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110-736: In 478 BC, Athens founded the Delian League to counter Persian influence during the Greco-Persian Wars . Athenian leadership became solidified over the next few decades, with many historians considering the league to be an Athenian Empire, especially after the treasury was moved from Delos to Athens in 454 BC. This league fought against the Peloponnesian League , dominated by Sparta, in the Peloponnesian War , which lasted from 431 to 404 BC. It ended after

220-594: A second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, taking an enormous (although oft-exaggerated) army and navy to Greece. Those Greeks who chose to resist (the 'Allies') were defeated in the twin simultaneous battles of Thermopylae on land and Artemisium at sea. All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus having fallen into Persian hands, the Persians then seeking to destroy the Allied navy once and for all, suffered

330-670: A Spartan attack that would lead to the Corinthian War . This pit Sparta against a coalition of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, which was backed by Persia. After a series of Athenian successes, Persia enforced the Peace of Antalcidas : it would take control of all Greek cities in Asia Minor as well as the island of Cyprus and guarantee the independence of all other Greek cities with the exceptions of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which would belong to Athens. This war empowered Athens for

440-713: A complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly . Megara deserted the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth and protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Roughly a decade earlier, due to encouragement from influential speaker Themistocles ,

550-586: A decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year, 479 BC, the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea , ending the invasion and the threat to Greece. The Allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale near the island of Samos—on the same day as Plataea, according to tradition. This action marks

660-551: A departure from those of the Delian League, which had been unpopular among tribute states due to the ruthlessness of Athenian hegemony and the harsh punishments against states that rebelled. Athens also convinced foreign powers, including Sparta and Persia, that the charter was a way to enforce the Peace of Antalcidas instead of a subversion of it. Many historians consider the Second Athenian League to be

770-464: A disastrous Persian-sponsored expedition in 499 BC, Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy. This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia, extending to Doris and Aeolis , beginning the Ionian Revolt . The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras, and during their only campaigning season (498 BC) they contributed to

880-573: A force to capture the city of Byzantion (modern day Istanbul ). The siege was successful, but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies, and resulted in Pausanias's recall. After Byzantion, Sparta was eager to end its involvement in the war. The Spartans greatly feared the rise of the Athenians as a challenge to their power. Additionally, the Spartans were of

990-605: A key event of 454 BC was the moving of the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens. This is often seen as a key marker of the transition from alliance to empire, but while it is significant, it is important to view the period as a whole when considering the development of Athenian imperialism, and not to focus on a single event as being the main contributor to it. At the start of the Peloponnesian War , only Chios and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support. Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely. Chios,

1100-407: A means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax. League members swore to have the same friends and enemies, and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance. The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of

1210-631: A passage from Lesbos to Samos . After the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Chios was for seven centuries part of the Byzantine Empire . This came to an end when the island was briefly held (1090–97) by Tzachas , a Turkish bey in the region of Smyrna during the first expansion of the Turks to the Aegean coast. However, the Turks were driven back from the Aegean coast by

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1320-484: A popular anti-Spartan government. This led to war between Sparta and Thebes. The third event was the invasion of Piraeus , an Athenian port in Attica, by the Spartan general Sphodrias in winter of 378 BC. Diodorus Siculus claims that the invasion was ordered by the Spartan king Cleombrotus , while other historians like Xenophon argue that Sphodrias was bribed by Thebes as part of a plot to bring Athens to their side in

1430-400: A resurgence of Athenian hegemony over Greece. Some, such as the historian of ancient Greece Jack Cargill, argue that this league was different from the Delian League and that it did not represent a new Athenian Empire. He argues that the main cause of defections was Thebes, which left the league in 371 BC and incited other states to leave. Thebes joined the league at its founding because one of

1540-474: A siege of Athens in 404 BC, when Athens and Sparta struck a peace deal establishing Spartan hegemony over the Greek world. The Corinthians and Thebans, both Spartan allies, wanted to destroy Athens and enslave its citizens instead of a more lenient peace deal. The Spartans rejected this due to Athens being a major factor in holding up the balance of power in the Attica, Boiotia and Isthmos regions, and instead imposed

1650-569: A small Jewish population from at least 1049 AD. The original Greek ( Romaniote ) Jews, thought to have been brought over by the Romans, were later joined by Sephardic Jews welcomed by the Ottomans during the Iberian expulsions of the late 15th century . The mainstay of the island's famous wealth was the mastic crop. Chios was able to make a substantial contribution to the imperial treasury while at

1760-514: A symbolic gesture, Pericles moved it to Athens in 454 BC. By 431 BC, the threat that the League presented to Spartan hegemony combined with Athens's heavy-handed control of the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War ; the League was dissolved upon the war's conclusion in 404 BC under the direction of Lysander , the Spartan commander. Witnessing Sparta's growing hegemony in

1870-528: A thousand infantrymen, a hundred cavalrymen and two galleys, expelled the Zacharia family from the island (1329) and dissolved the fiefdom. Local rule was brief. In 1346, a chartered company or Maona (the " Maona di Chio e di Focea ") was set up in Genoa to reconquer and exploit Chios and the neighbouring town of Phocaea in Asia Minor. Although the islanders firmly rejected an initial offer of protection,

1980-402: Is mountainous and arid, with a ridge of mountains running the length of the island. The two largest of these mountains, Pelineon (1,297 m (4,255 ft)) and Epos (1,188 m (3,898 ft)), are situated in the north of the island. The center of the island is divided between east and west by a range of smaller peaks, known as Provatas. Chios can be divided into five regions. Midway up

2090-625: Is the fifth largest Greek island , situated in the northern Aegean Sea , and the tenth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait . Chios is notable for its exports of mastic gum and its nickname is "the Mastic Island". Tourist attractions include its medieval villages and the 11th-century monastery of Nea Moni , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Administratively,

2200-655: The Aegean and the Anatolian coast. The Delian League was formed as an anti-Persian defensive association of equal city-states seeking protection under Athens, as the latter wished to extend its support towards the Ionian Greek colonies of Anatolia. By the mid-fifth century BC, the alliance had developed into a naval imperial power, called the Athenian Empire , where Athens established complete dominion and

2310-623: The Chios massacre , in which tens of thousands of Greeks on the island were massacred, expelled, and enslaved by Ottoman troops during the Greek War of Independence in 1822. Chios remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912. Chios island is crescent or kidney-shaped, 50 km (31 mi) long from north to south, and 29 km (18 mi) at its widest, covering an area of 842.289 km (325.210 sq mi). The terrain

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2420-683: The Decree of Aristoteles , which outlined the terms of the Second Athenian League. An inscribed prospectus for the League was found at Athens dating to 377 BC, detailing the aims of the new league. The terms of the league were as follows: meetings would be held in Athens, but every city would enjoy one vote no matter its size and would retain its independence. Unlike the terms of the Delian League , these terms did not include forced garrisons or tribute, and Athenian citizens were prohibited from owning property in other member states. Athens framed these terms as

2530-578: The Ionian League . As a result, Chios, at the end of the 7th century BC, was one of the first cities to strike or mint coins, establishing the sphinx as its symbol. It maintained this tradition for almost 900 years. In the 6th century BC, Chios' government adopted a constitution similar to that developed by Solon in Athens and later developed democratic elements with a voting assembly and people's magistrates called damarchoi . In 546 BC, Chios

2640-635: The Latin emperors of Constantinople , with Chios nominally becoming a possession of the Republic of Venice . However, defeats for the Latin empire resulted in the island reverting to Byzantine rule in 1225. The Byzantine rulers had little influence and through the Treaty of Nymphaeum , authority was ceded to the Republic of Genoa (1261). At this time the island was frequently attacked by pirates, and by 1302–1303

2750-651: The Ottoman Empire after the surrender to Piyale Pasha . Subsequently, the Genoans were sent to the capital and after some time upon the request of the French ambassador they were allowed to return with a firman. During Ottoman rule, the government and tax gathering again remained in the hands of Greeks and the Turkish garrison was small and inconspicuous. As well as the Latin and Turkish influx, documents record

2860-565: The Peloponnesian War broke out. Those who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the Mytilenians , the principal people on Lesbos . After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population. After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos. This type of treatment

2970-573: The Peloponnesian league . With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians; hence the modern designation "Delian League". According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to "avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king." In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts—to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize

3080-544: The Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece . The League functioned as a dual –offensive and defensive– alliance ( symmachia ) of autonomous states, similar to its rival association, the Peloponnesian League . The League's modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos , where congresses were held within

3190-465: The Social War (357–355 BC) in which the states of Chios, Rhodes, Kos, and Byzantium went to war against Athens. This war ended in the disintegration of the Second Athenian League. Delian League The Delian League was a confederacy of Greek city-states , numbering between 150 and 330, founded in 478 BC under the leadership ( hegemony ) of Athens , whose purpose was to continue fighting

3300-659: The Third Macedonian War , thirty-five vessels allied to Rome, carrying about 1,000 Galatian troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by Eumenes II to his brother Attalus . Leaving from Elaea, they were headed to the harbour of Phanae, planning to disembark from there to Macedonia. However, Perseus 's naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between Erythrae (on the Western coast of Turkey) and Chios. According to Livy , they were caught completely off-guard by Antenor. Eumenes' officers at first thought

3410-582: The moment magnitude scale , damaged a large portion of the island's buildings and resulted in great loss of life. Reports of the time spoke of 5,500–10,000 fatalities. Remarkably, despite the terrible devastation, in the later 19th century Chios emerged as the motherland of the modern Greek shipping industry. Indicatively, while in 1764, Chios had 6 vessels with 90 sailors on record, in 1875 there were 104 ships with over 60,000 registered tonnes, and in 1889 were recorded 440 sailing ships of various types with 3,050 sailors. The dynamic development of Chian shipping in

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3520-486: The 19th century is further attested by the various shipping related services that were present in the island during this time, such as the creation of the shipping insurance companies Chiaki Thalassoploia (Χιακή Θαλασσοπλοΐα), Dyo Adelfai (Δυο Αδελφαί), Omonoia (Ομόνοια) and the shipping bank Archangelos (Αρχάγγελος) (1863). The boom of Chian shipping took place with the successful transition from sailing vessels to steam. To this end, Chian ship owners were supported by

3630-591: The Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities had been Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians. This marked the point at which the leadership of the Greek alliance effectively passed to the Athenians. With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantion, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit. The loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and

3740-721: The Athenians had also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus , its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land. In 454 BC, the Athenian general Pericles moved the Delian League's treasury from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles's rivals viewed the transfer to Athens as usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. Athens also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons as dues from league members, to only accepting money. The new treasury established in Athens

3850-497: The Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens

3960-720: The Byzantines aided by the First Crusade , and the island was restored to Byzantine rule by admiral Constantine Dalassenos . This relative stability was ended by the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204) and during the turmoil of the 13th century the island's ownership was constantly affected by the regional power struggles. After the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine empire was divided up by

4070-452: The Chians were ultimately forced to retreat and were again subjected to Persian domination. The defeat of Persia at the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC meant the liberation of Chios from Persian rule. When the Athenians formed the Delian League , Chios joined as one of the few members who did not have to pay tribute but who supplied ships to the alliance. By the fifth to fourth centuries BC,

4180-597: The Hellenes called Inaros and Amyrtaeus , who requested aid from Athens. Pericles led 250 ships, intended to attack Cyprus , to their aid because it would further damage Persia. After four years, however, the Egyptian rebellion was defeated by the Achaemenid general Megabyzus , who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces. In fact, according to Isocrates, the Athenians and their allies lost some 20,000 men in

4290-404: The Ionian city-states which bordered it. The members of the Delian League were made to swear an oath of loyalty to the league and contributed mostly monetarily but in some instances donated ships or other forces. It was also the case that many democratic members of the League owed their freedom from oligarchic or tyrannical rule to Athens. Because of this, Athens gained an overwhelming advantage in

4400-445: The Ionians difficult to rule, eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this form of government was on the decline. By 500 BC, Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian clients . The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras . Attempting to save himself after

4510-573: The League through judicial decisions. Synoecism under the Athenian Empire was enforced by resolving matters of and between states in Athens by courts composed of Athenian citizens and enforcing those decisions through the Athenian military. In the first ten years of the league's existence, Cimon/Kimon forced Karystos in Euboea to join the league, conquered the island of Skyros and sent Athenian colonists there. Over time, especially with

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4620-409: The League's vast territory. Furthermore, Pericles employed a number of offices to maintain Athens' empire: proxenoi , who fostered good relations between Athens and League members; episkopoi and archontes , who oversaw the collection of tribute; and hellenotamiai , who received the tribute on Athens' behalf. Athens's empire was not very stable and after 27 years of war, the Spartans, aided by

4730-614: The Persians and Athenian internal strife, were able to defeat it. However, it did not remain defeated for long. The Second Athenian League , a maritime self-defense league, was founded in 377 BC and was led by Athens. The Athenians would never recover the full extent of their power, and their enemies were now far stronger and more varied. Chios Chios ( / ˈ k aɪ . ɒ s , ˈ k aɪ . oʊ s , ˈ k iː -/ ; Greek : Χίος , romanized :  Chíos [ˈçi.os] , traditionally known as Scio in English)

4840-716: The Roman world and later. It has a pinkish coloured background containing yellow-orange, brown and grey spots of variable shape and size, separated by whitish or red veins. The name "portasanta" derives from the door jambs of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, being made of this marble. According to the Acts of the Apostles , Luke the Evangelist , Paul the Apostle and their companions passed Chios during Paul's third missionary journey, on

4950-533: The Spartan army decisively at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC). This led to the end of the Boeotian War and, with it, Spartan hegemony over Greece. Thebes soon left the league and established hegemony of its own. After Sparta's defeat in 371 BC, Thebes seceded from the League and was able to violate the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas with impunity. Later, a series of revolts rocked the league, culminating with

5060-551: The alliance, dying (according to Plutarch ) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be. The Delian League, also known as the Athenian Empire, was a collection of Greek city-states largely based around the Aegean Sea which operated under the hegemony of Athens. This alliance initially served the purpose of coordinating a united Greek front against a perceived looming Persian threat against

5170-401: The allies became increasingly less autonomous. The alliance held an assembly of representatives in order to shape its policy, while the members swore an oath of loyalty to the coalition. The Delian League successfully accomplished its principal strategic goal by decisively expelling the remaining Persian forces from the Aegean. As a result, Persia would cease to pose a major threat to Greece for

5280-412: The blockade of Citium , though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off Salamis, Cyprus . This battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a peace treaty, known as the Peace of Callias , was formalized in 450 BC, but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens. However, an understanding

5390-514: The capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis . After this, the Ionian revolt carried on (without further outside aid) for a further five years, until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians. However, in a decision of great historic significance, the Persian king Darius the Great decided that, despite having subdued the revolt, there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting

5500-537: The citadel and imprison Ismenias, which led to about 300 of his supporters fleeing in exile to Athens. Although this Spartan interference in Thebes represented a flagrant violation of the Peace of Antalcidas, Leontiades argued that the Spartans should not punish Phoebidas because his actions had only served to help Sparta. The Spartans agreed, deciding to keep the Thebian citadel and put Ismenias to death. The second event

5610-476: The city gates, and on the road leading to the city. Of the 1,000 men, 800 were killed, 200 taken prisoner.' After the Roman conquest Chios became part of the province of Asia . In the spring of 14 BC, King Herod of Judaea , known for his extensive architectural projects, funded the construction of a stoa on Chios, which had suffered destruction during the Mithridatic War . Additionally, he settled

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5720-462: The city with art and architecture. In order to maintain the new synoecism, Athens began using its greatly expanded military to enforce membership in the League. City-states who wished to leave the alliance were punished by Athens with force such as Mytilene and Melos . No longer considered her allies, Athens eventually began to refer to the members of the Delian League as "all the cities Athens rules." Athens also extended its authority over members of

5830-469: The colony of Amphipolis on the Strymon river. Thasos , a member of the League, saw her interests in the mines of Mt. Pangaion threatened and defected from the League to Persia. She called to Sparta for assistance but was denied, as Sparta was facing the largest helot revolt in its history. After more than two years of siege, Thasos surrendered to the Athenian leader Aristides and was forced back into

5940-444: The east coast lie the main population centers, the main town of Chios, and the regions of Vrontados and Kambos. Chios Town, with a population of 32,400, is built around the island's main harbour and medieval castle. The current castle, with a perimeter of 1,400 m (4,600 ft), was principally constructed during the time of Genoese and Ottoman rule, although remains have been found dating settlements there back to 2000 B.C. The town

6050-544: The end of the Persian invasion, and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco-Persian wars, the Greek counterattack . After Mycale, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted, with the Persians now powerless to stop them. The Allied fleet then sailed to the Thracian Chersonese , still held by the Persians, and besieged and captured the town of Sestos . The following year, 478 BC, the Allies sent

6160-631: The expansion of Olynthus in Chalkidiki , northern Greece. On the way to Olynthus Phoebidas stopped near Thebes, where the two polemarchs Ismenias and Leontiades were locked in a power struggle for control of Thebes. Ismenias was pro-democracy and anti-Sparta so Leontiades convinced Phoebidas, who is described by Xenophon as driven by desire to perform good deeds but lacking in reasoning capacity, that it would be in Sparta's interest to help him take control of Thebes. Phoebidas agreed and helped him take

6270-548: The expedition, while modern estimates place the figure at 50,000 men and 250 ships including reinforcements. The remainder escaped to Cyrene and thence returned home. This was the Athenians' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League. The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over Cyprus , and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under Cimon , who returned from ostracism in 451 BC. He died during

6380-499: The far south of the island. Scholars lack information on this period. The size and duration of these settlements have therefore not been well-established. The British School at Athens under the direction of Sinclair Hood excavated the Emporeio site in 1952–1955, and most current information comes from these digs. The Greek Archaeological Service has also been excavating periodically on Chios since 1970, though much of its work on

6490-415: The first half of the 4th century BC, Athens went on to partly revive the alliance, this time called the Second Athenian League , reestablishing its naval dominance in the eastern Mediterranean . The Greco-Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor , and particularly Ionia , by the Achaemenid Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC. The Persians found

6600-445: The first time since the end of the Peloponnesian War, allowing it to rebuild its previously decommissioned fortifications and its navy. The formation of the League was stimulated by three major events that caused relations between Athens and Sparta to deteriorate. The first event was Spartan intervention in a factional conflict within Thebes. In 382 BC, Sparta sent a force led by the general Eudamidas and his brother Phoebidas to combat

6710-477: The following fifty years. From its inception, Athens became the League's biggest source of military power, while more and more allies preferred to pay the dues in cash. Athens began to use the League's funds for its own purposes, like the reinforcement of its naval supremacy, which led to conflicts between the city and its less powerful allies, at times culminating in rebellions, like that of Thasos in 465 BC. The League's treasury initially stood in Delos until, in

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6820-417: The following terms: the Athenian walls and fortifications were to be destroyed, the Athenian fleet was to be decommissioned except for twelve ships, Athenian exiles were to be allowed back to the city, and Athens was to acknowledge Spartan leadership and join the Spartan alliance network, allowing Sparta to dictate its foreign policy. Sparta's former allies turned against it in 395 BC, with Thebes instigating

6930-403: The frequent raids by marauding pirates. Between Chios Town and the Mastichochoria lie a large number of historic villages including Armolia ( Αρμόλια ), Myrmighi ( Μυρμήγκι ), and Kalimassia ( Καλλιμασιά ). Along the east coast are the fishing villages of Kataraktis ( Καταρράκτης ) and to the south, Nenita ( Νένητα ). Directly in the centre of the island, between the villages of Avgonyma to

7040-400: The hands of the local Greek landowners. Benedetto Zacharia was followed by his son Paleologo and then his grandsons or nephews Benedetto II and Martino . They attempted to turn the island towards the Latin and Papal powers, and away from the predominant Byzantine influence. The locals, still loyal to the Byzantine Empire, responded to a letter from the emperor and, despite a standing army of

7150-416: The intercepting fleet were friendly Romans, but scattered upon realizing they were facing an attack by their Macedonian enemy, some choosing to abandon ship and swim to Erythrae. Others, crashing their ships into land on Chios, fled toward the city. The Chians however closed their gates, startled at the calamity. And the Macedonians, who had docked closer to the city anyway, cut the rest of the fleet off outside

7260-432: The island after a series of clashes that lasted for over a month. The Ottoman Empire recognized Greece's annexation of Chios and the other Aegean islands by signing the Treaty of London (1913) . Although Greece was officially neutral, the island was occupied by the British during World War I, on 17 February 1916. This may have been due to the island's proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the city of İzmir in particular. It

7370-481: The island are the Mastichochoria (literally 'mastic villages'), the seven villages of Mesta ( Μεστά ), Pyrgi ( Πυργί ), Olympi ( Ολύμποι ), Kalamoti ( Καλαμωτή ), Vessa ( Βέσσα ), Lithi ( Λιθί ), and Elata ( Ελάτα ), which together have controlled the production of mastic gum in the area since the Roman period. The villages, built between the 14th and 16th centuries, have a carefully designed layout with fortified gates and narrow streets to protect against

7480-400: The island forms a separate municipality within the Chios regional unit , which is part of the North Aegean region . The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Chios . Locals refer to Chios town as Chora ( Χώρα literally means land or country, but usually refers to the capital or a settlement at the highest point of a Greek island). The island was also the site of

7590-426: The island had grown to an estimated population of over 120,000 (two to three times the estimated population in 2005), based on the huge necropolis at the main city of Chios. It is thought that the majority of the population lived in that area. In 412 BC, during the Peloponnesian War , Chios revolted against Athens, and the Athenians besieged it. Relief only came the following year when the Spartans were able to raise

7700-421: The island is attested by ceramics, while a Phoenician presence is noted at Erythrae , the traditional competitor of Chios on the mainland. Pherecydes, native to the Aegean, wrote that the island was occupied by the Leleges , Pre-Greeks who were reported to be subjected to the Minoans on Crete . They were eventually driven out by invading Ionians . Chios was one of the original twelve member states of

7810-402: The island remained under Genoese control for two centuries. A notable Genoese inhabitant from this period was Christopher Columbus who lived in Chios in the 1470s before his voyages to the Americas. In 1566, when Genoa lost Chios to the Ottoman Empire , there were 12,000 Greeks and 2,500 Genoese (or 17% of the total population) in the island. In April 1566, the island of Chios was captured by

7920-596: The island remains unpublished. The noticeable uniformity in the size of houses at Emporeio leads some scholars to believe that there may have been little social distinction during the Neolithic era on the island. The inhabitants apparently all benefited from agricultural and livestock farming. It is also widely held by scholars that the island was not occupied by humans during the Middle Bronze Age (2300–1600), though researchers have recently suggested that

8030-479: The island was invaded by a Genoese fleet, led by Simone Vignoso , and the castle besieged. Again rule was transferred peacefully, as on 12 September the castle was surrendered and a treaty signed with no loss of privileges to the local landowners as long as the new authority was accepted. The Maona was controlled by the Giustiniani family. The Genoese, being interested in profit rather than conquest, controlled

8140-546: The island. Theopompus was exiled again sometime after Alexander's death and took refuge in Egypt. During this period, the island also had become the largest exporter of Greek wine, which was noted for being of relatively high quality (see " Chian wine "). Chian amphoras , with a characteristic sphinx emblem and bunches of grapes, have been found in nearly every country with whom the ancient Greeks traded. These countries included Gaul , Upper Egypt , and Southern Russia . During

8250-429: The lack of evidence from this period may only demonstrate the lack of excavations on Chios and the northern Aegean . By at least the 11th century BC the island was ruled by a monarchy, and the subsequent transition to aristocratic (or possibly tyrannic ) rule occurred sometime over the next four centuries. Future excavations may reveal more information about this period. 9th-century Euboean and Cypriote presence on

8360-528: The league. As a result, the fortification walls of Thasos were torn down, and they had to pay yearly tribute and fines. Additionally, their land, naval ships, and the mines of Thasos were confiscated by Athens. The siege of Thasos marks the transformation of the Delian league from an alliance into, in the words of Thucydides, a hegemony . In 461 BC, Cimon was ostracized and was succeeded in his influence by democrats such as Ephialtes and Pericles. This signaled

8470-440: The main points of the charter was opposition to Sparta. However, relations between Thebes and the rest of the league soon became difficult and Athens started to realize that Thebes was not necessarily to be trusted. For example, Thebes destroyed Plataea in 372 BC, which had only recently been re-founded. Athens started to think about negotiating peace with Sparta; it was while Athens was discussing this with Sparta that Thebes defeated

8580-531: The most famous battles in history. During the first invasion , Thrace , Macedon and the Aegean Islands were added to the Persian Empire, and Eretria was duly destroyed. However, the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon . After this invasion, Darius died, and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I . Xerxes then personally led

8690-573: The most powerful of the original members of the Delian League save Athens, was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the Syracusan Expedition enjoyed success for several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt. Athens was nonetheless eventually able to suppress these revolts. To further strengthen Athens's grip on its empire, Pericles in 450 BC began a policy of establishing kleruchiai —quasi-colonies that remained tied to Athens and which served as garrisons to maintain control of

8800-404: The orchards of Kampos and their bodies driven through the main town on the back of a truck. In March 1948, the island was used as an internment camp for female political detainees (communists or relatives of guerillas) and their children, who were housed in military barracks near the town of Chios. Up to 1300 women and 50 children were housed in cramped and degrading conditions, until March 1949 when

8910-409: The outstanding taxes owed by the people of Chios to the Romans. Pliny remarks upon the islanders' use of variegated marble in their buildings, their appreciation for such stone above murals or other forms of artificial decoration, and the cosmetic properties of the local earth . The marble from Chios, called marmor chium or "portasanta" today, became one of the most desireable and expensive in

9020-404: The poet Ion of Chios believed the island received its name from Chios , the son of Poseidon by a nymph of the island, who was born amidst snowfall ( Ancient Greek : χιών chiōn 'snow'). Known as Ophioussa ( Ὀφιοῦσσα , 'snake island') and Pityoussa ( Πιτυοῦσσα , 'pine-tree island') in antiquity, during the later Middle Ages the island was ruled by a number of non-Greek powers and

9130-541: The power of Thebes in order to help hold the Athenians in check. Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the Battle of Tanagra . All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid. Two months later, the Athenians under Myronides invaded Boeotia, and winning the Battle of Oenophyta gained control of

9240-428: The revolt. The Ionian revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria. In the next two decades, there would be two Persian invasions of Greece, occasioning, thanks to Greek historians, some of

9350-464: The revolution and launched attacks against the Turks, at which point islanders decided to join the struggle. Ottomans landed a large force on the island consequently and put down the rebellion. The Ottoman massacre of Chios expelled, killed or enslaved thousands of the inhabitants of the island. It wiped out whole villages and affected the Mastichochoria area, the mastic growing villages in

9460-595: The same time maintaining only a light level of taxation. The Ottoman government regarded it as one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire. When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the island's leaders were reluctant to join the revolutionaries, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. However, in March 1822, several hundred armed Greeks from the neighbouring island of Samos landed in Chios. They proclaimed

9570-587: The sanctuary of the Temple of Apollo ; contemporary authors referred to the organization simply as "the Athenians and their Allies". While Sparta excelled as Greece's greatest power on land, Athens turned to the seas becoming the dominant naval power of the Greek world . Following Sparta's withdrawal from the conflict with Persia , Athens took the lead of the Hellenic alliance accompanied by several states around

9680-479: The siege. In the 4th century BC, Chios was a member of the Second Athenian League but revolted against Athens during the Social War (357–355 BC) , and Chios became independent again until the rise of Macedonia . Theopompus returned to Chios with the other exiles in 333 BC after Alexander had invaded Asia Minor and decreed their return, as well as the exile or trial of Persian supporters on

9790-576: The south of the island. It triggered also negative public reaction in Western Europe, as portrayed by Eugène Delacroix , and in the writing of Lord Byron and Victor Hugo . In 1825, Thomas Barker of Bath painted a fresco depicting the Chios Massacre on the walls of Doric House, Bath, Somerset . Finally, Chios was not included in the modern Greek state and remained under Ottoman rule. The 1881 Chios earthquake , estimated as 6.5 on

9900-635: The strong diaspora presence of Chian merchants and bankers, and the connections they had developed with the financing centers of the time (Istanbul, London), the establishment in London of shipping businessmen, the creation of shipping academies in Chios and the expertise of Chian personnel on board. Chios joined the rest of independent Greece after the First Balkan War (1912). The Greek Navy landed at Chios in November 1912 and took control of

10010-500: The suppression of rebellions, Athens exercised hegemony over the rest of the league. Thucydides describes how Athens's control over the League grew: Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects

10120-491: The trade-posts and warehouses, in particular the trade of mastic, alum, salt and pitch. Other trades such as grain, wine oil and cloth and most professions were run jointly with the locals. After a failed uprising in 1347, and being heavily outnumbered (less than 10% of the population in 1395), the Latins maintained light control over the local population, remaining largely in the town and allowing full religious freedom. In this way

10230-577: The view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been achieved. There was also perhaps a feeling that establishing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible. In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychidas had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion. Xanthippus,

10340-509: The voting system conducted by relying on the support of democratic city-states Athens had helped into being. By 454 Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from the Island of Delos to the Parthenon in Athens. Benefitting greatly from the influx of cash coming out of the 150-330 members, Athens used the money to reinforce its own naval supremacy and used the remaining funds to embellish

10450-436: The war against Sparta. The Spartan ambassadors stationed in Athens promised that Sphodrias would be convicted and punished in Sparta, but he was acquitted in what Siculus calls a "miscarriage of justice". This caused Athens to seek alliances against Sparta, so they reached out to Aegean cities under harsh Spartan control including Chios , Byzantium , Rhodes , and Mytilene . These cities sent representatives to Athens who signed

10560-499: The west and Karyes to the east, is the 11th century monastery of Nea Moni , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The monastery was built with funds given by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX , after three monks, living in caves nearby, had petitioned him while he was in exile on the island of Lesbos . The monastery had substantial estates attached, with a thriving community until the massacre of 1822 . It

10670-420: The whole country except Thebes. Reverses followed peace with Persia in 449 BC. The Battle of Coronea , in 447 BC, led to the abandonment of Boeotia. Euboea and Megara revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss. The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years. It only lasted until 431 BC, when

10780-489: The year, with wind direction predominantly northerly (" Etesian " Wind—locally called the "Meltemi") or southwesterly (Sirocco). The Chios Basin is a hydrographic sub-unit of the Aegean Sea adjacent to the island of Chios. A kind of white dirt found near Pyrgi on the southern part of the island was famed as an astringent and cosmetic since antiquity as Chian earth ( Latin : Chia terra ; Greek : πηλομαιοτικο , pēlomaiotiko ). Extracted around May each year, it

10890-506: Was a target for the renewed Turkish fleets. To prevent Turkish expansion, the island was reconquered and kept as a renewable concession, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus , by the Genovese Benedetto I Zaccaria (1304), then admiral to Philip of France. Zaccaria installed himself as ruler of the island, founding the short-lived Lordship of Chios . His rule was benign and effective control remained in

11000-594: Was affected also by the population exchange after the Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922 , with the incoming Greek refugees settling in Kastro (previously a Turkish neighborhood) and in new settlements hurriedly built south of Chios town. The island saw some local violence during the Greek Civil War setting neighbour against neighbour. This ended when the final band of communist fighters was trapped and killed in

11110-478: Was considered less valuable than the similar medicinal earth produced by Lemnos given that the Limnian earth was considered protective against venoms and poisons but nonetheless reputed to be "the greatest of all cosmetics... giv[ing] a whiteness and smoothness to the skin and prevent[ing] wrinkles beyond any of the other substances... for the same purposes." The ancient writer Pausanias tells us that

11220-593: Was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper. Soon, war with the Peloponnesians broke out. In 458 BC, the Athenians blockaded the island of Aegina , and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service. The following year, Sparta sent an army into Boeotia , reviving

11330-703: Was further damaged during the 1881 earthquake. In 1952, due to the shortage of monks, Nea Moni was converted to a convent. The island's climate is warm and moderate, categorised as temperate, Mediterranean ( Köppen : Csa ), with modest variation due to the stabilising effect of the surrounding sea. Average temperatures normally range from a summer high of 30 °C (86 °F) to a winter low of 7 °C (45 °F) in January, although temperatures of over 40 °C (104 °F) or below freezing can sometimes be encountered. The island normally experiences steady breezes (average 3–5 m/s (6.7–11.2 mph)) throughout

11440-434: Was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war. The first member of the league to attempt to secede was the island of Naxos in c. 471 BC. After being defeated, Naxos is believed (based on similar, later revolts) to have been forced to tear down its walls along with losing its fleet and vote in the League. In 465 BC, Athens founded

11550-602: Was known as Scio ( Genoese ), Chio (Italian) and Sakız ( صاقيز in Ottoman Turkish ). The capital during that time was Kastron ( Κάστρον , 'castle'). Archaeological research on Chios has found evidence of habitation dating back at least to the Neolithic era. The primary sites of research for this period have been cave dwellings at Hagio(n) Galas in the north and a settlement and accompanying necropolis in modern-day Emporeio (also known as Emporio) at

11660-458: Was not reserved solely for those who revolted. Thucydides documents the example of Melos , a small island, neutral in the war, though founded by Spartans. The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered. Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death and the women sold into slavery (see Melian dialogue ). By 454 BC, the Delian League could be fairly characterised as an Athenian Empire;

11770-518: Was subjected to the Persian Empire . Chios joined the Ionian Revolt against the Persians in 499 BC. The naval power of Chios during this period is demonstrated by the fact that the Chians had the largest fleet (100 ships) of all of the Ionians at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. At Lade, the Chian fleet doggedly continued to fight the Persian fleet even after the defection of the Samians and others, but

11880-476: Was substantially damaged by an earthquake in 1881, and only partially retains its original character. North of Chios Town lies the large suburb of Vrontados (population 4,500), which claims to be the birthplace of Homer . The suburb lies in the Omiroupoli municipality, and its connection to the poet is supported by an archaeological site known traditionally as "Teacher's Rock". In the southern region of

11990-516: Was the outbreak of the Boeotian War , directly caused by the Spartan intervention in Thebes. In 378 BC, some of the exiles from this intervention returned to Thebes and assassinated Leontiades, overthrowing the pro-Spartan tyranny. The Spartan governor sent for reinforcements, but they were destroyed during their approach by Theban cavalry. The cavalry then stormed the Theban acropolis and restored

12100-531: Was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defence of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Pericles set to building the Parthenon on the Acropolis , replacing an older temple, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. The Delian League was turning from an alliance into an empire. War with the Persians continued. In 460 BC, Egypt revolted under local leaders

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