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50-648: The dynasty, which had broken free of the short lived, and by this time crumbling Old Babylonian Empire , was named for the province in the far south of Mesopotamia , a swampy region bereft of large settlements which gradually expanded southwards with the silting up of the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the region known as mat Kaldi " Chaldaea " in the Iron Age ). Sealand pottery has been found at Girsu, Uruk, and Lagash but in no site north of that. The later kings bore pseudo- Sumerian names and harked back to

100-470: A counterpart of Babylon next to Agade . Because of the wrong he had done the great lord Marduk became angry and wiped out his people by famine. They (his subjects) rebelled against him from east to west and he (Marduk) afflicted [him] with insomnia. This seemingly anachronous reference to Babylon reproduces text from the Weidner Chronicle. Little is known of the city of Babylon in

150-458: A duplication of the six lines telling of the demise of Erra-Imittī, followed by a section relating Ḫammu-rāpi ’s expedition against Rim-Sin I , whom he brought to Babylon in a ki-is-kap (a ḫúppu ), a large basket. Samsu-iluna ’s handling of the revolt of Rim-Sin II occupies the next section, but here the text is poorly preserved and the events uncertain until it records the victory of Ilum-ma-ilī ,

200-590: A kurugu-hymn dedicated to the gods of Nippur mentions Ayadaragalama. A variant version of the Epic of Gilgameš relocates the hero to Ur and is a piece from this period. Excavations conducted between 2013 and 2017 at Tell Khaiber , around 20 km from Ur , have revealed the foundations of a large mudbrick fortress with an unusual arrangement of perimeter close-set towers. The site is dated, by an archive of 152 (after joins were made) clay cuneiform tablets found there, to Ayadaragalama. Tablets at Tell Khaiber fell into

250-479: A role in the royal power of old Babylonia. Shamash was the god of the sun, of justice, and of divination, as was mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi. The text states, "May the god Shamash, the great judge of heaven and Earth, who provides just ways for all living creatures, the lord, my trust, overturn his kingship." Shamash was considered to have an influence on Hammurabi, and represented the concept that he will execute

300-420: A terrible revenge for his expropriation of the property of Marduk’s temple, the Ésagil , and Babylon, as he “caused (something or other) to consume his body and killed him” in a passage that, despite its perfect state of preservation, remains unintelligible. Erra-Imittī ’s legendary tale of his demise and that of Enlil-bāni ’s ascendency occupies the next passage, followed by a terse observation that “ Ilu-šūma

350-497: Is a Babylonian chronicle preserved on two tablets: tablet A is well preserved whereas tablet B is broken and the text is fragmentary. The text is episodic in character, and seems to have been composed from linking together the apodoses of omen literature, excerpts of the Weidner Chronicle and kings year-names. The Chronicle begins with events from the late third-millennium reign of Sargon of Akkad and ends, where

400-2081: Is also described as attacking Sealand and destroying a temple in "Dūr-Enlil". A serpentine or diorite mace head or possibly door knob found in Babylon, is engraved with the epithet of Ulaburariaš, “King of Sealand”. The object was excavated at Tell Amran ibn-Ali, during the German excavations of Babylon, conducted from 1899 to 1912, and is now housed in the Pergamon Museum . ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

450-474: Is currently unknown. A kings list fragment states that Babylon's "kingship passed to E'urukuga". Given its site being known as uru.ku this capital has been speculated as being Lagash of which little is known in this period. Nippur, and Tell Deḥaila are also in consideration. Modern thinking is that the capital was a Dūr-Enlil (or Dūr-Enlile or Dūr-Enlilē). There was a Dūr-Enlil in Neo-Babylonian times in

500-509: Is dated to c.  1894–1595 BC , and comes after the end of Sumerian power with the destruction of the Third Dynasty of Ur , and the subsequent Isin-Larsa period . The chronology of the first dynasty of Babylonia is debated; there is a Babylonian King List A and also a Babylonian King List B, with generally longer regnal lengths. In this chronology, the regnal years of List A are used due to their wide usage. The origins of

550-466: Is the only current contemporary indication of the spelling of his name, contrasting with that of the earlier king of Isin. Gulkišar, meaning “raider of the earth,” has left few traces of his apparently lengthy reign. He was the subject of a royal epic (Tablet HS 1885+ plus 2 recent fragment joins) concerning his enmity with Samsu-ditāna , the last king of the first dynasty of Babylon. The text describes Gulkišar addressing his troops and being accompanied by

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600-463: The Hittites under Mursilis I (at the end of Samsuditana 's reign over Babylon) tells a story about a twin eclipse — which is crucial for a correct Babylonian chronology. The pair of lunar and solar eclipses occurred in the month of Shimanu ( Sivan ). The lunar eclipse took place on February 9, 1659 BC. It started at 4:43 a.m. and ended at 6:47 a.m. The latter was invisible, which satisfies

650-603: The Neo-Babylonian Empire also existed. Traditionally, all that was known about Sealand came from a few Kings List entries and the stray chronicle mention. It has been suggested that much of the writing in this period used waxed wooden boards, as a way of explaining the paucity of standard tablets found. Recently (2009) 450 published tablets mainly from the Martin Schøyen collection , the largest privately held collection of manuscripts to be assembled during

700-421: The Tigris , to flush him out of his swampy refuge, an endeavor which was apparently confounded by Ilum-ma-ilī’s superior use of the terrain. The last surviving year-name for Ammi-ditana commemorates the “year in which (he) destroyed the city wall of Der /Udinim built by the army of Damqi-ilišu. In the original "MU am-mi-di-ta-na LUGAL.E BÀD.DA UDINIMki.MA (ÉREN) dam-qí-ì-lí-šu.KE4 BÍ.IN.DÙ.A BÍ.IN.GUL.LA". This

750-597: The 20th century, cover a 15 to 18 year period extending over part of each king’s reign. They seem to originate from a single cache but their provenance was lost after languishing in smaller private collections since their acquisition on the antiquities market a century earlier. Most of the tablets pertain to administration of resources. An additional 32 unpublished Sealand tablets are held in Brussels. The tablets include letters, receipts, ledgers, personnel rosters, etc., and provide year-names and references which hint at events of

800-997: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Chronicle of Early Kings The Chronicle of Early Kings , named ABC 20 in Grayson’s Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles and CM 40 in Glassner’s Chroniques mésopotamiennes

850-664: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Old Babylonian Empire The Old Babylonian Empire , or First Babylonian Empire ,

900-658: The Empire lost territory and money, and faced great degradation. The attacks from Hittites who were trying to expand outside of Anatolia eventually led to the destruction of Babylon . The Kassite Period then followed the First Babylonian Dynasty, ruling from 1570 to 1154 BC. By the time of Babylon's fall the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against. The sun played

950-411: The First Babylonian Dynasty, but with historical events portrayed in literature and the existence of year-name lists, it is possible to establish a chronology. With little evidence on hand, there is not much known about the reigns of the kings from Sumuabum through Sin-muballit — other than the fact they were Amorites rather than Akkadians . What is known, however, is that they did not add much to

1000-495: The First Babylonian dynasty are hard to pinpoint because Babylon itself yields few archaeological materials intact due to a high water table . The evidence that survived throughout the years includes written records such as royal and votive inscriptions, literary texts, and lists of year-names. The minimal amount of evidence in economic and legal documents makes it difficult to illustrate the economic and social history of

1050-563: The Syro-Mesopotamian region. These documents survived because Hammurabi had burned the palace down — which buried the material, thus preserving it. War was a common occurrence for the kingdoms in Syria and Mesopotamia, so the majority of the documents from that era were in regard to military affairs. The documents included letters written by the messengers of the kings, discussing conflicts, divine oaths, agreements, and treaties between

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1100-669: The account of his exploits in the Chronicle of Early Kings which describes his conflicts with his Amorite Babylonian contemporaries Samsu-iluna and Abi-ešuḫ. It records that he “attacked and brought about the defeat of (Samsu-iluna’s) army.” He is thought to have conquered Nippur late in Samsu-iluna’s reign as there are legal documents from Nippur dated to his reign. Abi-eshuh , the Amorite king of Babylon, and Samsu-iluna ’s son and successor, “set out to conquer Ilum-ma-ilī,” by damming

1150-549: The building of a “great ring against the Kalšu (Kassite) enemy” and a third records the “year when his land rebelled.” A year-name gives “year when Ayadaragalama was king – after Enlil established (for him?) the shepherding of the whole earth,” and a list of gods includes Marduk and Sarpanitum , the tutelary deities of the Sealand. A neo-Babylonian official took a bronze band dedicatory inscription of A-ia-da-a-ra , MAN ŠÚ “king of

1200-528: The dates of many older sourcebooks seem to be outdated and incorrect. There are further difficulties: the 21-year span of the detailed observations of the planet Venus may or may not coincide with the reign of this king, because his name is not mentioned, only the Year of the Golden Throne. A few sources, some printed almost a century ago, claim that the original text mentions an occultation of Venus by

1250-553: The era, "Dipilirabi", is also known as "Dipilirapi".). The Code of Hammurabi — one of the oldest written laws in history, and one of the most famous ancient texts from the Near East, and among the best known artifacts of the ancient world — is from the first Babylonian dynasty. The code is written in cuneiform on a 2.25 meter (7 foot 4½ inch) diorite stele. At the top, it portrays the Babylonian king receiving his kingship from

1300-567: The formidable power of Eshnunna , inheriting its well-established trade routes and the economic stability that came along with them. It was not long before Hammurabi's armies took Assyria and parts of the Zagros Mountains . Eventually in 1761 BC, Babylon gained control over Mari , making up virtually all the territory of Mesopotamia that had been under the Third Dynasty of Ur . During Hammurabi's thirtieth year as king, he conquered Larsa from Rim-Sin I , thus, gaining control over

1350-615: The founder of the Sealand Dynasty , over Samsu-iluna’s army. Abī-Ešuḫ ’s damming of the Tigris follows, which fails to contain the wiley Ilum-ma-ilī. The history of the First Babylonian dynasty concludes with the Hittite invasion during the reign of Samsu-ditāna . The final two passages switch to events in the early Kassite Dynastic period, first with the last king of the Sealand Dynasty, Ea-gamil , fleeing ahead of

1400-533: The general area between Uruk and Larsa as well as one in Neo-Assyrian times. It is not clear it either is the same place as the potential Sealand capital. The king list references which bear witness to the sequence of Sealand kings are summarized below: An additional king list provides fragmentary readings of the earlier dynastic monarchs. The king list A totals the reigns to give a length of 368 years for this dynasty. The Synchronistic King List A.117 gives

1450-517: The glory days of the Dynasty of Isin . The third king of the dynasty was even named for the ultimate king of the dynasty of Isin, Damiq-ilišu . Despite these cultural motifs, the population predominantly bore Akkadian names and wrote and spoke in the Akkadian language . There is circumstantial evidence that their rule extended at least briefly to Babylon itself. In later times, a Sealand province of

1500-462: The god Istar. The colophon of a tablet giving a chemical recipe for glaze reads “property of a priest of Marduk in Eridu,” thought to be a quarter of Babylon rather than the city of Eridu, is dated mu.us-sa Gul-ki-šar lugal-e "year after (the one when) Gul-kisar (became?) king.” A kudurru of the period of Babylonian king Enlil-nādin-apli , c. 1103–1100 BC, records the outcome of an inquiry instigated by

1550-425: The history and diplomacy of the first Babylonian dynasty during Hammurabi's reign. The archives of Hammurabi at the site of Babylon cannot be recovered, since its remains are under the local water table, and have practically turned to mud. But Zimri-Lim's palace at Mari held an archive that included letters and other texts that provide insight into the alliance between the king and Hammurabi, as well as other leaders in

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1600-461: The ibex,” and Ayadaragalama, “son of the clever stag,” were successive kings and descendants ( DUMU , "sons" in its broadest meaning) of Gulkišar. Ayadaragalama’s reign seems to have been eventful, as a year-name records expelling the “massed might of two enemies,” speculated to be Elamites and Kassites , the Kassites having previously deposed the Amorites as rulers in Babylon. Another records

1650-427: The king into the ownership of a plot of land claimed by a temple estate. The governors of Bit-Sin-magir and Sealand, upheld the claim based on the earlier actions of Gulkišar who had “drawn for Nanse, his divine mistress, a land boundary.” It is an early example of a Distanzangaben statement recording that 696 years had elapsed between Nabû-kudurrī-uṣur , Enlil-nādin-apli’s father, and Gulkišar. Pešgaldarameš, “son of

1700-516: The land (in order to attain) appropriate behavior, I established truth and justice as the declaration of the land, I enhanced the well-being of the people." It then goes on to detail the laws of just punishment for crimes and provide rules for his people to abide by. King Hammurabi ruled Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC. When he first came to power, the empire only consisted of a few towns in the area near Babylon: Dilbat , Sippar , Kish , and Borsippa . By 1762 BC, Hammurabi managed to succeed in capturing

1750-532: The laws of justice on land just as Shamash does in his role as a god. A recent translation of the Chogha Gavaneh tablets from modern-day Iran, which date back to 1800 BC, indicates close contacts between Babylon and the town at the site of present-day Chogha Gavaneh, which is located in the intermontane valley of modern Islamabad in Iran's central Zagros and Dyala region. A text about the fall of Babylon by

1800-505: The lucrative urban centers of Nippur , Ur , Uruk , and Isin . Hammurabi was one of the most notable kings of the first Babylonian dynasty because of his success in gaining control over Southern Mesopotamia and establishing Babylon as the center of his Empire. Babylon would then come to dominate Mesopotamia for over a thousand years. Zimri-Lim, king of the nearby polity of Mari , plays a significant role for modern historians. He contributed immense amounts of historical writing that describe

1850-2050: The moon. However, this may be a misinterpretation. Modern calculations support the year of 1659 BC for the fall of Babylon, based on the statistical probability of the planet's observations. The presently-accepted middle chronology is too low from the astronomical point of view. r.  c. 1830 – c. 1817 BC ( SC ) (14 years) r.  c. 1817 – c. 1781 BC (SC) (36 years) r.  c. 1781 – c. 1767 BC (SC) (14 years) r.  c. 1767 – c. 1749 BC (SC) (17 years) r.  c. 1748 – c. 1729 BC (SC) (19 years) r.  c. 1648 – c. 1620 BC (SC) (28 years) r.  c. 1620 – c. 1583 BC (SC) (37 years) r.  c. 1582 – c. 1562 BC (SC) (21 years) r.  c. 1562 – c. 1531 BC (SC) (31 years) ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

1900-402: The period. Messengers from Elam are provisioned, Anzak, a god of Dilmun (ancient Bahrain) appears as a theophoric element in names, and Nūr-Bau asks whether he should detain the boats of Ešnunna , a rare late reference to this once thriving Sumerian conurbation. In addition to normal commercial activity, two omen texts from another private collection are dated to the reign of Pešgaldarameš and

1950-559: The powers. There is also little that is known about the kings who succeeded Hammurabi. The kings from Samsuiluna to Samsuditana have very few records of the occurrences during their reigns. However, we do know that Samsuiluna was successful in beating Rim-Sîn II , but nevertheless lost major parts of Babylon's conquered land — only having real authority over the core of the Babylonian territory left from Hammurabi's reign. The kings who succeeded Samsuiluna would face similar turmoil. The first Babylonian dynasty eventually came to an end as

2000-425: The record, and which also tells that the moon was still in eclipse. The solar eclipse occurred on February 23, 1659 BC. It started at 10:26 a.m., has its maximum at 11:45 a.m., and ended at 1:04 p.m. The Venus tablets of Ammisaduqa (i.e., several ancient versions on clay tablets) are also well-known, and several books had been published about them. Several dates have been offered for their events, but

2050-471: The same short time period as those published from the Schoyen Collection, that being the later part of Pešgal and early part of Ayadara reigns. Excavators were also able to develop a stratified ceramic array for Sealand allowing other sites to be identified. Sealand ceramics and faunal remains were found at the site of Tell Sakhariya, a few miles east of Ur . The home city of the Sealand Dynasty

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2100-411: The sequence from Damqi-ilišu onward, but includes an additional king between Gulkišar and Pešgaldarameš, DIŠ-U-EN (reading unknown). This source is considered reliable in this respect because the forms of the names of Pešgaldarameš and Ayadaragalama match those on recently published contemporary economic tablets (see below). Ilum-ma-ilī, or Iliman (ili-ma-an), the founder of the dynasty, is known from

2150-541: The size of the territory. When the Amorite king Hammurabi came into power, his military victories were successful in gaining more land for the Empire. However, Babylon was just one of the several important powers among Isin and Larsa . The accomplishments of the first known king of the Dynasty, Sumuabum , include his efforts in expanding Babylonian territory by conquering Dilbat and Kish . His successor, Sumualailum,

2200-405: The sun god Shamash ; on the bottom is the collection of written laws. The text itself explains how Hammurabi came to power and created a set of laws to ensure justice throughout his territory — emphasizing that these are the divine roles that were given to him. Before presenting the laws written in the Code, Hammurabi states, "When the god Marduk commanded me to provide just ways for the people of

2250-415: The tablet is broken away, with the reign of Agum III , c. 1500 BC. A third tablet, named Fragment B or CM 41, deals with related subject matter and may be a variant tradition of the same type of work. Tablet A begins with a lengthy passage concerning the rise and eventual downfall of Sargon of Akkad, caused by his impious treatment of Babylon : He dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon and made

2300-580: The third-millennium with the earliest reference to it coming from a year-name of Šar-kali-šarri , Sargon’s grandson. In contrast, the Chronicle devotes a mere six lines to his nephew, Naram-Sin, and two campaigns against Apišal, a city located in northern Syria, and Magan , thought to be in ancient Oman . That of Apišal appears as an apodosis to an omen in the Bārûtu , the compendium of sacrificial omens. Šulgi receives short shrift from Marduk, who wreaks

2350-426: The walls and began building canals. However, Sin-muballit is known for his successful defeats of Rim-Sin I, which protected Babylon from further invasion. Sin-muballit would then pass on the role of king to his son, Hammurabi . Hammurabi is also at times referred to as "Hammurapi" in ancient texts, including multiple primary-source Babylonian letters. This is a common phenomenon in Amorite names. (Another Amorite of

2400-419: The world,” to Tell en-Nasbeh , probably as an antique curio, where it was discarded to be found in the 20th century. Ea-gâmil, the ultimate king of the dynasty, fled to Elam ahead of an army led by Kassite chief Ulam-Buriaš , brother of the king of Babylon Kashtiliash III , who conquered the Sealand, incorporated it into Babylonia and “made himself master of the land.” Agum III, successor to Ulam-Buriaš,

2450-494: Was able to complete the wall around Babylon that Sumuabum had begun constructing. Sumualailum was also able to defeat rebellions in Kish and became successful in the destruction of Kazallu, and even had brief control over Nippur (though it did not last). There is little information available about the reigns of Sabium , Apil-Sin and Sin-muballit, other than that they continued ruling the conquered territory, as well as strengthening

2500-508: Was king of Assyria in time of Su-abu”, who was once identified with Sumu-abum , the founder of the First Dynasty of Babylon until a consideration of the relative chronologies made this identification unlikely. The tablet concludes with the label or mark GIGAM.DIDLI which may have been a scribal catalog reference or alternatively denote continuing disruption, as GIGAM represents ippiru , “strife, conflict.” Tablet B opens with

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