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95-805: The Peloponnesian League is the modern name given to the Spartan system of alliances, but it is inaccurate because there were members outside the Peloponnese, and it was not really a league. The ancient name of the League was "the Lacedemonians and their allies". This is misleading as well, because Sparta could have allies outside of the Peloponnesian League. In its early history, Sparta expanded by conquering Laconia and Messenia and reducing their population into slavery (as helots ), but

190-462: A divide and rule policy. Upon his arrival in c.490, Cleomenes wanted to unite the Arcadians and requested them to swear the oath of "following him withersoever he might lead". This oath was a paraphrase of the oath of the Peloponnesian League, so it seems that Cleomenes tried to make them shift their allegiance from Sparta to himself, then turn against Sparta at the head of a personal union with

285-546: A League congress, in which the allies could vote on declaring war and making peace. A few years later, possibly in 504, the first recorded congress of the Peloponnesian League took place in Sparta, during which the restoration of Hippias to Athens was debated. The Spartans wished to restore him because they said they had been tricked by the false oracles of the Alcmeonids, which prompted the removal of Hippias in 510. Hippias

380-494: A League decision forbade internal wars if the League was operating an army outside of the Peloponnese, but perhaps this disposition had already been in place from much earlier and was a part of the constitution of the League. L. H. Jefery summarises the constitution of the League as "a circle centred on Sparta, with the spokes of a wheel but not necessarily with the added cross-links of a web." The League treaties contained defensive obligations: Sparta had to assist an ally attacked by

475-611: A blunt, concise way—is derived from the name of this region, a reference to the ancient Spartans who were renowned for their verbal austerity and blunt, often pithy remarks. Laconia is bordered by Messenia to the west and Arcadia to the north and is surrounded by the Myrtoan Sea to the east and by the Laconian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. It encompasses Cape Malea and Cape Tainaron and

570-686: A border conflict between Thebes and Athens, two of the most powerful poleis of central Greece. The Plataians probably wished to avoid their forced incorporation into the Boiotian League , which was being built by Thebes at this time. Their Spartan alliance request perhaps indicates that they wanted to become a member of the Peloponnesian League , which was likewise being put in place at this time. G. E. M. de Ste. Croix and Paul Cartledge call this move "a master-stroke" of diplomacy, but other modern scholars do not believe it

665-469: A devastating fire ruined the finest olive crops in the northern part of the prefecture, and affected the area of Sellasia along with Oinountas and its surrounding areas. Firefighters, helicopters and planes battled for days to put out the horrific fire. In early 2006, flooding ruined olive and citrus crops as well as properties and villages along the Eurotas river. In the summer 2006, a fire devastated

760-514: A friend of Argos , another one of Sparta's enemies. Embarrassed by owing the fall of the tyranny to the intervention of a Spartan king, the Athenians later promoted instead the story of Harmodius and Aristogeiton , who had murdered Hippias' brother Hipparchus in 514. Another reason for the Spartan interventions in Athens may be the defection of Megara from the Peloponnesian League, perhaps at

855-574: A large part of the Mani Peninsula . The Mani Peninsula is in the west region of Laconia. The islands of Kythira and Antikythera lie to the south, but they administratively belong to the Attica regional unit of islands . The island, Elafonisos , situated between the Laconian mainland and Kythira, is part of Laconia. The Evrotas is the longest river in the prefecture. The Evrotas Valley

950-617: A major tourist attraction, is located south of Areopolis in the southwest of Laconia. The city of Sparta enjoys a sunny and warm Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ). January highs are around 14 °C (57 °F) while July and August highs are around 36 °C (97 °F) in the city proper. Sparta records the highest summer average maximum temperatures in Greece. In July 2012 the city registered an average maximum temperature of 38.3 °C (100.9 °F), making it Greece's second highest monthly average maximum temperature to date after

1045-457: A narrow oligarchy or a tyranny, by suppressing Athens' council ( boule ) and creating instead a new council of 300 men filled with Isagoras' supporters. However, the boule rejected the dissolution order; this act of resistance triggered a large revolt among the Athenians. Taken by surprise, Cleomenes and Isagoras sought shelter on the Acropolis, where they were besieged. While stuck on

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1140-458: A new war. This peace had been possibly concluded after a Spartan victory for the control the Thyreatis , the border area between the two cities, won by Anaxandridas II. Cleomenes' motivations may have been either to weaken a rival in the Peloponnese, or to punish Argos for its Medism . The campaign only involved Sparta, not the Peloponnesian League, and perhaps only Spartian citizens , without

1235-399: A non-League member, and conversely the allies had to help Sparta in case of an attack. The famous Spartan fear of the helots is shown by a special clause providing that allies had to assist Sparta in case of a slave-revolt and must not offer citizenship to Messenians, because the Arcadians assisted the latter during the Spartan conquest of Messenia. This clause was activated in the 460s during

1330-488: A part of the Mani Peninsula, ruining forests, crops, and numerous villages. The regional unit, Laconia, is subdivided into five municipalities. These are (number as in the map in the infobox): As a part of the 2011 Kallikratis government reform, regional unit Laconia was created out of the former prefecture Laconia ( Greek : Νομός Λακωνίας ). The prefecture had the same territory as the present regional unit. At

1425-438: A ratio of 1 cavalryman=4 hoplites=8 light troops was set up to balance contingents from each district. Starting in 383, League members could also opt to pay in cash to avoid sending men, with a rate of 12 Aeginetan obols per day for a cavalryman, and 3 for a hoplite. This option was apparently favoured by many cities; it suited Sparta, which could hire mercenaries. Only one xenagos was needed for each district, therefore easing

1520-539: A regent); Spartan officers named xenagoi supervised the levy among the allies and decided how much troops each ally should contribute. In the academic literature of the 19th and early 20th century, it was often assumed that the Peloponnesian League was the same as the Hellenic League, the alliance in charge of the resistance against the Persian Empire . In this view, Athens and its allies simply joined

1615-714: A role, as he probably coveted the tyranny of Samos. In about 513, Darius the Great invaded Scythia , which prompted the latter to send an embassy to Sparta in order to request an alliance against the Persians. Herodotus says the Scythians offered to go from the river Phasis to Media , while the Spartans would march east from Ephesus . This story is however suspect, as the Scythian ambassadors later resurfaced to explain

1710-580: A sacred ground nearby, but Cleomenes put the grove on fire and killed the Argives. He then dismissed most of his army but a thousand soldiers and moved to Mycenae , in the northeast of Argos. On his way, he stopped at the Heraion of Argos, the great temple of Hera , where he committed another sacrilege by flogging the priest who tried to prevent him from performing a sacrifice in the temple. In both cases, Cleomenes had ordered his accompanying helots to commit

1805-406: A struggle took place between aristocratic factions headed by Cleisthenes and Isagoras for the control of the city. The pro-Spartan oligarch Isagoras became archon in 508/507, but Cleisthenes promised democratic reforms in order to gain greater support among the citizenry and expand his power-base. Now on the losing side, Isagoras called for help from his friend Cleomenes, whom it was rumoured

1900-527: Is cited as one of the arbiters, several modern scholars place the settlement in c.510, just after the war, because Cleomenes finally decided in favour of Athens, probably to punish Megara for its defection, and also to bring Athens into the Peloponnesian League. This theory remains controversial as several other opinions place the Megara arbitration in c.519, at the same time as the Plataea incident. In Athens,

1995-564: Is predominantly an agricultural region that contains many citrus groves, olive groves, and pasture lands. It is the location of the largest orange production in the Peloponnese and probably in all of Greece. Lakonia , a brand of orange juice, is based in Amykles . The main mountain ranges are the Taygetus 2,407 m (7,897 ft) in the west and the Parnon 1,961 m (6,434 ft) in

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2090-579: Is that he was trying to convince either Megara or Thebes to join the Peloponnesian League, or he was arbitrating between Megara and Athens over the island of Salamis . The date of this event has been challenged by some modern scholars, who have often suggested 509 rather than 519, as it would better fit with Cleomenes' latter involvement in Athenian politics, but the majority view remains in favour of 519. In c.516, Cleomenes received an embassy from Maeandrius of Samos asking him for help to expel

2185-533: The Agiad dynasty , one of the two royal families of Sparta (the other being the Eurypontids). As his father did not have a son from his first wife (who was also his niece), the ephors forced him to marry another woman, without divorcing his first wife—an unprecedented occurrence of bigamy in Sparta. His new spouse likely came from the family of the ephor Chilon , an important reformer, who held office in during

2280-742: The Palaiologoi . The capital of the Despotate, Mystras , was a major site of the Palaiologan Renaissance , the last flowering of Byzantine culture . With the fall of the Despotate to the Ottomans in 1460, Laconia was conquered as well. With the exception of a 30-year interval of Venetian rule, Laconia remained under Ottoman control until the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence of 1821. Following independence, Sparta

2375-575: The Vaphio-tomb site in Laconia. Found there is advanced Bronze Age art as well as evidence of cultural associations with the contemporaneous Minoan culture on Crete . At the end of the Mycenean period, the population of Laconia sharply declined. In classical Greece , Laconia was Spartan territory but from the 4th century BC onward Sparta lost control of various ports, towns and areas. From

2470-503: The ecclesia . Cleomenes explained that after having taken the sacred grove of Argos, the oracle's forecast regarding the capture of Argos had been fulfilled—since they shared the same name, and was therefore acquitted. When the Persians invaded Greece after putting down the Ionian revolt in 493, many city-states quickly submitted to them fearing a loss of trade. Among these states was Aegina . So in 491, Cleomenes attempted to arrest

2565-545: The perioeci who usually fought alongside them in battle. They were at least 2,000 Spartan soldiers, with an equal number of helots . The Spartan army marched north through the Perioecic city of Sellasia , then Tegea , whence they moved north-east towards Argos. The Argives however blocked the way at the river Erasinos. Cleomenes returned south to the Thyreatis , within Spartan territory, in order to board his troops into ships lent by Sikyon and Aegina , two members of

2660-657: The 38.6 °C (101.5 °F) recorded in Stylida in July 2023. The highest temperature ever recorded in Sparta is 45.7 °C (114.3 °F) in August 2021. On average, Sparta records 5 days per year with temperatures of over 40.0 °C (104.0 °F). Evidence of Neolithic settlement in southern Laconia has been found during excavations of the Alepotrypa cave site. Significant archaeological recovery exists at

2755-409: The 6th-century. A descendant of Chilon, Cleomenes therefore attempted to present himself as less alien to the Athenians by claiming an Achaean identity. His reply to the priestess also conveys a second meaning, as it can be translated by "I am not Dorieus", the name of his rival half-brother. In the third day of the siege, Cleomenes realised that his position was hopeless, and negotiated a surrender:

2850-464: The Acropolis, Cleomenes tried to enter the Old Temple of Athena Polias , but the priestess barred him access, saying that the temple was forbidden to Dorians —the ethnic group of the Spartans (Athenians were Ionians ). Cleomenes likely wanted to show his strength by making a sacrifice in a forbidden place, which was a typical behaviour for conquerors and notably Spartan commanders. Even though

2945-466: The Arcadians could then create the federal Arcadian League and left the Peloponnesian League. The size of the Peloponnesian League was then further reduced by the Theban liberation of Messenia from Spartan control in 369 BC. The states of the north-eastern Peloponnese, including Corinth , Sicyon and Epidauros , adhered to their Spartan allegiance, but as the war continued in the 360s BC, many joined

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3040-560: The Arcadians. He might have promised them that if they helped him to regain his place in Sparta, he would recognise Arcadia as a single political unit. According to Herodotus, the oath would have been taken in the city of Nonacris , by the Styx —the river of the Underworld , where normally only gods swore oaths—therefore making Cleomenes commit another sacrilege and suffering from "divine megalomania". Based on Arcadian coins produced in

3135-489: The Corinthians' decision is that they ignored Cleomenes' plan to install a tyrant in Athens; they thought would be an unjust act once they learned about it. Several modern historians find this change of mood unconvincing and have offered alternative theories. Lawrence Tritle has suggested instead that after Cleomenes retreated from the Acropolis, he captured Eleusis and left Isagoras in charge there until his return with

3230-558: The Greek historian Diodoros of Sicily had confused the length of Cleomenes II 's reign (370–309) with that of his earlier namesake. Putting aside Diodoros' error, Harvey states that as Cleomenes came to the throne "a few years earlier than the Plataia incident", he dates the start of his reign to 524–523. During the first years of his reign, Cleomenes adopted prudent diplomacy, rejecting foreign expeditions when solicited, possibly due to

3325-449: The League was called and marched on Athens, but the Corinthians returned home when they discovered the purpose of the expedition, also encouraged by the other king Demaratus , who opposed Cleomenes. The campaign therefore failed, and as a result Sparta had to concede the creation of a congress of the League, where members could vote on war and peace. It means that before that time, Sparta could call its allies at will without informing them of

3420-451: The League's efficiency after the recent inclusion of the distant Chalkidike . Moreover, the districts may have increased the number of available troops, while also lessening the burden on the allies by better spreading their contributions amon them. Each district had to contribute 3000-4000 hoplites to the League army, which therefore had a theoretical army of at least 30,000 men. In fact, as League members contributed different kinds of troops,

3515-537: The League, but also massively weakened it by giving independence to its periokoi cities of the Akrorians and Triphylians . These cities organised as federal states joined the Peloponnesian League as single units. In 385, Mantinea was disbanded into villages to punish its hegemonic behaviour in Arcadia, where Sparta had always adopted a " divide and rule " policy to prevent its unification. This blatant violation of

3610-462: The Peloponnesian League and remained good allies of Sparta. Despite his crushing victory against Argos, Cleomenes did not try to capture the city, possibly because its defences were too strong, or he failed to install a friendly government. On his return to Sparta, Cleomenes was accused of bribery before the ephors for having spared Argos after the battle. A trial took place before the Gerousia or

3705-482: The Peloponnesian League to fight the Persians. The Hellenic League was actually a distinct and new creation for the conduct of war against Persia. Tensions between the two Leagues were key in the outbreak of the First Peloponnesian War in 460 BC. The conflict between two Peloponnesian League members, Corinth and Megara, specifically the latter's defection to the Athenians due to perceived neglect by

3800-463: The Peloponnesian League. The ships landed on the other side of the Argolic Gulf , at Tiryns and Nauplia , two subject cities of Argos. A large pitched battle took place at Sepeia, near Tiryns, where the entire Argive army was wiped out, perhaps up to 6,000 men. Ste.Croix thinks the battle was "the greatest slaughter of hoplites [...] in any war between two Greek states". The survivors fled to

3895-645: The Peloponnesian army arrived at Eleusis in Western Attica, the Corinthians refused to continue and returned home. Demaratus , the Eurypontid king, similarly disagreed with Cleomenes and took the rest of the allies with him back to the Peloponnese, thus effectively calling off the invasion. As a result, the Athenians easily defeated the Boeotians, then Chalkis. The most frequent explanation for

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3990-422: The Spartan authorities, notably the ephors, recalled Cleomenes to Sparta. However, according to Herodotus Cleomenes was by this time considered to be insane. The Spartans, fearing what he was capable of put him in prison. By the command of his half-brothers, Leonidas I and Cleombrotus , Cleomenes was placed in chains. He died in prison in mysterious circumstances, with the Spartan authorities claiming his death

4085-429: The Spartan version was designed to absolve Sparta from any accusation of impiety. The suicide of Cleomenes has appeared suspect to modern scholars, who instead consider the possibility that he was murdered by his half-brother Leonidas, who was next in line. Cleomenes' daughter, Gorgo, seems to have transmitted to Herodotus the Spartan "official version" of her father's death, to which she might have participated as she

4180-463: The Spartans captured his sons by chance; he then went into exile in the Persian Empire. The war against Hippias was consistent with the policy of removing tyrants followed by Sparta during the late 6th-century. Moreover, the tyrants of Athens were known for their Persian sympathies (called Medism ), which Cleomenes started to vigorously fight throughout Greece at this time. Hippias was also

4275-399: The Spartans notoriously devout, using religious motives was a good way to avoid League obligations. Other League members are known to have used the same tricks, such as Phlious, which did not participate to the battle of Nemea in 394 because of an opportune sacred truce. In war, Sparta had exclusive command of the League army. One of the kings was usually commander-in-chief (it could also be

4370-450: The Spartans were allowed to leave with Isagoras, but the supporters of the latter were massacred. Revengeful after the humiliation he suffered, Cleomenes set up a large coalition against Athens, gathering the Peloponnesian League, Boeotia, and Chalkis (on the island of Euboea ), which pushed Athens to seek an alliance with Persia—another reason for Cleomenes' intervention. The goal was again to install Isagoras as tyrant. However, once

4465-603: The Spartans, was a key factor in the outbreak of hostilities between the two Leagues. That war ended with the reintegration of Megara into the League. The two Leagues eventually came into conflict again with each other in the Peloponnesian War. Under Spartan leadership, the League defeated Athens and its allies in 404 BC. In 378, the League was reorganised in 10 military districts, while there had been no intermediary administrative level before. Several reasons can explain this new structure: Sparta probably wanted to enhance

4560-587: The Thebans or took a neutral position, though Elis and some of the Arcadian states realigned themselves with Sparta. Laconia Laconia or Lakonia ( Greek : Λακωνία , Lakonía , [lakoˈni.a] ) is a historical and administrative region of Greece located on the southeastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. Its administrative capital is Sparta . The word laconic —to speak in

4655-478: The Third Messenian War. The treaties between Sparta and the allies were also permanent, with a clause forbidding secession. Several secessions did occur, but as a result of a breach of a treaty. Seceding members usually pointed out a breach of the treaties from Sparta to leave. The procedure to admit new members is not known. Sparta could either decide alone, or request the approval from their allies in

4750-570: The autonomy proclaimed during the King's Peace of 387 was bitterly received. The defeat of Sparta against Thebes at Leuktra in 371 BC decisively shook its control of the League members. In Arcadia, the Mantineans were the first to act by reconstituting their city. This time, the other Arcadian cities supported them, even their traditional rival Tegea, where pro-Mantinean democrats took over the pro-Spartan oligarchs. United by their hostility to Sparta,

4845-473: The city, who considered the new regime in Athens to be more hostile to Sparta than Hippias. In 499, Aristagoras , the tyrant of Miletus , came to Sparta to request help from King Cleomenes with the Ionian Revolt against Persia . Aristagoras nearly persuaded Cleomenes to help, promising an easy conquest of Persia and its riches, but Cleomenes sent him away when he learned about the long distance to

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4940-567: The creation of democracy in Athens. The powerful, but exiled, Alcmaeonid family of Athens bribed the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi to tell the Spartans that they would not have access to the Oracle unless they removed the tyranny of the Peisistratid dynasty , who had held power in Athens since 561. The first Spartan expedition, headed by Anchimolus , took place in c.511, but was defeated by

5035-403: The death of Cleomenes, and the proposed alliance looks like a Pan-Hellenic fantasy of Herodotus'. An alternative date of after 494 BC has been proposed, because the mention of Ephesus by Herodotus implies that the city was not under Persian control, which only happened after the Ionian Revolt of 499 – 494. In the 500s, Cleomenes meddled four times in Athenian politics, which ultimately led to

5130-539: The decades before the Persian Wars . Herodotus' account however contains many mistakes, especially on the chronology of several major events, and is also very biased against Cleomenes. It seems that Herodotus got his information on Cleomenes from his opponents: the descendants of his half-brothers Leonidas and Cleombrotus , as well as those of Demaratus , the other Spartan king who was deposed by Cleomenes in 491. Herodotus for instance states that Cleomenes' reign

5225-417: The ethnically different Achaia in the northern Peloponnese . The family of Anaxandridas' second wife immediately contested the legitimacy of Dorieus even before his birth, as the ephors attended his birth in order to certify the authenticity of the pregnancy. This shows that there were strong familial rivalries among Spartan royal circles; besides, at the same time, a cousin of Anaxandridas' second wife

5320-525: The first half of the 5th century, several historians have even considered that Cleomenes created the first Arcadian League , whereas this federal structure only appear in ancient sources after the Spartan defeat at Leuctra in 371. However, more recent studies have shown that this coinage was probably not political, but connected to the festival of Zeus Lykaios , and that Cleomenes never completed his plans in Arcadia. The wording in Herodotus implies that

5415-583: The full army. The following year, the Spartans and their allies discovered at Eleusis that Athens had retaken this city; without a secure base in Attica, the whole expedition appeared hopeless and was cancelled. Simon Hornblower thinks that the Peloponnesians only learned about the alliance between Athens and Persia once they reached Eleusis, and they did not want to go to war with the latter. While near Eleusis, Cleomenes may have destroyed some trees in

5510-483: The ground that he was a son of the king's first wife, who was additionally of royal descent. As Cleomenes was the eldest son, his claim was nevertheless deemed stronger and he became king. It prompted the departure of Dorieus to colonial ventures in Libya and Sicily , where he died in c.510. The date of Cleomenes' accession had been debated among modern scholars for a long time, until historian David Harvey found that

5605-422: The heart of Persia. Aristagoras attempted to bribe him by offering silver. Cleomenes declined, so Aristagoras began offering him more and more. According to Herodotus , once Aristagoras offered Cleomenes 50 talents of silver, Cleomenes's young daughter Gorgo warned him not to trust a man who threatened to corrupt him. In 494, a fifty years' peace that had been signed between Sparta and Argos expired, leading to

5700-539: The helots an improvement of their condition in exchange for help, as did his nephew the regent Pausanias a few years later. In support of this theory, the city of Messena in Sicily, was founded in c.488 by refugees from Messenia, and the Spartans made a dedication at Olympia after a victory against the Messenians at the beginning of the 5th century. Facing the threat of a combined revolt from Arcadia and Messenia,

5795-520: The instigation of Hippias. This would also be the reason why Anchimolus had to use ships to reach Attica, since the Isthmus of Corinth was cut off. Cleomenes then forced Megara back into the League in 511/510. Moreover, Plutarch mentions that at the time of Solon , Sparta acted as arbitrator between Athens and Megara for the ownership of Salamis , an island in the Saronic Gulf . But as Cleomenes

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5890-784: The late Middle Ages. Following the Fourth Crusade , Laconia was gradually conquered by the Frankish Principality of Achaea . In the 1260s, the Byzantines recovered Mystras and other fortresses in the region and managed to evict the Franks from Laconia, which became the nucleus of a new Byzantine province. By the mid-14th century, this evolved into the Despotate of the Morea , held by the last Greek ruling dynasty,

5985-477: The major collaborators there. The citizens of Aegina would not cooperate with him and the Eurypontid Spartan king, Demaratus attempted to undermine his efforts. Cleomenes overthrew Demaratus, after first bribing the oracle at Delphi to announce that this was the divine will, and replaced him with Leotychidas . Around 490 Cleomenes was forced to flee Sparta when his plot against his co-king Demaratus

6080-454: The manpower pressure on Sparta, which suffered from a severe demographic decline in the 4th century; xenagoi previously had to be sent to every city member of the League. The ten districts were: During its hegemony, Sparta adopted a more interventionist policy to preserve its supremacy over Greece. Elis had left the League since 420, but Sparta had to wait until the end of the Peloponnesian War to act on it. c.400, Sparta forced Elis back into

6175-641: The mid-2nd century BC until 395 AD, Laconia was a part of the Roman Empire . In the medieval period, Laconia formed part of the Byzantine Empire . In the 7th century, Slavic tribes settled in the Peloponnese. Two of them, the Melingoi and the Ezeritai , who settled in parts of Laconia, survived the subsequent Byzantine reconquest and re-Hellenization of the Peloponnese, and are attested until

6270-433: The mid-6th-century. Cleomenes was born from this second marriage, but then his father returned to his first wife and had three further sons with her: Dorieus , the future king Leonidas , and Cleombrotus —the latter two were possibly twins. The name Dorieus ("the Dorian ") explicitly refers to the Dorian ethnicity of Sparta, and might be a rejection of the ephor Chilon's policy of establishing an amicable relationship with

6365-416: The most important Spartan kings, Cleomenes was instrumental in organising the Greek resistance against the Persian Empire of Darius , as well as shaping the geopolitical balance of Classical Greece . Most of the life of Cleomenes is known through the Histories of Herodotus , an Athenian historian of the second half of the 5th century. He is one the most important characters of books 5 and 6, covering

6460-441: The northeast. Taygetus, known as Pentadaktylos ( five-fingers ) throughout the Middle Ages, is west of Sparta and the Evrotas Valley . It is the highest mountain in Laconia and the Peloponnese and is mostly covered with pine trees. Two roads join the Messenia and Laconia prefectures: one is a tortuous mountain pass through Taygetus and the other bypasses the mountain via the Mani district to the south. The stalactite cave, Dirou,

6555-509: The northern shore. There was no collective treaty between all the members of the League. As hegemon (leader of the League), Sparta concluded a separate treaty with each member, which therefore entered the League upon its conclusion. Each member swore the same oath with Sparta: "to have the same friends and enemies as the Spartans, and to follow them withersoever they may lead". League members were consequently not bound together, only to Sparta, and could even wage war on each other. However, in 378

6650-418: The oath by the Styx was never taken. The Spartans arrived late at the battle of Marathon against Persia in 490. Their official explanation was that they had to finish a religious festival , but the philosopher Plato mentioned that it was caused by a revolt of the helots in Messenia, which several historians have linked to the activities of Cleomenes against Sparta at the time. Cleomenes could have promised

6745-524: The oath required by the Peace of Nicias with Athens in the middle of the Peloponnesian War. Their reason was that they would have infringed on some separate treaties concluded with their Thracian allies. In 396, they might have refused to follow Sparta because one of their temples burnt, which was seen as bad omen. The Corinthians seems to have fully exploited exemptions granted when "gods and heroes" were involved in opposition to League orders. Indeed, as most international decisions were bound by sacred oaths and

6840-512: The priestess of Athena was the most important cleric in Athens, Herodotus chose not to give her name in order to make her speak as the goddess resisting the Spartan invasion. Cleomenes famously replied: "Woman, I am not Dorian but Achaean". In this context, the Achaeans were the Greeks of Homer 's poems. The name recalls the ephor Chilon's policy of appropriating their heritage in the middle of

6935-447: The purposes of the war. The Peloponnesian League therefore became a bicameral organisation, with two assemblies: the Spartan ecclesia and the congress of the League, both chaired by an ephor. Spartan citizens first debated the matter between them in the ecclesia. If a positive vote was reached in the ecclesia, the congress of the League was called, where the allies debated and voted on Sparta's proposal. Allies' votes were worth exactly

7030-399: The sacred area of the city, probably for military reasons. This failed invasion had several consequences. Firstly, a law was passed in Sparta forbidding the two kings to go on campaign at the same time, in order to avoid another dangerous disagreement on the field. Secondly, the organisation of the Peloponnesian League was considerably amended. Sparta had to concede its allies the creation of

7125-498: The sacrileges, probably to shield the Spartiates from the religious consequences. Cleomenes remained in the vicinity of Argos in the aftermath of the battle in order to create two independent city-states out of Tiryns and Mycenae, thus cutting Argos' access to its best harbour at Nauplia. The reason behind this move was to durably weaken Argos, and possibly to hinder it from receiving troops from Persia. Mycenae and Tiryns joined

7220-460: The same in the League congress, but Sparta likely did not participate in the vote, since its decision was already made by the ecclesia. League members were bound by the result of the League congress even if they had voted against it. Approval of the congress was necessary to declare a League war or make peace. Several instances of allies rejecting Sparta's proposals in the congress are known. The first of them took place c.504, when Sparta summoned what

7315-549: The same reason, all the other neighbours of Argos rapidly concluded treaties with Sparta on the Tegean model: Mantinea , Phlieus , Corinth , Epidaurus and the other cities of Argolis . They were followed by Elis , the large city of the western Peloponnesus, and all the Arcadian communities of central Peloponnesus. By 540s, Sparta had concluded alliances with all the Peloponnesian cities, apart from Argos and Achaean cities on

7410-455: The same time, the municipalities were reorganised, according to the table below. Note: Provinces no longer hold any legal status in Greece . The main cities and towns of Laconia are (ranked by 2021 census population): Cleomenes I Cleomenes I ( / k l iː ˈ ɒ m ɪ n iː z / ; Greek Κλεομένης; died c. 490 BC) was Agiad King of Sparta from c. 524 to c. 490 BC. One of

7505-467: The subjugation of Tegea on its northern border failed at the battle of the Fetters . Following this defeat, Sparta abandoned its military conquests and adopted a diplomatic strategy, known as the "bones policy", by appropriating the relics of mythical heroes worshipped in the Peloponnese, starting with Orestes , the son of Agamemnon , whose bones were transferred from Tegea to Sparta. This new diplomacy

7600-410: The subsequent League congress. Another reason for the allies to remain within the League, despite their loss of autonomy, was the support of oligarchy by Sparta. The oligarchs that ruled most of the League members could rely on Sparta to retain their status in their city. Moreover, many of them had friendship ties with Spartan citizens, or even the kings. The Spartan king Agesilaus II (r.c.400–c.360)

7695-498: The threat of a helot revolt that a defeat in a war abroad would cause. The first known deed of Cleomenes as king is his dealing with the city of Plataia , located between Thebes and Athens . In 519, Herodotus states that Cleomenes happened to be in the vicinity of Plataia, when the Plataians requested an alliance with Sparta, which he rejected. Instead he advised them to ally themselves with Athens, because he wanted to stir

7790-534: The tyrant Hippias , son of Pisistratus , thanks to the help he received from his Thessalian allies, who had sent a force of 1000 cavalrymen. In 510, Sparta sent a bigger force commanded by Cleomenes, who went to Attica by land. The Spartans defeated the Thessalian mercenaries of Hippias, then besieged Hippias in the Acropolis , where he had sought shelter with his supporters. The tyrant surrendered after

7885-421: The tyrant Syloson , a puppet of the Persian Empire , which was at the time was subjugating the city-states of the eastern Aegean Sea . However, with the support of the ephors , Cleomenes refused and they expelled Maeandrius from the Peloponnese. Perhaps Cleomenes did not want to commit the Peloponnesian League to long-distance wars, especially against Persian Empire. Maeandrius' intentions may have also played

7980-599: Was Cleomenes' intention to create a rift between Thebes and Athens. Herodotus does not explain why Cleomenes was near Plataia at that time. A number of theories have been advanced to explain it. Perhaps he was marching on Thebes to support an invasion of his ally, Lattamyas of Thessaly , but as the Thebans had defeated the Thessalians at the Battle of Ceressus before he arrived, he took the opportunity to try and undermine them without engaging his forces. Another possibility

8075-425: Was also in love with Isagoras' wife. Cleomenes obtained the exile of Cleisthenes through diplomacy, but Isagoras still felt unsafe, and requested intervention by his Spartan friend. Cleomenes personally came to Athens with a small bodyguard, possibly thinking that his prestige would be enough to change the political course of the city. Cleomenes expelled 700 families linked to Cleisthenes, and also wanted to establish

8170-466: Was also the bride of the future Eurypontid king Leotychidas . In turn, when his father died, Cleomenes' succession was contested by Dorieus, because of his superior "manly virtue". Perhaps this statement is related to a great performance during the agoge —the rigorous military training at Sparta—which Dorieus had to endure, while Cleomenes avoided it as heir-apparent (the only possible exemption). Dorieus could have also contested Cleomenes' legitimacy on

8265-429: Was discovered. Herodotus states that he first went to Thessaly, but such a large detour is implausible, and Herodotus' manuscript has often been corrected to " Sellasia ", which was a Perioecic city north of Sparta. Sellasia was still too close to Sparta, and Cleomenes moved to Arcadia. Arcadia was the central region of the Peloponnese ; it counted many small cities that Sparta had always prevented from uniting, applying

8360-510: Was especially known for his guest-friendships ( xenia ) among his allies. Thanks to these friendships, leading oligarchs could send their sons to the agoge , the Spartan education system, where they became trophimoi xenoi , and further developed their attachment to Sparta. A major change in the organisation of the League took place c.506, when the Spartan king Cleomenes I attempted to capture Athens and place at its head his friend Isagoras as tyrant or as member of an oligarchy. A full army of

8455-399: Was likely sponsored by Chilon , ephor c.556, who therefore enabled Sparta to present itself as the natural successor of the mythical Achaean kingdom of Agamemnon as described by Homer . Tegea then signed an alliance treaty with Sparta, which became the starting point of the subsequent Peloponnesian League. Tegea was pushed towards Sparta by its fear of Argos , its eastern neighbour. For

8550-553: Was perhaps the first congress of the League in order to attack Athens and install Hippias as tyrant, but the allies led by Corinth unanimously rejected it. In 440, Sparta wanted to renew war against Athens, but the allies led by Corinth refused to go to war. These events show the great influence exercised by Corinth within the League, thanks to its strategic position on the Isthmus. Moreover, the Corinthians often opposed Sparta or forced its hand, such as in 421, when they refused to swear

8645-447: Was present and pleaded his cause in Sparta, but the allies led by Corinth rejected the proposal. Hippias then left Greece for good, perhaps to the island of Chios . Although some scholars have assumed this reversal of Sparta's foreign policy was Cleomenes' doing, it seems that he played no part in this, because Herodotus does not mention him at all. Ste.Croix instead writes that Sparta's support of Hippias came from Cleomenes' opponents in

8740-551: Was selected as the capital of the modern prefecture, and its economy and agriculture expanded. With the incorporation of the British-ruled Ionian Islands into Greece in 1864, Elafonissos became part of the prefecture. After World War II and the Greek Civil War , its population began to somewhat decline, as people moved from the villages toward the larger cities of Greece and abroad. In 1992,

8835-595: Was short; however he ruled for about 30 years. Demaratus conversely receives positive treatment in the Histories , even though he betrayed to the Persians during the First Invasion of Greece . Paul Cartledge writes that Cleomenes suffered from a damnatio memoriae from the Spartans, notably for having corrupted the Oracle of Delphi in 491. Cleomenes was the son of Anaxandridas II , who belonged to

8930-595: Was suicide due to insanity. While in prison, Cleomenes was found dead with his death being ruled as suicide by self-mutilation. He apparently convinced the helot guarding him into giving him a knife, with which he slashed his shins, thighs and belly in an especially brutal suicide. He was succeeded by the elder of his surviving half-brothers Leonidas I , who then married Cleomenes' daughter Gorgo . Herodotus gives four different versions that circulated in Greece to explain Cleomenes' madness and suicide. The most common one

9025-652: Was that of divine retribution for having bribed the Oracle of Delphi. Alternatively, the Argives said it was for the massacre of the Argive soldiers cornered in their sacred grove after the battle of Sepeia; the Athenians thought it was for his sacrilege of the groves of Eleusis; the Spartans suggested that the wine he drank unmixed with water—a taste he acquired from the Scythian ambassadors who visited him in 514—turned him insane. For Herodotus, Cleomenes paid for his removal of Demaratus. The Athenians' and Argives' versions were coined to suit their own grief against Cleomenes, whereas

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