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103-677: The region of Septimania was invaded by the Andalusian Muslims in 719, renamed as Arbūnah and turned into a military base for future operations by the Andalusian military commanders . It passed briefly to the Emirate of Córdoba , which had been expanding from the south during the same century, before its subsequent conquest by the Christian Franks in 759, who by the end of the 9th century renamed it as Gothia or

206-723: A large Jewish population becomes evident in Septimania: Julian referred to it as a "brothel of blaspheming Jews." Thanks to the preserved canons of the Council of Narbonne of 590, a good deal can be known about surviving Gothic Pagan beliefs and practices in Visigothic Septimania. The Council may have been responding in part to the orders of the Third Council of Toledo , which found "the sacrilege of idolatry [to be] firmly implanted throughout almost

309-411: A Frank's status, as it was determined by the size and wealth of their landholdings. The right to inherit land was a long-standing custom among Germanic tribes , even before they settled into more established societies. In earlier times, tribal leaders would distribute weapons such as horses and spears to their warriors before embarking on raids. These items were given without any strict regulations, and

412-540: A cultural osmosis across the Gothic-Frankish frontier. A unique style of orange pottery was common in the 4th and 5th centuries in southern Gaul, but the later (6th century) examples culled from Septimania are more orange than their cousins from Aquitaine and Provence and are not found commonly outside of Septimania, a strong indicator that there was little commerce over the frontier or at its ports. In fact, Septimania helped to isolate both Aquitaine and Iberia from

515-784: A few pockets outside Islamic control. The Visigothic era came to a definitive close, marking the beginning of the Islamic period in the region. Following the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and the advance to the slopes of the Pyrenees, the Muslim strategy dictated crossing these mountains, which separated al-Andalus from the Frankish Kingdom in Gaul, to invade the southern territories of that kingdom and protect their gains in

618-425: A firm presence in conquered areas. This principle was maintained during the western campaigns, marked by a gradual and sequential advance dictated by both internal and external circumstances. Most governors who succeeded in ruling al-Andalus devoted their time and efforts to this mission, despite facing internal challenges. Their decisions were shaped more by the imperatives of political and military developments on

721-435: A joint Muslim and Jewish garrison before advancing eastward to secure Murcia under Umayyad control. Following his father’s directives, he extended military campaigns into Tarragona , Girona , Pamplona , and Narbonne , pushing Muslim influence into the northern and northeastern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula and southern France. With this, the military operations under Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa were completed, leaving only

824-613: A key medium of exchange throughout the Frankish territories, though local variations in currency and minting practices developed over time. Christianity began to spread widely among the Franks around 496 AD, largely due to the conversion of King Clovis, who, along with more than three thousand of his men, adopted the Chalcedonian creed. The Roman-Gallic historian Gregory of Tours documents this pivotal moment in his work History of

927-520: A local guide from the ruler Julian, capturing towns such as Santarém on the Tagus River, Yabra near Lisbon , Coimbra along the Atlantic coast, and Astorga near Galicia. After halting at the mountainous borders of Galicia, he turned southward, securing key cities like Málaga and Ronda, while many of the defending Visigoths and Franks fled to the mountains. In Elvira, Abd al-Aziz established

1030-552: A small Jewish community had existed in certain Gallic and Frankish cities since the Roman era. It is believed that they officially settled in Gaul during the reign of Emperor Caracalla , who granted Roman citizenship to their free citizens, along with other groups that comprised Roman society. Jews lived peacefully alongside Christians in Gaul, sharing certain holidays and celebrations. However, their situation began to deteriorate after

1133-460: A sound military strategy, as the Visigoths continued to pose a threat. Musa ibn Nusayr acknowledged that of capturing this region to secure the defensive lines of the new Islamic province from the east and north, aiming to incorporate it into Islamic territory and using it as a buffer against potential attacks from the north and northeast. However, his plans to advance were halted at the slopes of

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1236-616: A unique place in the Visigothic Kingdom, as it was the only province outside of Iberia, north of the Pyrénées , and bordering a strong foreign nation, in this case the Franks . The kings after Alaric II favoured Narbonne as a capital, but twice (611 and 531) were defeated and forced back to Barcelona by the Franks before Theudis moved the capital there permanently. Under Theodoric Septimania had been safe from Frankish assault, but

1339-429: A variety of agricultural goods as well as local crafts. Becoming renowned for their high-quality production of metalwork, leather, and wooden items. Smaller-scale industries also existed within estates and villages, contributing to the local economy. Urban life was minimal in this largely rural society. What were referred to as "cities" were often more akin to fortified towns or strongholds than true urban centers. Trade

1442-446: Is clear that the Franks, throughout the sixth century, had coveted Septimania, but were unable to take it and the invasion of 589 was the last attempt. In the 7th century, Gallia often had its own governors or duces (dukes), who were typically Visigoths. Most public offices were also held by Goths, far out of proportion to their part of the population. The native population of Gallia was referred to by Visigothic and Iberian writers as

1545-549: The Reconquista began in the early 8th century, when Andalusian Muslim forces managed to temporarily push into Aquitaine. In the wake of Narbonne's submission, Pepin took Roussillon , and then directed his effort against Toulouse , Rouergue , and Albigeois in Aquitaine, leading to the battle for Aquitaine . The region of Roussillon was taken by the Franks in 760. Pepin then diverted northwest to Aquitaine, triggering

1648-666: The Auvergne . In 462, the Empire, controlled by Ricimer in the name of Libius Severus , granted the Visigoths the western half of the province of Gallia Narbonensis in which to settle. The Visigoths additionally occupied Provence (eastern Narbonensis) and only in 475 did the Visigothic king, Euric , cede it to the Empire via a treaty whereby the emperor Julius Nepos recognised the Visigoths' full independence. The Visigoths , perhaps because they were Arian Christians , met with

1751-788: The Frankish conquest of Narbonne in 759 , the Muslim Arabs and Berbers were defeated by the Christian Franks and expelled to their Andalusian heartland after 40 years of occupation, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced. The siege remained as a key battlefield in the context of the Carolingian expedition south to Provence and Septimania starting in 752. The Iberian Christian counter-offensive known as

1854-540: The Gothic March ( Marca Gothica ). After the Frankish conquest of Narbonne in 759 , the Muslim Arabs and Berbers were defeated by the Christian Franks and retreated to their Andalusian heartland after forty years of occupation, and the Carolingian king Pepin the Short came up reinforced. Septimania became a march of the Carolingian Empire and then West Francia down to the 13th century, though it

1957-630: The Islamic conquest of Southern France or Islamic conquest of Gaul . After the Muslims completed their conquest of Al-Andalus in 711, the next stage of expansion was motivated by the need to secure these gains. Some of the remaining Visigothic nobles, who had ruled in Iberia, had fled northwards and taken refuge in Septimania , a province in southern Gaul. To eliminate their influence and protect

2060-493: The Islamic invasion of Gaul , refers to a series of military campaigns by Muslim forces to expand their territory into Gaul (modern-day France) following their successful conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus). In some sources, particularly those with a nationalist tone, it is referred to as the Arab conquest of Gaul, although the Muslim army was composed of Arabs , Berbers , and other ethnicities. Other designations include

2163-682: The Loire River and the Pyrenees Mountains, though the province of Septimania remained under Visigothic control. By doing so, Clovis laid the foundations for a large and powerful state, becoming the first King of the Franks and the founder of the Merovingian dynasty . He made Paris his royal capital, marking it as the seat of the Frankish Kingdom. Clovis’s sons and successors continued his expansionist efforts, adding Burgundy , central Germania , and parts of northern Italy to

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2266-623: The Rhone Valley , the Franks' growing power posed a threat to Alaric II's territory in Aquitaine and Hispania . Despite Theodoric the Great 's attempts to broker a peace between the factions, Clovis began a campaign to seize Aquitaine and Alaric's center of power in Toulouse . Alaric, his army, and a force of Auvergnants militia commanded by Apollinaris of Clermont marched north and met

2369-554: The Rhône near Tarascon and Cabaret (a fort called Ram's Head), both of which lay in Guntram's kingdom. Guntram ignored two pleas for a peace in 586 and Reccared undertook the only Visigothic invasion of Francia in response. However, Guntram was not motivated solely by religious alliance with the fellow Catholic Hermenegild, for he invaded Septimania again in 589 and was roundly defeated near Carcassonne by Claudius, Duke of Lusitania . It

2472-566: The "Gauls" and there is a well-attested hatred between the Goths and the Gauls, which was atypical for the kingdom as a whole. The Gauls commonly insulted the Goths by comparing the strength of their men to that of Gaulish women, though the Iberians regarded themselves as the defenders and protectors of the Gauls. It is only in the time of Wamba (reigned 672–680) and Julian of Toledo , however, that

2575-620: The Bald in 843, Bernat was apprehended at Toulouse and beheaded. Bernat's son, known as Bernat of Gothia , also served as Count of Barcelona and Girona , and as Margrave of Gothia and Septimania from 865 to 878. Septimania became known as Gothia after the reign of Charlemagne . It retained these two names while it was ruled by the counts of Toulouse during early part of the Middle Ages , but other names became regionally more prominent such as, Roussillon , Conflent , Razès or Foix , and

2678-508: The Burgundians managed to hold Narbonne for a time and drive Gesalec into exile. Border warfare between Gallo-Roman magnates, including bishops, had existed with the Visigoths during the last phase of the Empire and it continued under the Franks. The Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great reconquered Narbonne from the Burgundians and retained it as the provincial capital. Theudis was appointed regent at Narbonne by Theodoric while Amalaric

2781-519: The Council of Orléans in 539 CE, when Christian clerics cautioned their congregants against adopting Jewish beliefs or being influenced by them, fearing such interactions would corrupt their faith. The council implemented measures that restricted Jews, prohibiting them from walking in the streets on Sundays, adorning themselves, or decorating their homes on that day. Additionally, a Jewish synagogue in Paris

2884-686: The Duke of Aquitaine Odo the Great after he revolted against the Emirate of Córdoba , but the rebel lord was killed by the Arab Umayyad commander Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Ghafiqi . After capturing Bordeaux on the wake of Duke Hunald 's detachment attempt, the Carolingian king Charles Martel directed his attention to Septimania and Provence . While his reasons for leading a military expedition south remain unclear, it seems that he wanted to seal his newly secured grip on Burgundy , now threatened by Umayyad occupation of several cities lying in

2987-567: The Frankish army in Gaul . Clovis's army was slowed by a rain-swollen Vienne River , yet his forces were able to engage the Visigoths south of Vouillé. With his missile troops stationed at the rear of his army, Clovis sent the rest of the army forward to fight hand-to-hand with the Visigoths. Despite being in a superior army in size and equipment, Alaric's soldiers wavered as all of the Auvergnat commanders except Apollinaris were killed. During

3090-401: The Frankish forces relied heavily on both infantry and cavalry units. The combination of these elements formed the backbone of Frankish military power, enabling them to effectively engage in prolonged sieges and open-field battles, which were crucial to their territorial expansion and defense. The kings, nobles, and princes of the Franks maintained a personal retinue of soldiers, which formed

3193-469: The Franks ( Histoire des Francs ), noting that Clovis was introduced to Christianity through his wife, Clotilda, who was a devout Christian from birth. Clovis's conversion to Christianity according to the Chalcedonian doctrine facilitated a strategic alliance and rapprochement between the Franks and the papacy during the subsequent period of Frankish rule. As the Franks became increasingly aligned with

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3296-621: The French kings in the early 13th century as a result of the Albigensian Crusade , after which it was assigned governors. From the end of the thirteenth century Septimania evolved into the royal province of Languedoc . The name "Septimania" may derive from the Roman name of the city of Béziers , Colonia Julia Septimanorum Baeterrae , which in turn alludes to the settlement of veterans of the Roman Seventh Legion in

3399-712: The Gothic kings, which led to several revolts against their oppression. The animosity towards Jews was further exacerbated by the Radhanites, a Jewish sect named after the Rhône River (referred to as "Rhodanus" in Latin). The Radhanites monopolized the trade of gold , silk , papyrus , black pepper, and incense with the Islamic lands, serving as the sole link between the East and West for these commodities. This reliance forced

3502-500: The Gothic laws and probably their own government, so garnering the allegiance of the Gothic nobility of Septimania. Narbonne capitulated to the Franks in 759 only after Pepin promised the defenders of the city to uphold the Visigothic law , and the county was granted to Miló, the Gothic count in Muslim times, thus earning the loyalty of Septimanian Goths against Duke Waifer , the independent ruler ( princeps ) of Aquitaine . After

3605-624: The Islamic invasion, al-Andalus was divided into five administrative areas, roughly corresponding to present-day Andalusia , Galicia , Lusitania , Castile and Léon , Aragon , and Catalonia , and the ancient province of Septimania. With Narbonne secure, and equally important, its port, for the Arab mariners controlled various areas of the Western Mediterranean, al-Samh invaded the remaining Septimanian cities, still controlled by their Gothic counts , taking Alet , Béziers , Agde , Lodève , Maguelonne , and Nîmes . By 721, al-Samh

3708-522: The Mayor of the Palace became the most important political and administrative office in the Frankish kingdom, with its holder wielding real authority, often acting on behalf of the throne. In many cases, the Mayor ruled in the king's name, especially when the king was a minor, essentially becoming the de facto ruler as a regent or deputy. The powerful Carolingian dynasty began to dominate this position during

3811-497: The Merovingian kings weakened, a new political authority emerged at the Frankish court: the office of the Mayor of the Palace (Latin: Maior domus). Initially, this position was modest, with no political or administrative role, confined mainly to overseeing household matters within the royal court. However, by the early 7th century, it had evolved into a highly influential role, held by strong men with ambitions for power. Over time,

3914-583: The Palace. Civil war broke out between the two factions, and Plectrude's side was defeated. She retreated with her grandson to Cologne , and Ragenfrid seized power. During this period, Charles Martel escaped from prison and gathered a group of his father's loyal supporters. He waged war against the eastern Franks, and Ragenfrid sought help from Duke Odo of Aquitaine, but it was in vain. Charles ultimately defeated Ragenfrid and his forces, forcing him to surrender and make peace. Plectrude also conceded, relinquishing all her claims. By 720 AD, Charles Martel had become

4017-461: The Pyrenees due to his recall to Damascus. Historical references suggesting that Musa aimed to cross the Pyrenees and penetrate deep into Europe to reach Damascus via Constantinople are likely exaggerated and not grounded in realistic military strategy. However, it can be noted that Islamic conquests, from their inception during the time of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq , did not target new fields without first consolidating their foundations and establishing

4120-647: The Pyrénées, the Basques defeated his forces in Roncesvalles (August 15, 778). The Frankish king found Septimania and the borderlands so devastated and depopulated by warfare, with the inhabitants hiding among the mountains, that he made grants of land that were some of the earliest identifiable fiefs to Visigothic and other refugees. Charlemagne also founded several monasteries in Septimania, around which

4223-555: The Septimanian border. These sarcophagi are made of locally quarried marble from Saint-Béat and are of varied design, but with generally flat relief which distinguishes them from ancient Roman sarcophagi . Their production has been dated to either the 5th, 6th, or 7th century, with the second of these being considered the most likely today. However, if they were made in the 5th century, while both Aquitaine and Septimani were in Visigothic hands, their existence provides no evidence for

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4326-448: The Visigoths from Gaul, aiming to eliminate remaining non-Frankish territories and eradicate non-Chalcedonian beliefs from the region. The relationship between the Franks and the papacy was further solidified during the reign of Pope Gregory III (731–741 CE). During this period, Pope Gregory III and Charles Martel established a cooperative arrangement, with the pope focusing on missionary work while Charles led military campaigns. Under

4429-498: The Visigoths settled in Aquitaine as foederati of the Western Roman Empire (450s). Sidonius Apollinaris refers to Septimania as "theirs" during the reign of Avitus (455–456), but Sidonius is probably considering Visigothic settlement in and around Toulouse . The Visigoths were then holding the area around Toulouse against the legal claims of the Empire, though they had more than once offered to exchange it for

4532-746: The campaigns contributed to shaping the Christian narrative, which later played a role in motivating the Crusades centuries later. Francia was established and consolidated by Clovis , a notable ruler from a branch of the Germanic tribes that had settled between the Rhine River and the North Sea in the region of Flanders , later expanding along the middle Rhine and Moselle rivers. In 486 AD, Clovis conquered northern France , taking control from

4635-595: The central royal government and an ecclesiastical province whose metropolitan was the Archbishop of Narbonne . Originally, the Goths may have maintained their hold on the Albigeois , but if so it was conquered by the time of Chilperic I . There is archaeological evidence that some enclaves of Visigothic population remained in Frankish Gaul, near the Septimanian border, after 507. The province of Gallia held

4738-432: The central throne's influence waned, these local rulers gained greater autonomy. Tribalism was prevalent among various social classes, with individuals showing strong allegiance to their respective clans or tribes. Land inheritance was a particularly sensitive issue in Frankish society, as a person's political and social standing was closely linked to the amount of land they possessed. The inheritance system directly influenced

4841-473: The city. The name can also be an allusion to the seven cities ( civitates ) of the territory: Béziers, Elne , Agde , Narbonne , Lodève , Maguelonne , and Nîmes . Septimania extended to a line halfway between the Mediterranean and the river Garonne in the northwest; in the east the Rhône separated it from Provence ; and to the south its boundary was formed by the Pyrénées . Under Theodoric II,

4944-536: The control of various powerful princes. By the late 7th century, the office of the Mayor of the Palace was held by a bold and ambitious Carolingian leader, Pepin of Herstal (French: Pépin d'Héristal). He fought rebellious factions in Frisia , Saxony, and Bavaria, bringing them under his control. Pepin ruled the Frankish kingdom in both the east and west with strength and determination for 27 years until his death in 715 AD, leaving his office to his young grandson, Theudoald,

5047-402: The core of the Frankish armies throughout their history. This group was later referred to by historians as the "comitatus," a term adopted in the 19th century from the Roman historian Tacitus , who had used it in his 2nd-century writings. The comitatus consisted of a select group of healthy and strong young men who swore a lifetime oath of loyalty and obedience to their lord or king. Their pledge

5150-431: The decline in land revenues, caused by nobles evading their duties to the crown, certain strong kings or palace stewards imposed taxes on the nobles to offset the financial shortfall. This sparked rebellions and ongoing social conflicts between the rulers and the nobility. The nobles aimed to secure permanent positions for their families, while the government struggled to manage the needs of the expanding kingdom. Concerning

5253-422: The emir at Córdoba and declared their loyalty to the Frankish king—the Gothic count of Nîmes, Ansemund , having some authority over the remaining counts. The Gothic counts and the Franks then began to besiege Narbonne , where Count Miló was probably the count (as successor to Count Gilbert ). In 754, an anti-Frankish reaction, led by Ermeniard, killed Ansemund, but the uprising was without success and Radulf

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5356-478: The establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba under Abd al-Rahman I , shifted the focus of Muslim leaders towards internal consolidation. However, sporadic military expeditions were still launched into Gaul. Some of these raids resulted in temporary Muslim settlements in remote areas, but they were not integrated into the Emirate's authority and soon vanished from historical records. During the reign of Almanzor ,

5459-518: The founder of the Frankish Kingdom, who had failed to annex it. The subsequent division of the Merovingian ruling family, resulting from the partition of the kingdom among his heirs, further distanced the Franks from the region, allowing the Visigoths to maintain control and leading to its recognition as "Land of the Goths" (Latin: Gothia or Marca Gothica). The Muslims' focus on securing their possessions by conquering neighboring border areas reflected

5562-456: The frontier. The Arab and Berber Muslim forces under al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani , wāli (governor-general) of al-Andalus , sweeping up the Iberian peninsula, by 719 had invaded the region of Septimania and deposed the local Visigothic Kingdom in 720. The region was renamed Arbūnah and turned into a military base for future operations by the Andalusian military commanders . Following

5665-562: The general populace to depend on them for essential goods, with even churches turning to them for incense. As a result, the terms "Jew" (Latin: Judalus) and "merchant" (Latin: Mercator) became synonymous during that period. Evidence and archaeological discoveries suggest that the Frankish armies adopted siege and encirclement tactics from the Romans in their military campaigns. These methods, which were central to Roman warfare, were also prevalent in Frankish strategies. Alongside these techniques,

5768-617: The government of the Septimania region (and the Upper March , from the Pyrénées to the Ebro River ) was given to Umar ibn Umar . Umayyad rule collapsed by 750, and Umayyad territories in Europe were ruled autonomously by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri and his supporters. In 752, the Carolingian king Pepin the Short headed south to Septimania. The Gothic counts of Nîmes , Melguelh , Agde , and Béziers refused allegiance to

5871-435: The governor of al-Andalus to oversee the consolidation of the conquest. Abd al-Aziz was left with an army, which included prominent leaders such as Habib ibn Abi Ubayda al-Fihri , the grandson of the famed general Uqba ibn Nāfi . Abd al-Aziz did not remain in Seville for long, as the ongoing conquest required further campaigns in the western, eastern, and northern regions of al-Andalus. He led forces westward, accompanied by

5974-412: The ground rather than by directives from the central caliphate in Damascus or the authority of the province in Kairouan . The evolving political and military realities imposed expansionist policies that may not have aligned with the directives of the Umayyad caliph or the governor of Ifriqiya residing in Kairouan. Battle of Vouill%C3%A9 The Battle of Vouillé (from Latin Campus Vogladensis )

6077-448: The kingdom was ruled by a child as Mayor of the Palace, alongside the child king of the Merovingians, both under the guardianship of Plectrude, who was appointed regent for her grandson. Plectrude's first act was to imprison Charles Martel to neutralize him and prevent any competition for power. However, the eastern Frankish nobles resented the rule of a woman, and they rose in rebellion, appointing one of their leaders, Ragenfrid, as Mayor of

6180-417: The kingdom. However, internal strife ensued as the Frankish princes divided Clovis's legacy, leading to a series of civil wars. This internal conflict persisted until Clotaire II unified the kingdom in 613 AD, consolidating control over all of Gaul and resuming conquests east of the Rhine. His son, Dagobert I , maintained this unified control, reasserting Frankish dominance over western Germania. Dagobert I

6283-463: The last Roman governor, who had set up an independent state following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . Clovis then turned his attention east of the Rhine, where he subdued the Germanic tribes, extending his realm as far as Bavaria . In 507 AD, Clovis launched a campaign against the Visigoths , who had established themselves in southern Gaul (modern-day southern France). He defeated and killed King Alaric II , seizing territories between

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6386-438: The last notable attempts to expand into Gaul were made, but they were largely unsuccessful. Following the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate and the fragmentation of Al-Andalus into smaller taifa kingdoms, the Muslim presence in Gaul came to an end. The Islamic conquest of Gaul had a lasting cultural influence on the region. The Occitan language , spoken in parts of southern France , was notably influenced by Arabic . Moreover,

6489-457: The latter was married to his niece Ingundis . The Frankish attack of 585 was repulsed by Hermenegild's brother Reccared , who was ruling Narbonensis as a sub-king. Hermenegild died at Tarragona that year and it is possible that he had escaped confinement in Valencia and was seeking to join up with his Frankish allies. Alternatively, the invasion may have occurred in response to Hermenegild's death. Reccared meanwhile took Beaucaire (Ugernum) on

6592-438: The lower Rhône, or maybe it provided the excuse he needed to intervene in this territory ruled by Visigothic and Roman law , far off from the Frankish centre in the north of Gaul. In 737, the Frankish king went on to attack Narbonne , but the local nobility of Gothic and Gallo-Roman stock had concluded different military and political arrangements to oppose the expanding Frankish realm . Charles Martel attempted to conquer

6695-488: The majority of the population. As a result, most Europeans turned to simple, locally produced goods to meet their needs. The currency in circulation during this period was a modified version of the Roman dinar, initially minted in gold. However, by the late seventh century AD, the currency shifted to silver minting. This transition reflected broader changes in the economy and available resources, with silver becoming more commonly used for coinage across Europe. The dinar remained

6798-451: The melée Clovis allegedly killed the Visigothic king Alaric, whereupon the Visigothic army broke and fled. Clovis's army proceeded south and plundered Alaric's treasure at Toulouse. After Clovis's success in this battle, Byzantine Emperor Anastasius made him an honorary consul and patrician. The battle forced the Visigoths to retreat to Septimania , which they continued to hold, and the Franks' success at Vouillé allowed them to control

6901-682: The most probable origins of the ancient geographical area known as Gathalania or Cathalania which has reached our days as the present region of Catalonia . The name was used because the area was populated by a higher concentration of Goths than in surrounding regions. The rulers of this area, when joined with several counties, were titled the Marquesses of Gothia (and, also, the Dukes of Septimania). 43°36′N 3°12′E  /  43.6°N 3.2°E  / 43.6; 3.2 Islamic invasion of Gaul Umayyad Caliphate Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions Islamic conquest of Gaul , also known as

7004-420: The name Gothia (along with the older name Septimania ) faded away during the 10th century, as the region fractured into smaller feudal entities, which sometimes retained Carolingian titles, but lost their Carolingian character, as the culture of Septimania evolved into the culture of Languedoc . This fragmentation in small feudal entities and the resulting fading and the gradual shifting of the name Gothia are

7107-493: The nature of the frontier between Visigothic Septimania and Frankish Gaul. On the one hand, cultural exchange is generally reputed to have been minimal, but the level of trading activity has been disputed. There have been few to no objects of Neustrian , Austrasian , or Burgundian provenance discovered in Septimania. However, a series of Germanic sarcophagi of a unique regional style, variously labelled Visigothic, Aquitainian, or southwestern Gallic, are prevalent on both sides of

7210-458: The need for kings to impose limits and regulations on land grants. One such regulation was that land grants were given for life only and were not inheritable. Over time, the nobles sought to free themselves from the obligation of loyalty and the temporary nature of land grants. They aimed to secure the right to pass their estates to their heirs. As the Frankish throne's authority diminished, the nobles succeeded in achieving this goal. In response to

7313-402: The opposition of the Catholic Franks in Gaul. The Franks allied with the Armorici , whose land was under constant threat from the Goths south of the Loire , and in 507 Clovis I , the Frankish king, invaded the Visigothic kingdom, whose capital lay in Toulouse, with the consent of the leading men of the tribe. Clovis defeated the Goths in the Battle of Vouillé and the child-king Amalaric

7416-577: The outskirts of Paris . The rapid Muslim advance alarmed the Frankish princes, who united under the leadership of Charles Martel , the mayor of the Frankish court. In 732, the Muslim forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of Tours (known in Arab sources as the " Battle of Tours "). This defeat marked a turning point in the Islamic expansion into Europe. Despite the defeat at Tours, Muslim forces continued to occupy parts of Gaul , capturing cities like Avignon , Lyon , and Autun . However, their control

7519-537: The papacy, tensions arose with other Christian sects that opposed Chalcedonianism, particularly Arianism . This Arian doctrine was prevalent among various Germanic groups in Gaul, including the Burgundians and the Visigoths . Under Clovis's leadership, the Franks engaged in military campaigns against these groups, successfully defeating the Burgundians. Following their defeat, the Burgundian king, Gundobad , converted to Chalcedonianism. The Franks subsequently expelled

7622-566: The patronage of the Frankish kingdom, missionaries were dispatched to convert the pagan populations in Germania. In recognition of this alliance, the pope presented Charles with the keys to the tomb of Saint Peter and other gifts, encouraging him to journey to Italy to liberate it from the Lombards.. However, Charles was unable to undertake this campaign due to his ongoing military engagements against Muslim forces. In addition to Christianity,

7725-413: The peasantry and farmers, there is limited information available from documents and manuscripts before the ninth century. Most of what is known about this social class in the early Middle Ages is derived from archaeological findings. Frankish society was predominantly agrarian, with the manor (or estate) serving as a fundamental unit of its economy. These estates were largely self-sufficient, producing

7828-486: The people gathered for protection. Beyond Septimania to the south Charlemagne established the Hispanic Marches in the borderlands of his empire. The territory passed to Louis, king in Aquitaine, but it was governed by Frankish margraves and then dukes (from 817) of Septimania. The Frankish noble Bernat of Septimania was the ruler of these lands from 826 to 832. His career (he was beheaded in 844) characterized

7931-526: The province and under Amalaric's successor, the centre of gravity of the kingdom crossed the Pyrenees and Theudis made his capital in Barcelona. In the Visigothic Kingdom , which became centred on Toledo by the end of the reign of Leovigild , the province of Gallia Narbonensis, usually shortened to just Gallia or Narbonensis and never called Septimania, was both an administrative province of

8034-602: The reign of King Dagobert, and their growing influence threatened the Merovingian royal family. The Carolingians, the strongest faction of the Franks in Austrasia (eastern Francia), owned vast estates between the Rhine and Moselle rivers, led the nobility, and served as patrons of the Church. Their leader, the Mayor of the Palace, was granted the title Duke of the Franks, reflecting his authority, which increasingly surpassed that of

8137-609: The remainder of Septimania was left without any relevant commander in charge. Finally, the Gothic and Gallo-Roman defenders of Narbonne surrendered to the Frankish forces, proceeding to eliminate the Andalusian garrison after killing the Arab-Berber Muslim troops, and opening the gates of the stronghold to the investing forces of the Carolingian king. Previously, the Frankish king Pepin had promised to uphold and respect

8240-411: The rest of the Mediterranean world. Coinage of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania did not circulate in Gaul outside of Septimania and Frankish coinage did not circulate in the Visigothic Kingdom, including Septimania. If there had been a significant amount of commerce over the frontier, the monies paid had to have been melted down immediately and re-minted as foreign coins have not been preserved across

8343-440: The son of his son Grimoald, who had been killed earlier. Pepin had another son from his wife Alpaida, Charles Martel , who was around 30 years old and strong at the time of his father's death. It was expected that Charles would succeed as Mayor of the Palace after the deaths of his two older brothers, Grimoald and Drogo. However, influenced by his first wife Plectrude, Pepin designated his grandson Theudoald as his successor. Thus,

8446-416: The south. Remnants of the Visigoths had settled in the province of Septimania in southern Gaul, and there was potential coordination between these remnants and the Visigoths in northwestern al-Andalus, posing a threat to Muslim control in the region. Therefore, subjugating this province and its inhabitants became a military necessity. Septimania had remained outside Frankish control since the time of Clovis,

8549-473: The southern Iberian frontier, Muslim forces began a campaign into Septimania. In the early 720s, Muslim armies advanced into Gaul, capturing strongholds and cities in Septimania, including Narbonne , and moving into the wider region of Aquitaine . Several cities and local populations, disillusioned by their feudal rulers, welcomed the Muslim forces, hoping for liberation from oppressive governance. Muslim forces continued their northward push, reaching as far as

8652-537: The throne. The collapse of Merovingian power led to the fragmentation of the Frankish kingdom and the independence of local nobles, each seeking autonomy, following the example of the Mayor of the Palace. Civil wars erupted between the Franks of Austrasia and those of Neustria (western Francia), resulting in the independence of the Duchy of Aquitaine in southern Gaul and much of the Germanic territories, which came under

8755-618: The turbulent 9th century in Septimania. His appointment as Count of Barcelona in 826 occasioned a general uprising of the Catalan lords ( Bellonids ) at this intrusion of Frankish power over the lands of Gothia . For suppressing Berenguer of Toulouse and the Catalans, Louis the Pious rewarded Bernat with a series of counties, which roughly delimit 9th century Septimania: Narbonne, Béziers, Agde, Magalona, Nîmes and Uzés. Rising against Charles

8858-454: The uncontested Mayor of the Palace, ruling all the Franks in both the eastern and western parts of the kingdom. It was at this point that the Muslims, having completed their conquest of Al-Andalus, began their incursions into Gaul. The early form of the feudalism was widely practiced across the Frankish kingdom, characterized by a decentralized power structure where numerous princes, dukes, and counts held authority over different regions. As

8961-463: The war against Waifer of Aquitaine . Albi , Rouergue , Gévaudan , and the city of Toulouse were conquered. In 777, the wali of Barcelona , Sulayman al-Arabi , and the wali of Huesca Abu Taur , offered their submission to Charlemagne and also the submission of Husayn , wali of Zaragoza . When Charlemagne invaded the Upper March in 778, Husayn refused allegiance and he had to retire. In

9064-409: The warriors retained them as long as they were functional, even if they no longer served under the leader. It was common for a warrior to bequeath such possessions to a chosen individual upon death, as these items could easily be replaced in subsequent raids. However, the distribution of land after successful campaigns introduced complications, as land was not as easily replaceable as weapons. This led to

9167-471: The whole of Iberia and Septimania." The traditional Roman practice of not working Thursdays in honour of Jupiter was still prevalent. The council set down penance to be done for not working on Thursday save for church festivals and commanded the practice of Martin of Braga , rest from rural work on Sundays, to be adopted. Also punished by the council were fortunetellers , who were publicly lashed and sold into slavery . Different theories exist concerning

9270-697: The whole region of Septimania and besieged Narbonne in 737 but his forces were unable to take the city. However, when the Arabs sent reinforcements from Muslim-ruled Iberia, the Frankish Christian army intercepted them at the mouth of the River Berre (located in the present-day Département of Aude ) and achieved a decisive and significant victory, after which the Frankish army marched on Nîmes . Islamic burials have been found in Nîmes. Around 747,

9373-560: Was carried for safety into Iberia while Gesalec was elected to replace him and rule from Narbonne . Clovis, his son Theuderic I , and his Burgundian allies proceeded to conquer most of Visigothic Gaul, including the Rouergue (507) and Toulouse (508). The attempt to take Carcassonne , a fortified site guarding the Septimanian coast, was defeated by the Ostrogoths (508) and Septimania thereafter remained in Visigothic hands, though

9476-411: Was culturally and politically autonomous from the northern France-based central royal government. The region was under the influence of the people from the count territories of Toulouse , Provence , and ancient County of Barcelona . It was part of the wider cultural and linguistic region comprising the southern third of France known as Occitania . This area was finally brought under effective control of

9579-457: Was demolished and replaced by a church. In 629 CE, King Dagobert mandated the baptism of all Jews within his realm, under the threat of expulsion. Historical records suggest that he enforced this mandate, as there is no mention of Jewish presence during his reign. However, the region of Septimania, which was under Visigothic rule, remained a stronghold for Jews. They lived in the city of Arbonne and engaged in trade, despite facing harassment from

9682-469: Was designated new count by the Frankish court. About 755, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Uqba replaced Umar ibn Umar. In 759, Narbonne was not receiving reinforcements from al-Andalus, rife as it was with internal fights. Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri , wali of al-Andalus, had to quash a rebellion in Zaragoza in 756, and immediately head south to fight Abd ar-Rahman I , who defeated him. Northeastern Iberia and

9785-570: Was fought in the northern marches of Visigothic territory, at Vouillé , near Poitiers ( Gaul ), around Spring 507 between the Franks , commanded by Clovis , and the Visigoths , commanded by Alaric II . The Franks' victory resulted in their conquest of Gallia Aquitania and the death of Alaric II. After Clovis's victories over the Alemanni east of the Rhine and over the Burgundians in

9888-551: Was limited, mostly confined to local exchanges. The Islamic conquests of North Africa and subsequent military conflicts disrupted the flow of African goods into Western Europe. Additionally, the Byzantine Empire lost control of key trade routes to the West, forcing reliance on overland routes, which increased transportation costs and risks. These factors drove up the prices of Eastern goods in Europe, making them unaffordable to

9991-711: Was one of unwavering allegiance, promising to stand by their leader in battle until victory or death, regardless of the outcome or their lord's fate. In the year 95 AH (714 CE), the Muslim forces under the command of Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad successfully completed the conquest of most of the Iberian Peninsula . Shortly after, military operations were suspended by order of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik , and both commanders were recalled to Damascus for reasons debated by historians. Before leaving, Musa appointed his son, Abd al-Aziz, as

10094-435: Was raided by Childebert I twice (531 and 541). When Liuva I succeeded to the throne in 568, Septimania was a dangerous frontier province and Iberia was wracked by revolts. Liuva granted Iberia to his son Leovigild and took Septimania to himself. During the revolt of Hermenegild (583–585) against his father Leovigild, Septimania was invaded by Guntram , King of Burgundy , possibly in support of Hermenegild's revolt, since

10197-623: Was reinforced and ready to lay siege to Toulouse , a possession that would open up the bordering region of Aquitaine to him on the same terms as Septimania. But his plans were thwarted in the disastrous battle of Toulouse in 721 ; the Aquitanian Christian army led by Odo the Great , Duke of Aquitaine defeated the Umayyad Muslim army and achieved a decisive and significant victory. The surviving Umayyad forces drove away from Aquitaine with immense losses, in which al-Samh

10300-620: Was short-lived, and by 759 AD, they had lost Septimania . The final blow came when the Franks, led by Pepin the Short, besieged Narbonne . After approximately 40 years of Muslim rule, the garrison and the local population, including converts to Islam, retreated to Al-Andalus. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate and the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate , internal conflicts within Al-Andalus, including revolts and

10403-516: Was so seriously wounded that he soon died at Narbonne. Arab and Berber Muslim forces, soundly based in Narbonne and easily resupplied by sea, struck in the 720s, conquering Carcassonne on the north-western fringes of Septimania (725) and penetrating eastwards as far as Autun (725). In 731, the Berber lord of the region of Cerdagne , Uthman ibn Naissa , called Munuza by the Franks, was an ally of

10506-575: Was still a minor in Iberia. When Theodoric died in 526, Amalaric was elected king in his own right and he immediately made his capital in Narbonne. He ceded Provence, which had at some point passed back into Visigothic control, to the Ostrogothic king Athalaric . The Frankish king of Paris, Childebert I , invaded Septimania in 531 and chased Amalaric to Barcelona in response to pleas from his sister, Chrotilda , that her husband, Amalaric, had been mistreating her. The Franks however, did not try to hold

10609-407: Was the last Merovingian ruler to hold effective centralized power. His successors were weak and indulged in luxuries, leading to the gradual decline of royal authority. As the central power diminished, local nobles and leaders asserted their autonomy, effectively fragmenting the kingdom into independent fiefdoms that only maintained nominal allegiance to the central authority in Paris. As the power of

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