinctive hairstyle, crimped into parallel locks, possibly a style from her home in Syria , and perhaps a wig. Although it is commonly assumed that Julia Domna introduced the custom of wearing wigs into Roman society, evidence points to

4922-636: The Latin nomenclature for the Syrian sun god Elagabal , of whom he had become a priest at an early age. Elagabal was represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl . Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa , Julia Domna's sister and sister-in-law of Emperor Septimius Severus, arranged for the restoration of the Severan dynasty and persuaded soldiers from the Gallic Third Legion , which was stationed near Emesa, by using her enormous wealth as well as

5029-548: The Parthians by a member of the Praetorian Guard . The younger son of Septimius Severus, Geta was made co- augustus alongside his father and older brother Caracalla. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) and his brother Lucius Verus ( r.  161–169 ) the previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severan brothers after their father's death. Geta

5136-536: The Roman army may have been instrumental in the official act of erasing Geta. Unlike Geta, when Caracalla was murdered, he was not subjected to an official damnatio memoriae since he was well liked by the soldiers. However, the Senate did not care for him and labeled him a tyrant; so to appease some of the Senators, the new emperor Macrinus quietly removed some of his images from public displays. The Severan art period

5243-593: The Severan Tondo. The Severan Tondo could have been displayed on a public building in a Fayum town. It may have been painted to celebrate the visit of Septimius Severus to Egypt in 199, following his military victories against the Parthian Empire the previous year, and before his campaigns in North Africa in 203. The artist who would have created the Severan Tondo may have been primarily employed as

5350-510: The affluent upper class of military personnel, civil servants and religious dignitaries. Not everyone could afford a mummy portrait; many mummies were found without one. Flinders Petrie states that only one or two percent of the mummies he excavated were embellished with portraits. The rates for mummy portraits do not survive, but it can be assumed that the material caused higher costs than the labour, since in antiquity, painters were appreciated as craftsmen rather than as artists. The situation from

5457-600: The assistance of his troops in 193. The following four years Severus spent fending off opposition from his rivals. Finally, in 197, the empire was secured in his sole authority. After the empire was secured, Severus led many successful military campaigns, the most famous of them being against the Parthians . After Severus's death in February of 211, the empire was supposed to be jointly ruled by his sons, Caracalla and Geta. In December that year, Caracalla had Geta murdered and

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5564-426: The bands of cloth that were used to wrap the bodies. Almost all have now been detached from the mummies. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco-Roman artistic traditions than Egyptian ones . Two groups of portraits can be distinguished by technique: one of encaustic (wax) paintings,

5671-653: The best examples of the official damnatio memoriae subjected to Geta's figure. The concept of damnatio memoriae was at its pinnacle during the Severan dynasty, which lasted forty-two-years. The use of damnatio memoriae against members and rivals of the imperial family happened numerous times over the course of the Severan dynasty's rule. Some examples of imperial family members and political rivals who were officially sanctioned with some form of damnatio memoriae included: Didius Julianus , Plautilla , Clodius Albinus , Elagabalus , Julia Soemias , and Pescennius Niger . The tondo

5778-538: The body and were surrounded by bands of cloth, giving the effect of a window-like opening through which the face of the deceased could be seen. Portraits were sometimes painted directly onto the canvas or rags of the mummy wrapping ( cartonnage painting). The wooden surface was sometimes primed for painting with a layer of plaster. In some cases the primed layer reveals a preparatory drawing. Two painting techniques were employed: encaustic (wax) painting and animal glue tempera . The encaustic images are striking because of

5885-457: The centre of much attention. By the late 19th century, their very specific aesthetic made them sought-after collection pieces, distributed by the global arts trade. In parallel, more scientific engagement with the portraits was beginning. In 1887, the British archaeologist Flinders Petrie started excavations at Hawara . He discovered a Roman necropolis which yielded 81 portrait mummies in

5992-457: The claim that Caracalla had slept with her daughter and that the boy was his bastard to swear fealty to Elagabalus. He was later invited alongside his mother and daughters to the military camp, clad in imperial purple and crowned as emperor by the soldiers. His reign in Rome has long been known for being outrageous although the historical sources are few and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He

6099-424: The contrast between vivid and rich colours, and comparatively large brush-strokes, producing an " Impressionistic " effect. The tempera paintings have a finer gradation of tones and chalkier colours, giving a more restrained appearance. In some cases, gold leaf was used to depict jewellery and wreaths. There also are examples of hybrid techniques or of variations from the main techniques. The Fayum portraits reveal

6206-542: The country, notably the Nile Delta , Upper Egypt , Oxyrhynchus and Memphis , to undertake the labor involved in the land reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered papyri . It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the Ptolemaic period, with the rest being native Egyptians. By the Roman period, much of the "Greek" population of Faiyum

6313-497: The cruelty and the treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On April 8, 217, Caracalla was assassinated travelling to Carrhae . Three days later, Macrinus was declared augustus . His most significant early decision was to make peace with the Parthian Empire , but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall

6420-443: The development of fashion. Nevertheless, the mummy portraits, as well as other finds, suggest that fashions lasted longer in the provinces than in the imperial court, or at least that diverse styles might coexist. Comparing the hairstyles on mummy portraits, it is revealed that the vast majority of them correspond to the fast-changing fashion of hairstyles used by the elite of the rest of the Roman Empire. They, in turn, often followed

6527-413: The distinctive funerary tradition they represent, may have been located at Alexandria. New finds from Marina el-Alamein strongly support such a view. In view of the near-total loss of Greek and Roman paintings, mummy portraits are today considered to be among the very rare examples of ancient art that can be seen to reflect "Great paintings" and especially Roman portrait painting. Mummy portraits depict

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6634-423: The dominant Greco-Roman culture. The name of some of those portrayed are known from inscriptions; they are predominantly Greek. Hairstyles and clothing are always influenced by Roman fashion. Women and children are often depicted wearing valuable ornaments and fine garments, men often wearing specific and elaborate outfits. Greek inscriptions of names are relatively common, sometimes they include professions. It

6741-542: The emperor's image with Serapis , a Greco-Egyptian god. After his death, Caracalla would initialize the departure from the Classicizing style and Greek traditions into what would become the style of the Late Antique period. The painting of the tondo on a wooden panel with tempera paints is consistent with that of Fayum mummy portraits style. Another stylistic connection is the addition of jewelry and wreaths in

6848-578: The empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus , at the Battle of Lugdunum . Severus fought a successful war against the Parthians , campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain and rebuilt Hadrian's Wall . In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he was popular with the commoners and with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, his praetorian prefect , Gaius Fulvius Plautianus ,

6955-510: The end of the 4th century, but recent research has modified this view considerably, suggesting that the last wooden portraits belong to the middle, the last directly painted mummy wrappings to the second half of the 3rd century. It is commonly accepted that production reduced considerably since the beginning of the 3rd century. Several reasons for the decline of the mummy portrait have been suggested; no single reason should probably be isolated, rather, they should be seen as operating together. Thus,

7062-480: The exact location of this find is unclear, the likely source is from er-Rubayat. At that location, not long after Fouquet's visit, the Viennese art trader Theodor Graf found several further images, which he tried to sell as profitably as possible. He engaged the famous Egyptologist Georg Ebers to publish his finds. He produced presentation folders to advertise his individual finds throughout Europe. Although little

7169-540: The fashion of the Roman emperors and their wives, whose images and coiffures can be dated through their depictions on coins. The female hairstyles are what is usually used for the dating of mummy portraits, because other than a number of elite boys who had long hair parted on the forehead and bound into a bun in the neck, male hairstyle does not differ by much. This is because Roman male was advised to avoid excessive attention to hairstyles as he may be criticized for unmanliness. Complex ringlets with nested plaits, and curls over

7276-476: The first year of excavation. At an exhibition in London, these portraits drew large crowds. In the following year, Petrie continued excavations at the same location but now suffered from the competition of a German and an Egyptian art dealer. Petrie returned in the winter of 1910–11 and excavated a further 70 portrait mummies, some of them quite badly preserved. With very few exceptions, Petrie's studies still provide

7383-475: The forehead was popular in the late first century, with small oval nested plaits popular in the time of Antonines. A later popular woman's hairstyle is one inspired by the Roman Empress, Faustina I, with longer strands at the middle of the scalp drawn back into twists or plaits that were then wound into a tutulus at the crown of the head. Central-parted hair-knots at the back of the neck were common later in

7490-514: The founder of the dynasty, was born in Lepcis Magna , Tripolitania (present-day Libya) in 145 AD. Severus gained power and status in 190 AD, as he rose within Senate ranks under Marcus Aurelius . As Severus gained power, he secured numerous governorships. He held those of Gallia Lugdunensis , Upper Pannonia , and Sicily . After the murder of the emperor Commodus in 192, and the short lived succession by Pertinax , Severus seized power with

7597-408: The government of the empire, Julia Domna's relatives themselves assumed power by raising Elagabalus ( r.  218–222 ) and then Severus Alexander ( r.  222–235 ) to the imperial office. The dynasty's control over the empire was interrupted by the joint reigns of Macrinus ( r.  217–218 ) and his son Diadumenian ( r.  218 ). The dynasty's women, including Julia Domna,

7704-531: The imminent Crisis of the Third Century . In particular, the discord between Caracalla and Geta and the tension between Elagabalus and Severus Alexander added to the turmoil. Lucius Septimius Severus was born in Leptis Magna , then in the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis and now in Libya , into a Libyan - punic family of equestrian rank. He rose through military service to consular rank under

7811-508: The later emperors of the Antonine dynasty . He married Syrian noblewoman Julia Domna and had two children with her: Caracalla and Geta . Julia Domna also held a prominent political role in government during her husband's reign. Severus was proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during the political unrest that followed the death of Commodus and secured sole rule over

7918-420: The life of the individual and displayed in their home, a custom that belonged to the traditions of Greek art , but this view is no longer widely held given the evidence suggested by the C.A.T. scans of the Faiyum mummies, as well as Roman census returns. In addition, some portraits were painted directly onto the coffin; for example, on a shroud or another part. The patrons of the portraits apparently belonged to

8025-461: The middle of the 3rd century. They are among the largest groups among the very few survivors of the panel painting tradition of the classical world, which continued into Byzantine , Eastern Mediterranean, and Western traditions in the post-classical world, including the local tradition of Coptic Christian iconography in Egypt. The portraits covered the faces of bodies that were mummified for burial. Extant examples indicate that they were mounted into

8132-466: The moderation that had characterised the rule of Septimius Severus . The rising strength of the Sasanian Empire ( r.  226–651 ) heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in the 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a Germanic invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by his own troops, whose regard the 27-year-old had lost during the affair. His death was

8239-582: The most highly regarded forms of art in the Classical world . The Fayum portraits are the only large body of art from that tradition to have survived. They were formerly, and incorrectly, called Coptic portraits . Mummy portraits have been found across Egypt, but are most common in the Faiyum Basin , particularly from Hawara and the Hadrianic Roman city Antinoopolis . "Faiyum portraits"

8346-486: The mother of Caracalla and Geta, and her nieces Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea , the mothers respectively of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, and their own mother, Julia Maesa , were all powerful augustae and instrumental in securing their sons' imperial positions. Although Septimius Severus restored peace following the upheaval of the late 2nd century, the dynasty was disturbed by highly unstable family relationships and constant political turmoil, which foreshadowed

8453-488: The multiple paintings on some specimens and the (suggested) change of specific details on others. The individualism of those depicted was actually created by variations in some specific details, within a largely unvaried general scheme. The habit of depicting the deceased was not a new one, but the painted images gradually replaced the earlier Egyptian masks, although the latter continued in use for some time, often occurring directly adjacent to portrait mummies, sometimes even in

8560-483: The mummy portraits represent only a small part of a much wider Graeco-Roman tradition, the whole of which later bore an influence on the art of late antiquity and Byzantine art . A pair of panel "icons" of Serapis and Isis of comparable date (3rd century) and style are in the Getty Museum at Malibu ; as with the cult of Mithras , earlier examples of cult images were sculptures or pottery figurines, but from

8667-428: The nominal future augustus ). Alexander was popular with the troops, who increasingly objected to Elagabalus's behaviour. Jealous of this popularity, Elagabalus removed the title of caesar from his cousin, which enraged the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus, his mother, and other advisors close to him were assassinated in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny. Born Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus in around 208, Alexander

8774-511: The official syncretistic creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he had elevated as co-emperors in the years preceding his death. The growing hostility between the brothers was initially buffered by Julia Domna's mediation. The eldest son of Severus, he was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum , Gaul. "Caracalla" was

8881-751: The only examples of mummy portraits so far found as the result of systematic excavation and published properly. Although the published studies are not entirely up to modern standards, they remain the most important source for the find contexts of portrait mummies. In 1892, the German archaeologist von Kaufmann discovered the so-called " Tomb of Aline ", which held three mummy portraits; among the most famous today. Other important sources of such finds are at Antinoöpolis and Akhmim . The French archaeologist Albert Gayet worked at Antinoöpolis and found much relevant material, but his work, like that of many of his contemporaries, does not satisfy modern standards. His documentation

8988-413: The other in tempera . The former are usually of higher quality. About 900 mummy portraits are known at present. The majority were found in the necropolis of Faiyum. Due to the hot dry Egyptian climate, the paintings are frequently very well preserved, often retaining their brilliant colours seemingly unfaded by time. The Italian explorer Pietro Della Valle , on a visit to Saqqara - Memphis in 1615,

9095-841: The owner to profess loyalty to the imperial family and ruling dynasty; this would have been an act of pietas . The defacement of Geta's figure in the tondo, would have continued the owner's private expression of loyalty. By removing Geta's figure from the tondo, the owner would be able to continue to support the new emperor, Caracalla, and the legacy of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna . This display of damnatio memoriae of Geta's image shows that this practice of defacement did not only occur on public monuments and artworks, but in private settings as well. Geta's name and title, along with his image, were erased from almost every inscription pertaining to him. The inscriptions untouched total approximately thirty-one percent. The large number of images and inscriptions defaced in damnatio memoriae of Geta indicate that

9202-537: The piece, as well as the Serapis portrait style. Some argue about the presence of corkscrew locks on the upper portion of Severus’s forehead. The corkscrew locks, if present, indicate that the date of this piece follows the commencement of Serapis portrait type. Some scholars date the piece to be between 202 and 203 AD, because the Serapis style of portraiture is usually accepted as starting in 204. The evidence points to

9309-409: The population. The mummy mask, originally an Egyptian concept, grew more and more Graeco-Roman in style, Egyptian motifs became ever rarer. The adoption of Roman portrait painting into Egyptian burial cult belongs in this general context. Some authors suggest that the idea of such portraits may be related to the custom among the Roman nobility of displaying imagines , images of their ancestors, in

9416-491: The same graves. The combination of naturalistic Greek portrait of the deceased with Egyptian-form deities, symbols, and frame was primarily phenomenon of funerary art from the chora, or countryside, in Roman Egypt. Combining Egyptian and Greek pictorial forms or motifs was not restricted to funerary art, however: the public and highly visible portraits of Ptolemaic dynasts and Roman emperors grafted iconography developed for

9523-426: The same period. Empress Julia Domna popularized fluffy waved hair. Straight hair was common in the same period while later plaits on the crown of the head were rarely present. Other than representations of their wealth and social status, the subject's clothing suggests their previous roles in their local communities. For instance, men depicted to show their bare upper torso were usually athletes. The most common attire

9630-411: The same status as if signed in his actual presence. With each change of emperor, the portrait would have been discarded or replaced. Since wood is an organic material and does not normally survive, the Severan Tondo remains, so far, the only surviving specimen of this type of painting. Dating the tondo has caused some debate among scholars, with the interpretation of elements contributing to the dating of

9737-410: The tondo being a precursor to the Serapis portrait type. Both Geta and Caracalla are pictured wearing crowns, this indicates that the painting came after 198, the year that Geta became Caesar. Severus doesn't have signs of age in the tondo, which dates it before 202; Severus’s official portraiture first started to display signs of age in 202. Also, Caracalla, born in 188, is depicted as a youth, indicating

9844-412: The tondo. This was an important element that displayed cultural identity and religious practices in Fayum portraiture. The use of the established Greek four-color palette of white, red, yellow, and black and a single light source are another similarity between Fayum portraits and the Severan Tondo. While many of the surviving Fayum portraits did pertain to burial or remembrance, some examples differ, such as

9951-648: The upper classes were mummified , equipped with a decorated coffin and a mummy mask to cover the head. The Greeks who entered Egypt at that time mostly followed their own habits. There is evidence from Alexandria and other sites indicating that they practised the Greek tradition of cremation . This broadly reflects the general situation in Hellenistic Egypt, its rulers proclaiming themselves to be pharaohs but otherwise living in an entirely Hellenistic world, incorporating only very few local elements. Conversely,

10058-466: Was a teacher by profession; for this reason, Flinders Petrie donated the portrait to Girton College , Cambridge , the first residential college for women in Britain. However, today, it is assumed that the term indicates her level of education. Some portraits of men show sword-belts or even pommels, suggesting that they were members of the Roman military. The burial habits of Ptolemaic Egyptians mostly followed ancient traditions. The bodies of members of

10165-489: Was adopted as heir apparent by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, Elagabalus, at the urging of Julia Maesa , who was the grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for the emperor's acclamation by the Third Gallica Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was 14, a rumour went around the city's troops that Alexander had been killed, ironically triggering his ascension as emperor. Elagabalus

10272-457: Was also indifferent to the full responsibilities of the empire during his reign and handed them over to his mother, Julia Domna, who took part in a provincial tour and military campaign and accompanied her son. He campaigned with indifferent success against the Alamanni . The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. He was assassinated en route to a campaign against

10379-614: Was apparently rarely, if ever, worn in life, but a number have been found in graves from much earlier periods. Based on the plant wreaths given as prizes in contests, the idea was apparently to celebrate the achievements of the deceased in life. There are three basic shapes of ear ornaments: Especially common in the 1st century are circular or drop-shaped pendants. Archaeological finds indicate that these were fully or semi-spherical. Later tastes favoured S-shaped hooks of gold wire, on which up to five beads of different colours and materials could be strung. The third shape are elaborate pendants with

10486-471: Was assassinated in their mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who then ruled as sole emperor. Marcus Opelius Macrinus was born in 164 at Caesarea in Mauretania (now Cherchell , Algeria ). Although coming from a humble background not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty; he rose through the imperial household until, under Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of

10593-526: Was growing in influence, but he would be executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist Papinian , a relative of Julia Domna. The Jews experienced more favorable conditions under the Severan dynasty . According to Jerome , both Septimius Severus and Antoninus "very greatly cherished the Jews." Severus continued official persecution of Christians , who did not assimilate their beliefs to

10700-575: Was held in high regard, but very few ancient panel paintings survive. One of the few examples besides the mummy portraits is the Severan Tondo , also from Egypt (around 200), which, like the mummy portraits, is believed to represent a provincial version of contemporary style. Some aspects of the mummy portraits, especially their frontal perspective and their concentration on key facial features, strongly resemble later icon painting . A direct link has been suggested, but it should be kept in mind that

10807-519: Was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus . After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet the army of Elagabalus near Antioch . Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon but his authority

10914-415: Was known about their archaeological find contexts, Graf went as far as to ascribe the portraits to known Ptolemaic pharaohs by analogy with other works of art, mainly coin portraits. None of these associations were particularly well argued or convincing, but they gained him much attention, not least because he gained the support of well-known scholars like Rudolf Virchow . As a result, mummy portraits became

11021-501: Was lost. He was betrayed and executed after a reign of only 14 months. Marcus Opelius Diadumenianus (known as Diadumenian ) was the son of Macrinus , born in 208. He was given the imperial rank of caesar in 217, when his father became augustus . After his father's defeat outside Antioch, he tried to escape east to Parthia but was captured and killed. Elagabalus was born Varius Avitus Bassianus in 204 and became known later as Marcus Aurelius Antonius. The name "Elagabalus" followed

11128-500: Was made-up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins. Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army, who, initially at least, were not Egyptian but people from disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds, settled in the area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local populations. While commonly believed to depict Greek settlers in Egypt,

11235-404: Was said to have initiated the rumour or attempted to murder Alexander. The 18-year-old Elagabalus and his mother were taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in the river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, which proclaimed Alexander Severus as Augustus. Ruling from the age of 14 under the influence of his mother, Julia Avita Mamaea , Alexander restored to some extent

11342-538: Was the first European to discover and describe mummy portraits. He transported some mummies with portraits to Europe, which are now in the Albertinum ( Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden ). Although interest in ancient Egypt steadily increased after that period, further finds of mummy portraits did not become known before the early 19th century. The provenance of these first new finds is unclear; they may come from Saqqara as well, or perhaps from Thebes . In 1820,

11449-401: Was the sole ruler until he was also murdered in 217. The dynasty would continue to have a tumultuous line of succession until its end in 235. After his murder, Geta was subjected to damnatio memoriae . In this official action, the Senate declared against his memory. This led to great removal, defacement, and erasure of Geta throughout the entire Roman empire. The Severan Tondo serves as one of

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