Zimbabwe Rhodesia
96-604: Lancaster House Agreement [REDACTED] 1979: [REDACTED] 1979: [REDACTED] 1979: Second Phase (1972–1979) Related incidents The Rhodesian Bush War , also known as the Second Chimurenga as well as the Zimbabwean War of Independence , was a civil conflict from July 1964 to December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and now Zimbabwe ). The conflict pitted three forces against one another:
192-427: A cease-fire agreement signed by all the parties. In concluding this agreement and signing its report, the parties agreed to accept the authority of the governor, abide by the independence constitution (later called the "Lancaster Constitution" ) and ceasefire agreement, comply with the pre-independence arrangements, campaign peacefully and without intimidation, renounce the use of force for political ends, and accept
288-666: A camp near Pyongyang . By April 1979, 12,000 ZANLA guerrillas were training in Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Libya while 9,500 of its 13,500 extant cadres operated in Rhodesia. South Africa clandestinely gave material and military support to the Rhodesian government. The Rhodesian Front (RF)—the ruling party—took an uncompromising position against the communist ideology of the ZIPRA and ZANLA. Ian Smith further expounded this by portraying
384-409: A civil war against ZIPRA, despite the formation of a joint front by their political parties after 1978. It was ZANLA's intention to occupy the ground, supplant the administration in rural areas, and then mount the final conventional campaign. ZANLA concentrated on the politicisation of the rural areas using force, persuasion, ties of kinship and collaboration with spirit mediums. ZANLA tried to paralyse
480-883: A further eight reserved for tribal chiefs. Amidst this backdrop, African nationalists advocated armed struggle to bring about black rule, primarily denouncing the wealth disparity between the races. Two rival nationalist organisations emerged in August 1963: the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), after disagreements about tactics, as well as tribalism and personality clashes. ZANU and its military wing ZANLA were headed by Robert Mugabe and consisted primarily of Shona tribes. ZAPU and its military wing ZIPRA consisted mainly of Ndebele under Joshua Nkomo . Cold War politics played into
576-580: A letter to senator John Stennis , praised the conference for making "some important first steps," but argued that "many difficult negotiations lie ahead." During the negotiations, the British delegation was headed by Antony Duff . It included over 20 other members, such as Lord Carrington, Ian Gilmour , Michael Havers , David Ormsby-Gore , Richard Luce , Michael Palliser , Derek Day . Other delegates included Robin Renwick , Nicholas Fenn of
672-466: A majority of seats. Independence in terms of the agreed-upon constitution, during the Lancaster House negotiations, was granted to Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980 with Robert Mugabe as the first prime minister. Mugabe's victory reportedly spelled "disaster" for South Africa 's plan to establish a "neutral constellation of friendly, client states." The content of Lancaster House Agreement covered
768-407: A national sense of national identity among the heterogeneous populations inside them. African nationalism exists in an uneasy relationship with tribalism and sub-national ethnic nationalism which differ in their conceptions of political allegiance. Many Africans distinguish between their ethnic and national identities. Some nationalists have argued that tribes were a colonial creation. During
864-435: A new government. The election was won by ZANU. The new government, headed by Robert Mugabe , was recognised internationally, and the country was renamed Zimbabwe . Despite the effect of economic and diplomatic sanctions, Rhodesia developed and maintained a powerful and professional military. In June 1977, Time magazine reported that "man for man, the Rhodesian army ranks among the world's finest fighting units." The army
960-673: A platform to address their own concerns as wives, mothers, industrial workers, peasants, and as women affiliated to the ANC. The 1940s Anti-tax protest in Tanzania involved the women of Peasant Pare, where women employed methods of direct confrontation, provocative language and physical violence. Explicit use of sexual insult was also central to the powerful Anlu protest of the Cameroon in 1958, where women refused to implement agricultural regulations that would have undermined their farming system. In
1056-462: A propaganda campaign exaggerating British involvement in the conflict in order to boost support for intervention. The Soviets were large suppliers of munitions and training, but refused to directly enter the conflict. Notebooks taken from political officers attached to insurgent groups, as well as uniforms and weaponry from the Eastern bloc confirmed Russian and Chinese sponsorship and ideology. This
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#17327760058661152-516: A strategy known as Storming the Heavens to launch a conventional invasion from Zambia, supported by a few armoured vehicles and light aircraft. An operation by the Rhodesian armed forces to destroy a ZIPRA base near Livingstone in Zambia was never launched. The ZAPU/ZIPRA strategy for taking over Zimbabwe proved unsuccessful. In any event, the transfer of power to black nationalists took place not by
1248-599: A type of home guard. The war saw the extensive operation of Rhodesian regulars as well as special forces units such as the Selous Scouts and the Rhodesian SAS . The Rhodesian Army fought bitterly against the black nationalist guerrillas. The Rhodesian Army also comprised mostly black regiments such as the Rhodesian African Rifles . As the war went on, the frequent call-up of reservists
1344-784: A variety of equipment and carried out numerous roles, with air power providing the Rhodesians with a significant advantage over their guerrilla enemy. The fleet consisted mainly of British aircraft and largely obsolete aircraft, such as the World War II vintage Douglas Dakota transport aircraft and the British de Havilland Vampire . The arms embargo caused a lack of spare parts from external suppliers and RhAF had to find alternative means to keep its aircraft flying. The larger South African Air Force provided extensive training, aircraft and aircrews in support of RhAF operations from 1966. The Rhodesians also used more modern types of aircraft like
1440-634: The African National Congress of South Africa) and South-West African SWAPO fighters were a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU 's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA grew slower and less elaborately than ZANLA, but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka , Zambia. ZIPRA was responsible for two attacks on civilian Air Rhodesia Viscount aeroplanes, on 3 September 1978 and 12 February 1979 . Using SA-7 surface-to-air missiles ,
1536-514: The Americas at the time. The early African nationalists were elitist and believed in the supremacy of Western culture but sought a greater role for themselves in political decision-making. They rejected African traditional religions and tribalism as "primitive" and embraced western ideas of Christianity , modernity , and the nation state . However, one of the challenges faced by nationalists in unifying their nation after European rule were
1632-727: The Angolan War of Independence (1961–1975) and Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), the Mozambican War of Independence (1964–1974) and Mozambican Civil War (1977–1992), the South African Border War (1966–1989), and the Shaba I (1977) and Shaba II (1978) conflicts. The conflict was seen by the nationalist groups and the UK government of the time as a war of national and racial liberation. The Rhodesian government saw
1728-906: The British colonial administration. In 1958, he spearheaded the All Party Committee – the purpose of which was for self-governance and to determine the political direction of the Gambia free from European colonialism and neo-colonialism. In 1959, he organised the Bread and Butter demonstration from outside his house in Barthurst now Banjul , and led his followers to Government House to lobby the British colonial administration. Following that demonstration, Cham Joof and his associates Crispin Grey Johnson and M. B. Jones were indicted as "inciting
1824-1024: The Foreign Office , George Walden , and Charles Powell . Andrew Novak wrote that Shridath Ramphal , the head of the Commonwealth of Nations , acted as a "shadow mediator" for the conference, restraining Carrington from hard-line positions, and ensuring Carrington and the Patriotic Front received "private concessions" during the negotiations. The Patriotic Front delegation was led by Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo . ZAPU leaders Josiah Mushore Chinamano and Joseph Msika , ZANLA general Josiah Tongogara , and ZAPU members Ernest R Kadungure and T George Silundika were also delegates. Additional delegates included Edgar Tekere , Dzingai Mutumbuka , Josiah Tungamirai , Edson Zvobgo , Simbi Mubako , Walter Kamba , and John Nkomo . The delegation which represented Zimbabwe Rhodesia
1920-613: The Hawker Hunter and Canberra bombers, the Cessna Skymaster as well as Aérospatiale Alouette III (SA316) helicopters until they were supplemented by the Agusta Bell 205 . Very late in the war, the Rhodesian forces were able to smuggle and use a few Agusta Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopters. At the beginning of the first war, much of Rhodesia's military hardware was of British and Commonwealth origin, but during
2016-475: The Mercedes-Benz UR-416 . During the course of the war, most white citizens carried personal weapons, and it was not unusual to see white housewives carrying submachine guns . A siege mentality set in and all civilian transport had to be escorted in convoys for safety against ambushes. Farms and villages in rural areas were frequently attacked by guerrillas. The Rhodesian government divided
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#17327760058662112-549: The Rhodesian Bush War . Some months later, Robert Mugabe announced that the forced acquisition of land under section 8 would proceed. Within 24 hours, the local currency had devalued more than 50%. In 2000 and 2001, the U.S. and British governments, and the European Union , would condemn the new land reform program, although African organizations also criticised the international community for their role in
2208-687: The Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). The fighting was largely rural, as the two rival movements tried to win peasant support and to recruit fighters while attacking the local government administration and white civilians. To ensure local domination, ZANLA and ZIPRA sometimes fought against each other as well as against
2304-686: The federation of many or all nation states in Africa. Nationalist ideas in Africa emerged during the mid-19th century among the emerging black middle classes in West Africa . Early nationalists hoped to overcome ethnic fragmentation by creating nation-states . In its earliest period, it was inspired by African-American and Afro-Caribbean intellectuals from the Back-to-Africa movement who imported nationalist ideals current in Europe and
2400-548: The governor , had indirectly ruled the country from 1923, when it took over from the British South Africa Company and granted self-governing status to a locally elected government, made up predominantly of Whites. Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front party was elected to power in 1962 and unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 to preserve what it saw as the self-government it had possessed since 1923. The Rhodesian government contended that it
2496-453: The new constitution , pre-independence arrangements, and the terms of ceasefire. The agreement is named after Lancaster House in London, where the conference on independence from 10 September to 15 December 1979 was held. The agreement was not, however, signed until 21 December. In February 1980, the U.N. Security Council passed Resolution 463 which called on all parties to comply with
2592-688: The "key financial backing for land restitution" promised by the Carter Administration , but it actually delayed land reform by ten years. The agreement specified that the new government could buy land owned by white settlers, but only from "willing sellers" with compensation, and without formal stipulations for Britain to "fund land programmes". It was also said that the British were protective of "white farming interests" in Zimbabwe. In 1997, war veterans began receiving individual personal payments of ZW$ 50,000 each for their service in
2688-422: The 19th and 20th centuries and was loosely inspired by nationalist ideas from Europe. Originally, African nationalism was based on demands for self-determination and played an important role in forcing the process of decolonisation of Africa ( c. 1957–66). However, the term refers to a broad range of different ideological and political movements and should not be confused with Pan-Africanism which may seek
2784-475: The African Nationalist moment. Whereas women's historians interested in effecting changes in the process and production of American or European history had to fight their way onto trains that had been moving through centuries on well-worn gauges, the "new" Africanist train had barely left the station in the early '60s. With a few exceptions, scholars have devoted little more than a passing mention of
2880-673: The British L1A1 ('SLR') variant of the FAL and the older British Lee–Enfield bolt-action rifle were used by reservists and the British South Africa Police . Other weapons included the Bren LMG in both .303" and 7.62mm NATO, Sten SMG, Uzi , Browning Hi-Power pistol, Colt M16 rifle (very late in the war), FN MAG (FN MAG58) general-purpose machine-gun, 81 mm mortar , and Claymore mines. After UDI , Rhodesia
2976-509: The British government would take place. Crucially, ZANU and ZAPU , the political wings of ZANLA and ZIPRA (who had been waging an escalating insurgency since 1964), would be permitted to stand candidates in the forthcoming elections. This was however conditional to compliance with the ceasefire and the verified absence of voter intimidation. Following the meeting of Commonwealth heads of government held in Lusaka from 1–7 August 1979,
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3072-550: The British government invited bishop Abel Muzorewa , the recently installed prime minister of the (unrecognized) Zimbabwe Rhodesia government, along with the leaders of the Patriotic Front (the name of the ZANU-ZAPU coalition), to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach agreement on the terms of an post-independence constitution, to agree on
3168-414: The Rhodesian effort and economy by planting Soviet anti-tank land mines on the roads. From 1972 to 1980 there were 2,504 vehicle detonations of land mines (mainly Soviet TM46s), killing 632 people and injuring 4,410. Mining of roads increased 133.7% from 1978 (894 mines or 2.44 mines were detonated or recovered per day) to 1979 (2,089 mines or 5.72 mines a day). In response, the Rhodesians co-operated with
3264-567: The Rhodesian white minority-led government of Ian Smith (later the Zimbabwe-Rhodesian government of Bishop Abel Muzorewa ); and militant African guerillas organisations such as Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army , the military wing of Robert Mugabe 's Zimbabwe African National Union ; and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army of Joshua Nkomo 's Zimbabwe African People's Union . The war and its subsequent Internal Settlement , signed in 1978 by Smith and Muzorewa, led to
3360-567: The South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans . When the National Party government came to power in 1948 , the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid . In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement , although it
3456-486: The South Africans to develop a range of mine protected vehicles. They began by replacing air in tyres with water which absorbed some of the blast and reduced the heat of the explosion. Initially, they protected the bodies with steel deflector plates, sandbags and mine conveyor belting. Later, purpose built vehicles with V-shaped blast hulls dispersed the blast and deaths in such vehicles became unusual events. ZIPRA
3552-707: The Soviet Union, used communist material support to begin launching guerrilla attacks on the RSF and on Rhodesian civilians and infrastructure. The United States took the official position that it would not recognise Rhodesia as an independent state, but some American soldiers who had seen combat in Vietnam joined the Rhodesian Security Forces . The Rhodesian government created advertising campaigns in order to attract soldiers from Western countries, and
3648-492: The Tanganyikan African National Union. Mohammed, who was semi-illiterate, was an impressive orator and later combined her nationalist work in the 1950s with her political ambitions. She was one of the most visible Tanganyikan nationalists during the struggle against colonialism and imperialism. She was the only nationalist leader, besides Julius Nyerere , who was recognized across the country at
3744-757: The United States with the latter three being held in high regard for their recent Vietnam War experience. Considering the arms embargo , the Rhodesian Army was well-equipped. The standard infantry weapon was the Belgian FN FAL rifle as produced in South Africa under license as the R1 rifle and supplemented by the H&;K G3 rifle that came from Portuguese forces. However, other weapons such as
3840-509: The ZIPRA or ZANLA, the RF elected to hold onto unofficial minority-rule. In ignoring other contributing factors to the conflict, Smith and the RF were able to strengthen ties with the West, but Britain remained neutral. The division between the communists and anti-communists caused the fighting to spill over the Rhodesian borders. Neighbouring African nations, supported primarily by North Korea, China, and
3936-610: The Zimbabwean countryside and by 1979 ZIPRA were utilizing SAM weaponry to target Rhodesian civilian assets and Viscount aircraft. Just as they had done in various other African countries and conflicts, the Soviets supported opposition forces with weapons and training. Moscow also launched a propaganda campaign exaggerating British involvement in the conflict in order to boost support for intervention. The Soviets were large suppliers of munitions and training, but refused to directly enter
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4032-443: The agreement, and the UK to fully implement the agreement, encouraging the UK government to ensure that South African forces would be withdrawn, regular or mercenary , out of the country. It also requested that UK allow the speedy return of Zimbabwean exiles and refugees, release of political prisoners , confinement of the Rhodesian and auxiliary forces to their bases, and rescindment of all emergency measures and laws inconsistent with
4128-470: The anti-communist West and to challenge the Chinese presence in the region. Soviet military technology quickly appeared in the Zimbabwean countryside and by 1979 ZIPRA were utilizing SAM weaponry to target Rhodesian civilian assets and Viscount aircraft. Just as they had done in various other African countries and conflicts, the Soviets supported opposition forces with weapons and training. Moscow also launched
4224-577: The black Shona and Ndebele population were the traditional chiefs, not the ZANU and ZAPU nationalists, whom it regarded as dangerous, violent usurpers. In 1978–1979, the Smith administration tried to blunt the power of the nationalist cause by acceding to an "Internal Settlement" which ended minority rule, changed the name of the country to Zimbabwe-Rhodesia , and arranged multiracial elections, which were held in 1979 and won by Bishop Abel Muzorewa , who became
4320-423: The conclusion of a constitutional conference where different parties discussed the future of Zimbabwe Rhodesia , formerly known as Rhodesia . The agreement effectively concluded the Rhodesian Bush War . It also marked the nullification of Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence , as British colonial authority was to be restored for a transition period, during which free elections under supervision by
4416-567: The conduct of free and fair elections. The resolution also condemned South Africa for its interference in Southern Rhodesia and reaffirmed the "unalienable right" of the Zimbabwean people to self-determination . The council adopted the resolution by 14 votes to none, while the United Kingdom did not participate in the vote. It was said that the "crucial land question" was excluded from the conference's deliberations, with
4512-509: The conflict as a fight between one part of the country's population (the Whites) on behalf of the whole population (including the Black majority) against several externally financed parties made up of predominantly Black radicals and communists. The Nationalists considered their country occupied and dominated by a foreign power, namely Britain, since 1890. The British government, in the person of
4608-479: The conflict as primarily anti-communist in nature. The Rhodesian whites viewed the British demand for majority rule as a direct attack on their way of life. Having previously witnessed the Mau Mau Rebellion , Rhodesians refused to allow the majority-rule policy to come into effect. Much of the Rhodesian economy as well as the land was controlled by white Rhodesians, and, fearing total confiscation by either
4704-492: The conflict. The Soviet Union supported ZIPRA and China supported ZANLA. Each group fought a separate war against the Rhodesian security forces, and the two groups sometimes fought against each other as well. In June 1979, the governments of Cuba and Mozambique offered direct military help to the Patriotic Front , but Mugabe and Nkomo declined. Other foreign contributions included military officials from North Korea , who taught Zimbabwean militants to use explosives and arms in
4800-526: The conflict. The Chinese, on the other hand, were limited in their abilities to offer tangible aid to the ZANLA. Chinese influence throughout the conflict was primarily focused on small scale sabotage efforts and anti-western propaganda. Inevitably, the Bush War occurred within the context of regional Cold War in Africa, and became embroiled in conflicts in several neighbouring countries. Such conflicts included
4896-472: The country achieved internationally recognised independence. The origin of the war in Rhodesia can be traced to the conquest of the region by the British South Africa Company in the late 19th century, and the dissent of native leaders who opposed foreign rule. Britons began settling in Southern Rhodesia in the 1890s, and while it was never accorded full dominion status, these settlers effectively governed
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#17327760058664992-522: The country after 1923. In his famous " Wind of Change " speech, UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan revealed Britain's new policy to only permit independence to its African colonies under majority rule. But many white Rhodesians were concerned that such immediate change would cause chaos as had resulted in the former Belgian Congo after its independence in 1960. Britain's unwillingness to compromise led to Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) on 11 November 1965. Although Rhodesia had
5088-585: The country in the place of ZANU/ZANLA. Both sides of the Cold War were involved in the Rhodesian Bush War. The Soviet Union supported ZIPRA and China supported ZANLA . Each group fought a separate war against the Rhodesian security forces , and the two groups sometimes fought against each other as well. The Soviet Union became involved in the Rhodesian Bush War to combat the push from
5184-418: The country into eight geographical operational areas: North West Border (Operation Ranger), Eastern Border (Operation Thrasher), North East Border (Operation Hurricane), South East Border (Operation Repulse), Midlands (Operation Grapple), Kariba (Operation Splinter), Matabeleland (Operation Tangent), Salisbury and District ("SALOPS"). The two major armed groups campaigning against Ian Smith 's government were
5280-569: The country's first Black head of government. Unsatisfied with this and spurred on by Britain's refusal to recognise the new order, the nationalist forces persisted. The war ended when, at the behest of both South Africa (its major supporter) and the United States, the Zimbabwe-Rhodesian government ceded power to Britain in the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979. The UK Government held another election in 1980 to form
5376-569: The course of Africanist historiography. The goal of these women involved in the African nationalism movement was to recover Africa's past and to celebrate the independent emergence of independent Africa. It was necessary to raise awareness of this cause, calling to the new emerging generation of African women, raised in a better, more stable society. Although the challenges they faced seemed increasingly more significant, they, however, had it better than past generations, allowing them to raise awareness of
5472-505: The course of the conflict, new equipment such as Eland armoured cars were procured from South Africa. Several Polish-made T-55 tanks destined for Idi Amin 's regime in Uganda were diverted to Rhodesia by the South Africans, in the last year of the war. The Rhodesians also produced a wide range of wheeled mine-proofed armoured vehicles , often using Mercedes Unimog , Land Rover and Bedford truck components, including unlicensed copies of
5568-480: The dissolution of the unrecognised state of Zimbabwe Rhodesia , created months earlier by the Internal Settlement . In terms of the ceasefire, ZAPU and ZANU guerrillas were to gather at designated assembly points under British supervision, following which elections were to be held to elect a new government. These elections were held in February 1980, and resulted in the Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) led by Robert Mugabe winning
5664-480: The divisions of tribes and the formation of ethnicism. African nationalism first emerged as a mass movement in the years after World War II as a result of wartime changes in the nature of colonial rule as well as social change in Africa itself. Nationalist political parties were established in almost all African colonies during the 1950s, and their rise was an important reason for the decolonisation of Africa between c. 1957 and 1966. However, African nationalism
5760-401: The government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia , and Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo for the Patriotic Front . According to Robert Matthews, the success of the Lancaster House negotiations can be explained by a "balance of forces on the battlefield that clearly favoured the nationalists" the impact of international sanctions on the Rhodesian economy, "a particular pattern of third party interests" and
5856-437: The government of the United Kingdom, and Mugabe and Nkomo's united " Patriotic Front " took place at Lancaster House , London in December 1979, and the Lancaster House Agreement was signed. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British and Commonwealth supervision in March 1980. ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980, when
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#17327760058665952-452: The guerrillas shot down each plane during its ascent from Kariba Airport. ZIPRA took advice from its Soviet instructors in formulating its vision and strategy of popular revolution. About 1,400 Soviet, 700 East German and 500 Cuban instructors were deployed to the area. On the advice of the Soviets, ZIPRA built up its conventional forces, and motorised with Soviet armoured vehicles and small aeroplanes, in Zambia. ZIPRA's (i.e. ZAPU's) intention
6048-518: The holding of elections under British authority, and to enable Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to lawful and internationally recognised independence, with the parties settling their differences by political means. The conference formally began on 10 September 1979. Lord Carrington , foreign and Commonwealth secretary of the United Kingdom, chaired the conference. The conference took place from 10 September to 15 December 1979 with 47 plenary sessions . In late September 1979, president Jimmy Carter , in
6144-402: The implementation of universal suffrage in June 1979 and the end of white minority rule in Rhodesia, which was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia under a black majority government. However, this new order failed to win international recognition and the war continued. Neither side achieved a military victory and a compromise was later reached. Negotiations between the government of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia,
6240-410: The larger male-dominated liberation organizations, as through the African National Congress (ANC). Nevertheless, in 1943, the ANC adopted a new constitution which included a new position for women to become full members of the national movement. Women also formed their own national organisations, such as the Federation of South African Women in 1954, which boasted a membership of 230,000 women. Though at
6336-438: The late 1950s and 1960s, scholars of African nationalist struggles primarily focused on the Western-educated male elites who led the nationalist movements and assumed power after independence. The history of studies of women's involvement in African nationalist struggle, mobilization, and party politics can be traced along intellectual and political paths that initially followed, later paralleled, but have seldom deviated from or led
6432-410: The military take-over expected by ZAPU/ZIPRA, but by a peaceful and internationally supervised election. Rhodesia reverted to British rule as the colony of Southern Rhodesia (the UK had never recognised Rhodesia's declaration of independence) and a general election took place in early 1980, supervised by British and other international forces. Robert Mugabe (of ZANLA/ZANU) won this election, because he
6528-432: The nationalist struggle. A minority of women were incorporated and affiliated into male-dominated national organisations. Founded by women in 1960, The National Council of Sierra Leone was to become, in 1968, the women's section of the ruling All People's Congress and dedicated primarily to the vigorous support of head of state, President Stevens. Women activists extended and conveyed militant behaviours. Nancy Dolly Steele
6624-467: The negotiations" and undermine U.S. ability to urge "flexibility on...external parties and...Front Line states." The next month, Stephen Solarz argued that lifting sanctions before the end of the conference could be "cited as a reason for its collapse". The Lancaster House Agreement was signed on 21 December 1979. Lord Carrington and Sir Ian Gilmour signed the agreement on behalf of the United Kingdom, Abel Muzorewa and Silas Mundawarara signed for
6720-601: The non-elite population. Market women in coastal Nigeria and Guinea also used their networks to convey anti-government information. ‘Ordinary’ women themselves had transformed "traditional" methods for networking and expressing disapproval against individuals, into mechanisms for challenging and unsettling the local colonial administration. However, although these women contributed to African nationalist politics, they had limited impact as their strategies were concerned with shaming, retaliation, restitution and compensation, and were not directly about radical transformation. This problem
6816-432: The outcome of the elections and to instruct any forces under their authority to do the same. Under the constitution, 20 per cent of the seats in the country's parliament were to be reserved for whites. This provision remained in the constitution until 1987. In November 1979, U.S. secretary of state Cyrus Vance recommended that president Jimmy Carter not lift sanctions on Rhodesia, arguing that doing so would "jeopardize
6912-419: The presence of African women as conscious political actors in African nationalism. Anne McClintock has stressed that "all nationalisms are gendered." Undoubtedly, women played a significant role in arousing national consciousness as well as elevating their own political and social position through African nationalism. It is with this in mind, that both feminism and the research of these women become critical to
7008-407: The private support of neighbouring South Africa and Portugal , which still owned Mozambique , it never gained diplomatic recognition from any country. Although the vote in Rhodesia was constitutionally open regardless of race, property requirements left many Black Africans unable to participate. The new 1969 constitution reserved eight seats in the 66 seat parliament for "Non-Europeans" only, with
7104-636: The public to disobey the laws of the land" and charged as political prisoners. ' The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa . It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa . Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as
7200-525: The re-evaluation of the history of African nationalism. In 1943, a prominent organization called the African National Congress Women's League used its branches throughout the continent to build an international campaign. As leaders and activists, women participated in African nationalism through national organisations. The decade of the 1950s was a landmark because of the significant number of women who were politically involved in
7296-485: The resource and skills that Lord Carrington brought to the table as a mediator. The agreement was also described as a "constitutional compromise". Under the terms of the agreement, Zimbabwe Rhodesia temporarily reverted to its former status as the colony of Southern Rhodesia , thereby ending the rebellion caused by Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence . Lord Soames was appointed governor with full executive and legislative powers. The agreement would lead to
7392-443: The rest was majority black. By contrast, army reserves were largely white, and toward the end of the war were increasingly called up to deal with the growing insurgency. The regular army was supported by the paramilitary British South Africa Police of about 8,000 to 11,000 men (the majority of whom were black) and 19,000 to 35,000 police reservists (which, like their army counterparts, were largely white). The police reserves acted as
7488-425: The same way, women used music, dance and informal methods to convey their solidarity for African nationalism. The production of Tanganyikan nationalism in Tanzania can be seen as “woman’s work,” where women evoked, created and performed nationalism through their dances and songs. Equally, women were considered the best sloganeers, as traditional story-tellers and singers using ideas, images and phrases that appealed to
7584-407: The security forces amassed a force of nearly 1,400 soldiers who were highly trained in special forces and guerrilla warfare, bringing the total of the Rhodesian military force to over 10,000 men. The Soviet Union became involved in the Rhodesian Bush War to combat the push from the anti-communist West and to challenge the Chinese presence in the region. Soviet military technology quickly appeared in
7680-402: The security forces. ZANLA was the armed wing of ZANU. The organisation also had strong links with Mozambique 's independence movement, FRELIMO . ZANLA, in the end, was present on a more or less permanent basis in over half the country, as evidenced by the location of the demobilisation bases at the end of the war, which were in every province except Matabeleland North . They were also fighting
7776-447: The situation, and Britain's abrogation of their promises made at the time of Zimbabwean independence from colonial rule. African nationalist African nationalism is an umbrella term which refers to a group of political ideologies in West, Central, East and Southern Africa, which are based on the idea of national self-determination and the creation of nation states . The ideology emerged under European colonial rule during
7872-468: The time of Tanzanian independence. Her legacy as a leader, speaker, organiser and activist is testimony to the pivotal role played by many uneducated women in spreading a national consciousness, a political awareness and securing independence from British rule in Tanzania. Whilst some female-oriented initiatives may have been conceived and presented to women by male party-leaders, others were clearly created by women themselves. These women used nationalism as
7968-452: The time women viewed themselves primarily as mothers and wives, the act of their joining in political organisations illustrated a kind of feminist consciousness. Women were fundamental nationalist leaders in their own right. Under the inspiration of Bibi Titi Mohammed , a former singer in Dar es Salaam who became a Tanganyikan nationalist, Tanzanian women were organised into a Women's Section of
8064-480: Was a reflection of the extent to which most African women had already been marginalized politically, economically and educationally under colonial regimes in Africa. In the Gambia , one of the prominent Gambian nationalists and Pan-Africanists during the colonial era was Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof . From the 1950s up to Gambia's independence , Cham Joof (as he is commonly referred to), held a series of campaigns against
8160-519: Was always relatively small, just 3,400 regular troops in 1970. By 1978–79 it had grown to some 10,800 regulars nominally supported by about 40,000 reservists – although by the last year of the war, perhaps as few as 15,000 were available for active service. While the regular army consisted of a professional core of white soldiers (and some units, such as the Rhodesian SAS and the Rhodesian Light Infantry , were all-white), by 1978–1979
8256-401: Was defending Western values, Christianity, the rule of law , and democracy by fighting Communists, but it was unwilling to compromise on most political, economic and social inequalities. White Rhodesians typically believed that black grievances were not organic and endogenous in origin but were externally fomented by foreign agitators. The Smith administration claimed that the legitimate voice of
8352-523: Was further substantiated by the apprehension of a KGB general by Rhodesian troops during the pre-emptive strike to the ZANLA operated base at “New Farm” at Chimoio , Mozambique in November 1977. Lancaster House Agreement Second Phase (1972–1979) Related incidents The Lancaster House Agreement refers to an agreement signed on 21 December 1979 in Lancaster House , following
8448-470: Was heavily reliant on South African and domestically produced weapons and equipment, as well as international smuggling operations, commonly referred to as "sanction-busting". South Africa provided extensive support to Rhodesia in the form of a Lend / Lease program and both the official and unofficial support of many branches of the South African armed forces. The Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) operated
8544-423: Was increasingly used to supplement the professional soldiers and the many volunteers from overseas . By 1978, all white men up to the age of 60 were subject to periodic call-up to the army; younger men up to 35 might expect to spend alternating blocks of six weeks in the army and at home. Many of the overseas volunteers came from Britain, Ireland, South Africa, Portugal, Hong Kong, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and
8640-413: Was led by bishop Abel Muzorewa . This delegation also included Ian Smith (minister without portfolio), Ndabaningi Sithole , Kayisa Ndiweni , Rowan Cronjé , Harold Hawkins , Kayisa Ndiweni, Simpson Mutambanengwe , and Gordon Chavunduka In the course of its proceedings the conference reached agreement on a post-independence constitution, arrangements for the post-independence period, and
8736-499: Was never a single movement, and political groups considered to be African nationalists varied by economic orientation and degrees of radicalism and violence. Nationalists leaders struggled to find their own social and national identity following the European influence that controlled the political landscape during the colonial occupation. African nationalism in the colonial era was often framed purely in opposition to colonial rule and
8832-507: Was the anti-government force based around the Ndebele ethnicity, led by Joshua Nkomo , and the ZAPU political organisation. In contrast to ZANLA's Mozambique links, Nkomo's ZIPRA was more oriented towards Zambia for local bases. However, this was not always with full Zambian government support: by 1979, the combined forces based in Zambia of ZIPRA, Umkhonto we Sizwe (the armed wing of
8928-402: Was the only major competitor of the majority ethnicity, Shona. Once in power, Mugabe was internationally recognised as Zimbabwe's leader and was installed as head of government, and had the backing of the overwhelming majority ethnic group. He was therefore able to quickly and irreversibly consolidate his power, forcing ZAPU, and therefore ZIPRA which was ZAPU's army, to give up hope of taking over
9024-586: Was the organizing secretary and co-founder of the Congress, and has been noted for her militant political and nationalist activities. In the same way, throughout Africa, the influence of trade union movements, in particular, became the spawning ground for women organisers as such. South African women, for instance, emerged as primary catalysts for protests against the Apartheid regime. These women first participated in resistance movements through women's branches of
9120-649: Was therefore frequently unclear or contradictory about its other objectives. According to historian Robert I. Rotberg , African nationalism would not have emerged without colonialism. Its relation to Pan-Africanism was also ambiguous, with many nationalist leaders professing Pan-African loyalties but still refusing to commit to supranational unions . African nationalists of the period have also been criticised for their continued use of ideas and policies associated with colonial states. In particular, nationalists usually attempted to preserve national frontiers created arbitrarily under colonial rule after independence and create
9216-434: Was to allow ZANLA to bring the Rhodesian forces to the point of defeat, and then take the victory from the much lighter forces of ZANLA and the essentially defeated Rhodesians. ZIPRA kept a light presence within Rhodesia, reconnoitring, keeping contact with the peasants and sometimes skirmishing with ZANLA. ZIPRA's conventional threat partly distracted Rhodesian forces from fighting ZANLA. By the late 1970s, ZIPRA had developed
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