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109-689: All six of the surviving Vinaya sources of various early Buddhist schools contain accounts, in whole or in part, of the first and second councils. The story of the First Council seems to be a continuation of the story of the Buddha's final days and death told in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and its equivalents in the Agamas . Based on correlations and continuity between these two texts, Louis Finot concluded that they had originated from

218-543: A Chinese parallel to the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (T 1428 at T XXII 966b18), in which Mahākassapa says: "Ānanda is [like] a lay person. I am afraid that, being with covetousness in his mind, he will not recite the discourses completely." Analayo writes there may have been "actual conflict between two contending factions in the monastic community after the Buddha’s decease, with the more ascetically inclined faction emerging as

327-526: A Fourth Buddhist Council in the first century BCE in Sri Lanka at Alu Vihāra (Aloka Leṇa) during the time of King Vattagamani-Abhaya also known as Valagamba . According to K. R. Norman there is a major discrepancy between the sources which cite the death of Valagamba of Anuradhapura as occurring in 77 BCE and his supposed patronization of the effort to commit the Buddhist oral traditions to writing in

436-771: A Third council of the Theravara school which occurred during the reign of Ashoka at Pataliputra , emperor Ashoka's capital. According to the Theravāda commentaries and chronicles, the Third Buddhist Council was convened by the Mauryan king Ashoka at Pātaliputra (today's Patna ), under the leadership of the elder Moggaliputta Tissa . Its objective was to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions and heretical non-buddhists ( tirthikas ) which had only joined because they were attracted by

545-522: A cave near Rājagṛha (today's Rajgir ) with the support of king Ajatashatru . Its objective was to preserve the Buddha's sayings ( suttas ) and the monastic discipline or rules ( Vinaya ). The Suttas were recited by Ananda , and the Vinaya was recited by Upali . Even though the Buddha had said that the Sangha could abolish the minor rules after his passing, the council made the unanimous decision to keep all

654-423: A controversy when other monks discovered this). The lax practices are often described as "ten points". The main issue though was accepting money from laypersons. These practices were first noticed by a monk named Yasa Kākandakaputta, who alerted other elders and called out the monks. In response, both the monks of Vaiśālī and Yasa gathered senior members of the Sangha from the region to consult in order to fully settle

763-695: A limited time in Egyptian Alexandria , and this may have been the origin of the so-called Therapeutae sect mentioned by some ancient sources like Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 BCE – 50 CE). Religious scholar Ullrich R. Kleinhempel argues that the most likely candidate for the religion of the Therapeutae is indeed Buddhism . By the time of the Fourth Buddhist Councils , Buddhism had splintered into different schools in different regions of India . Scholars have also questioned

872-565: A question-and-answer format that recapitulates various rules in different groupings, as well as a variety of analyses. The Chinese texts include two sections not found in the Pali tradition, the Niddanas and Matrkas that have counterparts in the Tibetan tradition's Uttaragrantha. Relatively little analysis of these texts have been conducted, but they seem to contain an independent reorganization of

981-403: A question-and-answer format that recapitulates various rules in different groupings, as well as a variety of analyses. The Chinese texts include two sections not found in the Pali tradition, the Niddanas and Matrkas that have counterparts in the Tibetan tradition's Uttaragrantha. Relatively little analysis of these texts have been conducted, but they seem to contain an independent reorganization of

1090-524: A single narrative that was later split between the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka . In most schools, the account of the First Council is located at the end of the Skandhaka section of the Vinaya but before any appendices. The first Buddhist council is traditionally said to have been held just after Buddha's final nirvana , and presided over by Mahākāśyapa , one of his most senior disciples, at

1199-728: Is a highly charged topic within Theravadin communities: see ordination of women in Buddhism Buddhists in China , Korea , Taiwan and Vietnam follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (四分律), which has 250 rules for the bhikkhus and 348 rules for the bhikkhunis. Some schools in Japan technically follow this, but many monks there are married, which can be considered a violation of the rules. Other Japanese monks follow

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1308-427: Is a highly charged topic within Theravadin communities: see ordination of women in Buddhism Buddhists in China , Korea , Taiwan and Vietnam follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (四分律), which has 250 rules for the bhikkhus and 348 rules for the bhikkhunis. Some schools in Japan technically follow this, but many monks there are married, which can be considered a violation of the rules. Other Japanese monks follow

1417-635: Is not usually counted as a council in other traditions, but the Samantapāsādikā does mention a recital at this time. The fifth council is that of King Vattagāmanī Abhaya , when the Pali Canon was first put into writing in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE at Āluvihāra under the presidency of Mahātthera Rakkhita. The sixth council, according to the Saṅgītiyavaṁsa , comprises the activities of

1526-509: Is said that during the council three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements were compiled, a process which took twelve years to complete. Sarvastivada sources also claim that the encyclopedic Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra ("Great Abhidharma Commentary") dates to the time of Kanishka. This massive text became the central text of the Vaibhāṣika tradition in Kashmir. Although

1635-438: Is the shortest portion of every Vinaya, and universally regarded as the earliest. This collection of rules is recited by the gathered Sangha at the new and full moon. Rules are listed in descending order, from the most serious (four rules that entail expulsion), followed by five further categories of more minor offenses. Most traditions include an explicit listing of rules intended for recitation, called Prātimokṣa-sutra , but in

1744-438: Is the shortest portion of every Vinaya, and universally regarded as the earliest. This collection of rules is recited by the gathered Sangha at the new and full moon. Rules are listed in descending order, from the most serious (four rules that entail expulsion), followed by five further categories of more minor offenses. Most traditions include an explicit listing of rules intended for recitation, called Prātimokṣa-sutra , but in

1853-508: Is their translation into Chinese around the 5th century CE. The earliest established dates of the Theravada Vinaya stem from the composition of Buddhaghosa 's commentaries in the 5th century, and became known to Western scholarship through 17th- and 18th-century manuscripts. The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya was brought to Tibet by Khenpo Shantarakshita by c.  763 , when the first Tibetan Buddhist monks were ordained, and

1962-441: Is their translation into Chinese around the 5th century CE. The earliest established dates of the Theravada Vinaya stem from the composition of Buddhaghosa 's commentaries in the 5th century, and became known to Western scholarship through 17th- and 18th-century manuscripts. The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya was brought to Tibet by Khenpo Shantarakshita by c.  763 , when the first Tibetan Buddhist monks were ordained, and

2071-690: The Baramula Pass . The Fourth Council of Kashmir is not recognized as authoritative for the Theravadins. Reports of this council can be found in scriptures which were kept in the Mahayana tradition. It is said that emperor Kanishka gathered five hundred Bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to systematize the Sarvastivadin canon, which were translated from earlier Prakrit vernacular languages (such as Gandhari ) into Sanskrit . It

2180-726: The Bodhisattva Precepts only, which was excerpted from the Mahāyāna version of Brahmajālasutra (梵網經). And the Bodhisattva Precepts contains two parts of precepts: for lay and clergy. According to Chinese Buddhist tradition, one who wants to observe the Bodhisattva Precepts for clergy, must observe the Ten Precepts and High Ordination [Bhikkhu or Bhikkhunī Precepts] first. Tibetan Buddhists in Tibet , Bhutan , Mongolia , Nepal , Ladakh and other Himalayan regions follow

2289-492: The Bodhisattva Precepts only, which was excerpted from the Mahāyāna version of Brahmajālasutra (梵網經). And the Bodhisattva Precepts contains two parts of precepts: for lay and clergy. According to Chinese Buddhist tradition, one who wants to observe the Bodhisattva Precepts for clergy, must observe the Ten Precepts and High Ordination [Bhikkhu or Bhikkhunī Precepts] first. Tibetan Buddhists in Tibet , Bhutan , Mongolia , Nepal , Ladakh and other Himalayan regions follow

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2398-507: The Burmese script before its recitation. This monumental task was done by the monks and many skilled craftsmen who upon completion of each slab had them housed in beautiful miniature 'pitaka' pagodas on a special site in the grounds of King Mindon's Kuthodaw Pagoda at the foot of Mandalay Hill where it and the so-called 'largest book in the world' , stands to this day. This council is not generally recognized outside Burma. The Sixth Council

2507-610: The Kasmiri Sarvastivadins, who are portrayed as descended from the arahants who fled the persecution of Mahādeva and, led by Upagupta , established themselves in Kashmir and Gandhara . The Samayabhedoparacanacakra also records a 'Mahādeva' who seems to be a completely different figure who was the founder of the Caitika sect over 200 years later. Some scholars have concluded that an association of "Mahādeva" with

2616-494: The Sarvastivada are no longer extant as an independent school, its Abhidharma tradition were inherited by the Mahayana tradition. The new Vaibhāṣika texts were not accepted by all Sarvāstivādins. Some "Western masters" from Gandhara and Bactria had divergent views which disagreed with the new orthodoxy. These disagreements from the " Sautrantikas " can be seen in later works, such as the * Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra (成實論),

2725-460: The Sarvāstivāda . The word Vinaya is derived from a Sanskrit verb that can mean to lead, take away, train, tame, or guide, or alternately to educate or teach. It is often translated as 'discipline', with Dhamma-vinaya , 'doctrine and discipline', used by the Buddha to refer to his complete teachings, suggesting its integral role in Buddhist practice. According to an origin story prefaced to

2834-406: The Sarvāstivāda . The word Vinaya is derived from a Sanskrit verb that can mean to lead, take away, train, tame, or guide, or alternately to educate or teach. It is often translated as 'discipline', with Dhamma-vinaya , 'doctrine and discipline', used by the Buddha to refer to his complete teachings, suggesting its integral role in Buddhist practice. According to an origin story prefaced to

2943-780: The Theravada (Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia), Mulasarvastivada ( Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan region ) and Dharmaguptaka ( Taiwan and East Asian Buddhism ). In addition to these three Vinaya traditions, five other Vinaya schools of Indian Buddhism are preserved in Asian canonical manuscripts, including those of the Kāśyapīya , the Mahāsāṃghika , the Mahīśāsaka , the Sammatīya , and

3052-408: The Theravada (Sri Lanka & Southeast Asia), Mulasarvastivada ( Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan region ) and Dharmaguptaka ( Taiwan and East Asian Buddhism ). In addition to these three Vinaya traditions, five other Vinaya schools of Indian Buddhism are preserved in Asian canonical manuscripts, including those of the Kāśyapīya , the Mahāsāṃghika , the Mahīśāsaka , the Sammatīya , and

3161-575: The Tipitaka , modern academic scholarship holds that it was likely composed at a later date because of its contents and differences in language and style. According to Theravada tradition, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, and the ancient Atthakathā (commentary) were also included at the first Buddhist council in the Sutta category, but its literature is different from Sutta because the Abhidhamma Pitaka

3270-703: The * Abhidharmahṛday a (T no. 1550), and the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu. Another Buddhist Council, this time presided by Theravada monks, took place in Mandalay, Burma , in 1871 in the reign of King Mindon . In the Burmese tradition, it is commonly known as the "Fifth Council". The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted or dropped. It

3379-511: The Buddha's death, but considered only the main characters and some events before or after the First Council historical. Other scholars, such as Buddhologist André Bareau and Indologist Hermann Oldenberg , considered it likely that the account of the First Council was written after the Second Council , and based on that of the second, since there were not any major problems to solve after the Buddha's death , or any other need to organize

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3488-629: The Buddha. In the Pali tradition, a specific chapter of the Khandhaka deals with issues pertaining specifically to nuns, and the Mulasarvastivada tradition devotes most of one of the two volumes of its Ksudrakavastu to issues pertaining to nuns. Beyond this point, the distinct Vinaya traditions differ in their organization. The Pali Vinaya includes a text known as the Parivāra that contains

3597-405: The Buddha. In the Pali tradition, a specific chapter of the Khandhaka deals with issues pertaining specifically to nuns, and the Mulasarvastivada tradition devotes most of one of the two volumes of its Ksudrakavastu to issues pertaining to nuns. Beyond this point, the distinct Vinaya traditions differ in their organization. The Pali Vinaya includes a text known as the Parivāra that contains

3706-531: The Buddhist sangha was heavily involved in missionary activities across Asia at the time of Ashoka is well supported by the archeological sources, including numerous Indian inscriptions that match the claims of the Theravada sources. According to the Mahavamsa (XII, 1st paragraph), the council and Ashoka sent the following missionaries to various regions: Some of these missions were very successful, such as

3815-523: The Doctrine in which seven hundred monks took part under the leadership of Soreyya-Revata. The recital lasted eight months. The Vajjiputtakas refused to accept the finding of Revata's Council and formed a separate sect, the Mahāsanghikas, numbering ten thousand monks, who held a recital of their own. Accordingly, Theravāda Buddhism suggests that Mahāsāṃghikas tried to change the traditional Vinaya by adding

3924-544: The First Council, because the early texts contain different accounts on important subjects such as meditation. It may be, though, that early versions were recited of what is now known as the Vinaya-piṭaka and Sutta-piṭaka . Nevertheless, many scholars, from the late 19th century onward, have considered the historicity of the First Council improbable. Some scholars, such as orientalists Louis de La Vallée-Poussin and D.P. Minayeff, thought there must have been assemblies after

4033-532: The First Council. On the other hand, archaeologist Louis Finot , Indologist E. E. Obermiller and to some extent Indologist Nalinaksha Dutt thought the account of the First Council was authentic, because of the correspondences between the Pāli texts and the Sanskrit traditions . Indologist Richard Gombrich meanwhile holds that "large parts of the Pali Canon" do date back to the first council. The historical records for

4142-592: The Great Assembly" ( Mahāsāṃghavinaya ). [...] The king considered that [the doctrines of the two parties represented] were both the work of the Buddha, and since their preferences were not the same, [the monks of the two camps] should not live together. As those who studied the old Vinaya were in the majority, they were called the Mahāsāṃghika; those who studied the new [Vinaya] were in the minority, but they were all Sthaviras; thus they were named Sthavira. Due to

4251-527: The Hináyana School. Vasumitra was elected president, and Asvaghoṣa vice-president. They examined ancient theological literature and created detailed commentaries on the Canon's three main divisions. After the council, these commentaries were inscribed on copper sheets and stored in a stupa built by Kanishka. Kanishka then renewed Asoka's donation of Kashmir to the church before returning home via

4360-604: The Indian scholar Paramartha , Jizang , and the pilgrim Xuanzang . According to these sources, an alternative canon named the Mahasamghikanikaya (Collection of the Great Assembly) was compiled by an Arhat named Baspa and his followers. Xuanzang reports visiting a stupa near Rajgir which marked the site of this alternate council. Several modern scholars doubt whether the entire canon was really recited during

4469-475: The Mahāsāṃghika disagree with the Sthavira 'additions' to the Vinaya ( Mahāsāṃghikavinaya, T.1425, p. 493a28-c22.). The Mahāsāṃghika Śāriputraparipṛcchā contains an account in which an old monk rearranges and augments the traditional Vinaya. As stated in the Śāriputraparipṛcchā : He copied and rearranged our Vinaya, developing and augmenting what Kāśyapa had codified and which was called "Vinaya of

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4578-512: The Mahāyāna to reject the traditional rules of the Vinaya: If he thinks or says, "A future buddha has nothing to do with learning or observing the law of the Vehicle of the Śrāvakas ," he commits a sin of pollution ( kliṣṭā āpatti ). Louis de La Vallée-Poussin wrote that the Mahāyāna relies on traditional full ordination of monastics, and in doing so is "perfectly orthodox" according to

4687-399: The Mahāyāna to reject the traditional rules of the Vinaya: If he thinks or says, "A future buddha has nothing to do with learning or observing the law of the Vehicle of the Śrāvakas ," he commits a sin of pollution ( kliṣṭā āpatti ). Louis de La Vallée-Poussin wrote that the Mahāyāna relies on traditional full ordination of monastics, and in doing so is "perfectly orthodox" according to

4796-689: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya was transmitted in Tibet by Shantarakshita, but did not survive the later persecution of Tibetan Buddhists undertaken by Udum Tsenpo . Afterwards, Tibetan nuns were getsunma (Tib. novice) nuns (Skt. śramaṇerīs) only, after taking the lay vows of eight or ten Precepts , see ordination of women in Buddhism . The Mahāyāna Bodhisattvabhūmi , part of the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra , regards it an offense for monastics following

4905-461: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya was transmitted in Tibet by Shantarakshita, but did not survive the later persecution of Tibetan Buddhists undertaken by Udum Tsenpo . Afterwards, Tibetan nuns were getsunma (Tib. novice) nuns (Skt. śramaṇerīs) only, after taking the lay vows of eight or ten Precepts , see ordination of women in Buddhism . The Mahāyāna Bodhisattvabhūmi , part of the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra , regards it an offense for monastics following

5014-503: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, which has 253 rules for the bhiksus (monks) and 364 rules for bhiksunis (nuns). In addition to these pratimokṣa precepts, there are many supplementary ones. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition of fully ordained bhikṣuṇī nuns officially recommenced in Bhutan on 23 June 2022, when 144 women were ordained. According to Nyingma school and Kagyu school scholars, the full ordination lineage of bhikkhuni for nuns within

5123-451: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, which has 253 rules for the bhiksus (monks) and 364 rules for bhiksunis (nuns). In addition to these pratimokṣa precepts, there are many supplementary ones. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition of fully ordained bhikṣuṇī nuns officially recommenced in Bhutan on 23 June 2022, when 144 women were ordained. According to Nyingma school and Kagyu school scholars, the full ordination lineage of bhikkhuni for nuns within

5232-559: The Pali Canon was published, the Tipitaka Chabab Tongyai. Vinaya The Vinaya texts ( Pali and Sanskrit : विनय) are texts of the Buddhist canon ( Tripitaka ) that also contain the rules and precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded sramanas ). The precepts were initially developed thirteen years after the Buddha's enlightenment. Three parallel Vinaya school traditions remain in use by modern ordained sanghas :

5341-681: The Pāli translation of the Sinhalese commentaries, a project that was led by Ācariya Buddhaghosa and involved numerous bhikkhus of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara tradition. The seventh council is believed to have taken place during the time of the Sri Lankan king Parākkamabāhu I and presided over by Kassapa Thera in 1176. During this council the Atthavaṇ­ṇ­a­nā was written, which explains the Pāli translation by Buddhaghosa of

5450-552: The Second Buddhist Council derive primarily from the canonical Vinayas of various schools. It was held 100 years after the parinirvana of Buddha in the Valukarama of Vaiśālī and was patronised by the king Kalashoka . While inevitably disagreeing on points of details, these schools nevertheless agree that the bhikkhus at Vaisali were accepting monetary donations and following other lax practices (which led to

5559-529: The Theravada Bhikkhu Suttavibhanga , in the early years of the Buddha's teaching the sangha lived together in harmony with no vinaya, as there was no need, because all of the Buddha 's early disciples were highly realized if not fully enlightened. After thirteen years and as the sangha expanded, situations arose which the Buddha and the lay community felt were inappropriate for mendicants . According to Buddhist tradition,

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5668-442: The Theravada Bhikkhu Suttavibhanga , in the early years of the Buddha's teaching the sangha lived together in harmony with no vinaya, as there was no need, because all of the Buddha 's early disciples were highly realized if not fully enlightened. After thirteen years and as the sangha expanded, situations arose which the Buddha and the lay community felt were inappropriate for mendicants . According to Buddhist tradition,

5777-596: The Theravada tradition the Patimokkha rules occur in writing only alongside their exegesis and commentary, the Vibhanga described below. While the Prātimokṣa is preserved independent of the Vibhanga in many traditions, scholars generally do not believe that the rules it contains were observed and enforced without the context provided by an interpretive tradition, even in the early era- many of the exceptions and opinions of

5886-428: The Theravada tradition the Patimokkha rules occur in writing only alongside their exegesis and commentary, the Vibhanga described below. While the Prātimokṣa is preserved independent of the Vibhanga in many traditions, scholars generally do not believe that the rules it contains were observed and enforced without the context provided by an interpretive tradition, even in the early era- many of the exceptions and opinions of

5995-436: The Vibhanga seem to stem from older customs regarding what was and wasn't permissible for wandering ascetics in the Indian tradition. The second major component of the Vinaya is the Vibhanga or Suttavibhanga , which provides commentary on each of the rules listed in the Prātimokṣa. This typically includes the origin of the rule in a specific incident or dispute, along with variations that indicate related situations covered by

6104-436: The Vibhanga seem to stem from older customs regarding what was and wasn't permissible for wandering ascetics in the Indian tradition. The second major component of the Vinaya is the Vibhanga or Suttavibhanga , which provides commentary on each of the rules listed in the Prātimokṣa. This typically includes the origin of the rule in a specific incident or dispute, along with variations that indicate related situations covered by

6213-471: The Vinaya rules that may be an earlier strata of texts. The Theravada Vinaya is preserved in the Pāli Canon in the Vinaya Piṭaka . The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya is preserved in both the Tibetan Buddhist canon in the Kangyur , in a Chinese edition, and in an incomplete Sanskrit manuscript. Some other complete vinaya texts are preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon (see: Taishō Tripiṭaka ), and these include: Six complete versions are extant. Fragments of

6322-471: The Vinaya rules that may be an earlier strata of texts. The Theravada Vinaya is preserved in the Pāli Canon in the Vinaya Piṭaka . The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya is preserved in both the Tibetan Buddhist canon in the Kangyur , in a Chinese edition, and in an incomplete Sanskrit manuscript. Some other complete vinaya texts are preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon (see: Taishō Tripiṭaka ), and these include: Six complete versions are extant. Fragments of

6431-406: The above ten points to it. However, Mahāsāṃghikas hold that the Sthaviras ("Elders") wanted to 'add' more rules to the Vinaya. Vinaya texts associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya. The Mahāsāṃghika Prātimokṣa (list of rules) has 67 rules in the śaikṣa-dharma section, while the Theravāda version has 75 rules. The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya discusses how

6540-408: The action of the Vajjiputtakas. Yasa then left Kosambī, and, having summoned monks from Pāvā in the west and Avanti in the south, sought Sambhūta Sānavāsi in Ahoganga. On his advice they sought Soreyya-Revata, and together they consulted Sabbakāmi at Vālikārāma. In the Council that followed the Ten Points were declared invalid, and this decision was conveyed to the monks. Soon after was held a recital of

6649-549: The canonical Brahmajala Sutta. He asked the virtuous monks, and they replied that the Buddha was a "Teacher of Analysis" ( Vibhajjavādin ), an answer that was confirmed by Moggaliputta Tissa. The Theravadins say that council proceeded to recite the scriptures, adding to the canon Moggaliputta Tissa's own book, the Kathavatthu , a discussion of various dissenting Buddhist views and the Vibhajjavādin responses to them. Only Theravadin sources mention this text. According to this account, this third council also seems to have led to

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6758-410: The case of the preceding councils, its first objective was to affirm and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. However it was unique insofar as the monks who took part in it came from eight countries. These two thousand five hundred learned Theravada monks came from Myanmar , Thailand , Cambodia , Laos , Vietnam , Sri Lanka , India , and Nepal . Germany can only be counted as the nationality of

6867-402: The complete Vinaya Piṭaka was recited by Upāli at the First Council shortly after the Buddha 's death. All of the known Vinaya texts use the same system of organizing rules and contain the same sections, leading scholars to believe that the fundamental organization of the Vinaya must date from before the separation of schools. While traditional accounts fix the origins of the Vinaya during

6976-402: The complete Vinaya Piṭaka was recited by Upāli at the First Council shortly after the Buddha 's death. All of the known Vinaya texts use the same system of organizing rules and contain the same sections, leading scholars to believe that the fundamental organization of the Vinaya must date from before the separation of schools. While traditional accounts fix the origins of the Vinaya during

7085-410: The conclusion that they must stem from a common origin. Parallel and independent Prātimokṣa rules and Vibhnagas exist in each tradition for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis . The majority of rules for monks and nuns are identical, but the bhikkhuni Prātimokṣa and Vibhanga includes additional rules that are specific to nuns, including the controversial Eight Garudhammas whose authorship is not attributed to

7194-410: The conclusion that they must stem from a common origin. Parallel and independent Prātimokṣa rules and Vibhnagas exist in each tradition for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis . The majority of rules for monks and nuns are identical, but the bhikkhuni Prātimokṣa and Vibhanga includes additional rules that are specific to nuns, including the controversial Eight Garudhammas whose authorship is not attributed to

7303-404: The conflicting claims from both sects, a clear conclusion cannot be reached on whether the Sthaviras' or the Mahāsāṃghikas' Vinaya was the original Vinaya. The alternative view of what caused the first schism is found in several Sthavira sources including the Theravada Dipavamsa . According to these sources, some 35 years after the second council, there was another meeting in Pāṭaliputra . This

7412-413: The council and who worry about what will happen to the Dharma after the death of the Buddha. This account is described in the Chinese versions of the Dharmagupta and Mahīsāsaka Vinayas and in the Vinayamātrika Sūtra . Gavampati is said to have also maintained a set of eight rules regarding food which are retained by the Mahīsāsaka Vinaya. A similar event is described by Chinese sources like the writings of

7521-439: The council, which was patronized by the King of Lan Na , Tilokaraj (r. 1441–1487). During this council, the orthography of the Thai Pali Canon was corrected and it was rendered into the Lan Na script . This council was held in 1477 CE. A second Thai council was held in Bangkok from November 13, 1788, to April 10, 1789, under the aegis of King Rāma I and his brother. It was attended by 250 monks and scholars. A new edition of

7630-474: The day of their Upasampad [full ordination]. Vinaya-pitaka The Vinaya texts ( Pali and Sanskrit : विनय) are texts of the Buddhist canon ( Tripitaka ) that also contain the rules and precepts for fully ordained monks and nuns of Buddhist Sanghas (community of like-minded sramanas ). The precepts were initially developed thirteen years after the Buddha's enlightenment. Three parallel Vinaya school traditions remain in use by modern ordained sanghas :

7739-463: The evening of Vesak , 24 May 1956, exactly two and a half millennia after Buddha's Parinibbana , according to the traditional Theravada dating. The Thai Theravada tradition has a different way of counting the history of Buddhist councils and names many other councils besides the ones listed above. A common Thai historical source for the early councils is the Saṅgītiyavaṁsa (c. 1789) by Somdet Wannarat, abbot of Wat Pho . The first three councils are

7848-479: The first schism was a later sectarian interpolation based on much later events. Jan Nattier and Charles Prebish argue that the five points of Mahadeva are unlikely to have been the cause of the first schism and see this event as "emerging in a historical period considerably later than previously supposed and taking his place in the sectarian movement by instigating an internal schism within the already existing Mahāsāṃghika school." Theravada sources contain narratives of

7957-603: The five heretical points of Mahādeva which degrades the attainment of arhats. These same points are discussed and condemned in the Theravadin Kathavatthu . The later Sarvāstivāda Mahavibhasa develops this story into against the Mahasanghika founder, Mahādeva . According to this version of events, the king ends up supporting the Mahasanghikas. This version of events emphasizes the purity of

8066-506: The founder of the Mahāsāṃghika school. Mahasamghika sources do not claim Mahadeva as a founder and do not agree with this account. As such, most scholars think that the Mahādeva incident was a later event and that it was not the root cause of the first schism. Vasumitra's Samayabhedoparacanacakra (a Sarvāstivāda source) claims the dispute in Pātaliputra that led to the first schism was over

8175-426: The guidance of others ( paravitāraṇa ), and speaking of suffering while in samādhi ( vacibheda ). According to the Sthavira accounts, the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) sided with Mahādeva, and a minority of righteous elders (Sthaviras) were opposed to it, thus causing the first schism in the Buddhist community. According to this account, Mahadeva was criticized and opposed by Sthavira elders, and he eventually went on to become

8284-646: The historicity of these councils. David Snellgrove considers the Theravada account of the Third Council and the Sarvastivada account of the Fourth Council "equally tendentious," illustrating the uncertain veracity of much of these histories. The Milindapanho, a non-canonical Pali Buddhist text, is a dialogue between King Milinda and Venerable Nagasena from the 2nd century B.C. It remains widely read in Buddhist regions. The Fourth Buddhist Council

8393-621: The issue. This dispute about vinaya , according to traditional sources, resulted in the first schism in the Sangha . But some scholars think that a schism did not occur at this time and instead happened at a later date. The Cullavagga of the Pali Canon of Theravāda Buddhism holds that the Vaiśālī (Vajjiputtakā) monks practiced ten points (dasa vatthūni) which were against the Vinaya rules. The orthodox monks refused to agree to these points, and one of their leaders, Yasa Kākandakaputta, publicly condemned

8502-473: The lifetime of the Buddha, all of the existing manuscript traditions are from significantly later- most around the 5th century CE. While the early Buddhist community seems to have lived primarily as wandering monks who begged for alms, many Vinaya rules in every tradition assume settled monasticism to be the norm, along with regular collective meals organized by lay donors or funded by monastic wealth. The earliest dates that can be established for most Vinaya texts

8611-473: The lifetime of the Buddha, all of the existing manuscript traditions are from significantly later- most around the 5th century CE. While the early Buddhist community seems to have lived primarily as wandering monks who begged for alms, many Vinaya rules in every tradition assume settled monasticism to be the norm, along with regular collective meals organized by lay donors or funded by monastic wealth. The earliest dates that can be established for most Vinaya texts

8720-404: The monastic vows and rules of the early Buddhist traditions: From the disciplinary point of view, the Mahāyāna is not autonomous. The adherents of the Mahāyāna are monks of the Mahāsāṃghika, Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivādin and other traditions, who undertake the vows and rules of the bodhisattvas without abandoning the monastic vows and rules fixed by the tradition with which they are associated on

8829-404: The monastic vows and rules of the early Buddhist traditions: From the disciplinary point of view, the Mahāyāna is not autonomous. The adherents of the Mahāyāna are monks of the Mahāsāṃghika, Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivādin and other traditions, who undertake the vows and rules of the bodhisattvas without abandoning the monastic vows and rules fixed by the tradition with which they are associated on

8938-561: The ones which established Buddhism in Afghanistan , Gandhara and Sri Lanka . Gandharan Buddhism , Greco-Buddhism and Sinhalese Buddhism would continue to be major influential traditions for generations after. Regarding the missions to the Mediterranean Hellenistic kingdoms , they seemed to have been less successful. However, some scholars hold that it is possible some Buddhist communities were established for

9047-550: The only two western monks in attendance: Venerable Nyanatiloka Mahathera and Venerable Nyanaponika Thera . They both were invited from Sri Lanka. The late Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw was appointed the noble task of asking the required questions about the Dhamma of the Venerable Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa who answered all of them learnedly and satisfactorily. By the time this council met, all

9156-651: The original Sinhalese commentaries. Parākkamabāhu also unified the Sri Lankan sangha into one single Theravada community. From this point onwards, the Thai tradition focuses on councils held in Thailand which were patronized by the Thai monarchy . The first of these was held in the Mahā­b­o­dhārāma at Chiang Mai , which was attended by several monks. The Mahāthera Dhammadinnā of Tālavana Mahāvihāra (Wat Pā Tān) presided over

9265-596: The participating countries had had the Pali Tripiṭaka rendered into their native scripts, with the exception of India. The traditional recitation of the Buddhist Scriptures took two years, and the Tripiṭaka and its allied literature in all the scripts were painstakingly examined and their differences noted down and the necessary corrections made and all the versions were then collated. It was found that there

9374-487: The period 29 to 17 BCE. Norman writes: The Dipavamsa states that during the reign of Valagamba (Vattagamani Abhaya) (29–17 BCE) the monks who had previously remembered the Tipitaka and its commentary orally, wrote them down in books, because of the threat posed by famine and war. The Mahavamsa also refers briefly to the writing down of the canon and the commentaries at this time. Valagamba is also associated with patronizing

9483-589: The procurement and distribution of robes. The final segment of this division, the Ksudrakavastu ("Minor division") contains miscellanea that does not belong to other sections, and in some traditions is so large that it is treated as a separate work. Strong agreement between multiple different recensions of the Skandhaka across different traditions and language with respect to the number of chapters (generally 20) and their topics and contents has led scholars to

9592-469: The procurement and distribution of robes. The final segment of this division, the Ksudrakavastu ("Minor division") contains miscellanea that does not belong to other sections, and in some traditions is so large that it is treated as a separate work. Strong agreement between multiple different recensions of the Skandhaka across different traditions and language with respect to the number of chapters (generally 20) and their topics and contents has led scholars to

9701-1010: The remaining versions survive in various languages. The first three listed below are still in use. Buddhism in Myanmar , Cambodia , Laos , Sri Lanka , and Thailand followed the Theravadin Vinaya, which has 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 for bhikkhunis . As the nun's lineage died out in all areas of the Theravada school, traditionally women's roles as renunciates were limited to taking eight or ten Precepts : see women in Buddhism . Such women appears as maechi in Thai Buddhism, dasa sil mata in Sri Lanka, thilashin in Burma and siladharas at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in England. More recently, women have been undergoing upasampada as full ordination as bhikkhuni , although this

9810-718: The remaining versions survive in various languages. The first three listed below are still in use. Buddhism in Myanmar , Cambodia , Laos , Sri Lanka , and Thailand followed the Theravadin Vinaya, which has 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 for bhikkhunis . As the nun's lineage died out in all areas of the Theravada school, traditionally women's roles as renunciates were limited to taking eight or ten Precepts : see women in Buddhism . Such women appears as maechi in Thai Buddhism, dasa sil mata in Sri Lanka, thilashin in Burma and siladharas at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in England. More recently, women have been undergoing upasampada as full ordination as bhikkhuni , although this

9919-492: The royal patronage of the sangha. Due to the increased royal support of the sangha, large numbers of faithless, greedy men espousing wrong views tried to join the order improperly and caused many divisions in the sangha. Because of this the third council of one thousand monks were convened, led by Moggaliputtatissa. The emperor himself was in attendance and asked the suspect monks what the Buddha taught. They claimed he taught wrong views such as eternalism, etc., which are condemned in

10028-505: The rule, as well as exceptions that account for situations that are not to be regarded as violations of a more general rule. The third division of the Vinaya is known as the Vinayavastu, Skandhaka, or Khandhaka, meaning 'divisions' or 'chapters'. Each section of these texts deals with a specific aspect of monastic life, containing, for instance, procedures and regulations related to ordination, obtaining and storing medical supplies, and

10137-445: The rule, as well as exceptions that account for situations that are not to be regarded as violations of a more general rule. The third division of the Vinaya is known as the Vinayavastu, Skandhaka, or Khandhaka, meaning 'divisions' or 'chapters'. Each section of these texts deals with a specific aspect of monastic life, containing, for instance, procedures and regulations related to ordination, obtaining and storing medical supplies, and

10246-519: The rules intact. According to Charles Prebish, almost all scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council. Numerous Vinayas also depict various disagreements in the first council. Various monks disagreed on whether to keep or get rid of some of the minor rules (since the Buddha had told Ananda that this may be done). Some monks even argued all the minor rules should be abolished. Also, numerous early sources state that Mahakasyapa criticized Ananda in various ways. Analayo quotes one passage from

10355-565: The site of Abhayagiri , building the stupa there and offering it to Kuppikala Mahatissa thero. This seems to have caused a dispute between Abhayagiri and the monks of the Mahavihara monastery (the ancient Theravada lineage). Whatever the case, the sources state that a council was held at the cave temple of Alu Vihāra in response to Beminitiya Seya . Because at this time the Pali texts were strictly an oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇaka s ( dharma reciters),

10464-662: The split between the Sarvastivada and the Vibhajjavāda schools on the issue of the existence of the three times (i.e. temporal eternalism ). This doctrine seems to have been defended by a certain Katyayaniputra, who is seen as the founder of Sarvastivada. But according to K.L. Dhammajoti , the Sarvastivada lineage and the Vibhajyavāda lineage of Moggaliputta were already present during the time of Emperor Aśoka. Theravada sources mention that another function of this council

10573-534: The surviving monks recognized the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost. Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held by the Sarvastivada tradition in the Kushan empire , and is said to have been convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka I (c. 158–176), in 78 AD at Kundalvana vihara (Kundalban) in Kashmir . The exact location of

10682-575: The traditional councils in India (1. Rājagaha, 2. Vesālī, 3. Patāliputta). The fourth council is seen by the Thai tradition of Buddhist history as having taken place under the reign of King Devānampiyatissa (247–207 BCE), when Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka . It was supposed to have been held under the presidency of the Venerable Ariṭṭha, the first pupil of the Elder Mahinda . This

10791-602: The vihara is presumed to be around Harwan, near Srinagar . An alternate theory places its location in the Kuvana monastery in Jalandhar , though this is improbable. The 4th Buddhist Council was convened by Kanishka , troubled by conflicting doctrines among various sects. He advised with the venerable Pársva, who organized a general assembly of theologians in Kundalabana near Srinagar , Kashmir . All 500 members were from

10900-485: The winning party in the accounts of the first saṅgīti". According to some traditional accounts, following the Buddha's death, 499 of the Buddha's top arhats were chosen to attend the council. Ananda , then a sotapanna , trained himself until the dawn of day of the council, at which point he attained arahatship and was allowed to join the council. Regarding the Abhidhamma Pitaka , the third major division of

11009-604: Was authored by Sāriputta . The various Vinayas also recount another curious event during this time. The Cullavagga mentions there was an arhat named Purāṇa who stated that he and his followers preferred to remember the Buddha's teachings in the manner he had heard it and so did not rely on the textual collections of the council. This figure is also found in the Aśokāvadāna and the Tibetan Dulvā Vinaya , which depict Purāṇa and another monk, Gavampati which were not present at

11118-702: Was called at Kaba Aye in Yangon (formerly Rangoon) in 1954, 83 years after the fifth one was held in Mandalay. It was sponsored by the Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, the Honourable U Nu . He authorized the construction of the Maha Passana Guha, the "great cave", an artificial cave very much like India's Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held. Upon its completion The Council met on 17 May 1954. As in

11227-472: Was called to dispute five points held by a figure named Mahādeva. The five points generally see arhats as imperfect and fallible. Sthavira sources claim the schism was caused by Mahādeva, who often depicted as an evil figure (who killed his parents). The "five points" describe an arhat as one still characterized by impurity due to being affected by nocturnal emissions ( asucisukhavisaṭṭhi ), ignorance ( aññāṇa ), doubt ( kaṅkhā ), reaching enlightenment through

11336-496: Was held around 100 A.C. in Jalandhara , Punjab. Notable Buddhist philosophers from Punjab include Asanga and Vasubandhu , who wrote many Sanskrit works in the 4th century A.C. Other significant Buddhist teachers from Punjab include Katyayana , Parsva , Vasumitra , and Manortha (1st century A.C.), Kumarlata (3rd century A.C.), and Vinitiprabha and Chandravarma (7th century A.C.). The Southern Theravāda school had

11445-422: Was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Finally, after the council had officially approved them, all of the books of the Tipitaka and their commentaries were prepared for printing on modern presses and published in the Burmese script . This notable achievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the two thousand five hundred monks and numerous lay people. Their work came to an end on

11554-670: Was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable Mahathera Sumangalasami in the company of some two thousand four hundred monks (2,400). Their joint Dhamma recitation lasted for five months. It was also the work of this council to approve the entire Tripitaka inscribed for posterity on seven hundred and twenty-nine marble slabs in

11663-531: Was to send Buddhist missionaries to various countries in order to spread Buddhism. These reached as far as the Hellenistic kingdoms in the West (in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom , and possibly even farther according to the inscriptions left on stone pillars by Ashoka). Missionaries were also sent to South India , Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (possibly to neighboring Burma ). The fact that

11772-539: Was translated into Chinese by the 8th century. Earlier Sanskrit manuscripts exist from the 5th to the 7th century. Scholarly consensus places the composition of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya in the early centuries of the first millennium, though all the manuscripts and translations are relatively late. The core of the Vinaya is a set of rules known as Patimokkha in Pāli and Prātimokṣa in Sanskrit. This

11881-419: Was translated into Chinese by the 8th century. Earlier Sanskrit manuscripts exist from the 5th to the 7th century. Scholarly consensus places the composition of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya in the early centuries of the first millennium, though all the manuscripts and translations are relatively late. The core of the Vinaya is a set of rules known as Patimokkha in Pāli and Prātimokṣa in Sanskrit. This

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