Misplaced Pages

#372627

67-524: Some scholars have concluded from the Hurrian etymology of some Shubrian names that Shubria was mainly populated by Hurrians . Some have suggested that it was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians. However, other Shubrian names have been identified as Aramean by origin. Bradley J. Parker writes that the existing evidence indicates that Shubria had

134-711: A genetic relationship to other language families (e.g., the Northeast Caucasian languages ), but none of these are generally accepted. The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian language and Cuneiform script for their own writing about 2000 BC. Texts in the Hurrian language in cuneiform have been found at Hattusa , Ugarit (Ras Shamra), as well as in one of the longest of the Amarna letters (EA 27), written by King Tushratta of Mitanni to Pharaoh Amenhotep III . It

201-664: A great impact on the religion of the Hittites. From the Hurrian cult centre at Kummanni in Kizzuwatna, Hurrian religion spread to the Hittite people. Syncretism merged the Old Hittite and Hurrian religions. Hurrian religion spread to Syria, where Baal became the counterpart of Teshub. The Hurrian religion, in different forms, influenced the entire ancient Near East , except ancient Egypt and southern Mesopotamia. While

268-707: A heterogeneous population including Hurrians, Arameans, and likely also Urartians, Assyrians and others. According to some scholars, Shubria was inhabited, at least in part, by speakers of the Proto-Armenian language and played an important role in the formation of the later Armenian state and ethnic group. The name Shubria is related to the older term Subartu(m) ( Shubartu(m) , Subir , Subar(u) ), which had varying geographical and ethnic or cultural associations that transformed over time. This term dates back to Sumerian times, when it appears to have been used to describe an area corresponding to Upper Mesopotamia and

335-579: A key to the understanding of Hurrian culture and history. The 2nd millennium Hurrians were masterful ceramists. Their pottery is commonly found in Mesopotamia and in the lands west of the Euphrates; it was highly valued in distant Egypt, by the time of the New Kingdom . Archaeologists use the terms Khabur ware and Nuzi ware for two types of wheel-made pottery used by the Hurrians. Khabur ware

402-533: A large population of Hurrians, and there is significant Hurrian influence in Hittite mythology . By the Early Iron Age , the Hurrians had been assimilated with other peoples. The state of Urartu later covered some of the same area. The Khabur River valley became the heart of the Hurrian lands for a millennium. The first known Hurrian kingdom emerged around the city of Urkesh (modern Tell Mozan) during

469-537: A letter from the king of Shubria to an Assyrian magnate from the time of Sargon II was composed in the Hurrian language. According to some scholars, Shubria was inhabited by speakers of the Proto-Armenian language and formed the nucleus of Armenian statehood. Diakonoff theorized that the Proto-Armenians migrated eastwards from Anatolia into the western part of the Armenian highlands in the second quarter of

536-713: A letter from the king of Shubria to an Assyrian magnate from the time of Sargon II was composed in the Hurrian language. Knowledge of Hurrian culture relies on archaeological excavations at sites such as Nuzi and Alalakh as well as on cuneiform tablets, primarily from Hattusa (Boghazköy), the capital of the Hittites, whose civilization was greatly influenced by the Hurrians. Tablets from Nuzi, Alalakh, and other cities with Hurrian populations (as shown by personal names) reveal Hurrian cultural features even though they were written in Akkadian. Hurrian cylinder seals were carefully carved and often portrayed mythological motifs. They are

603-465: A multiple 8-sided prisms and included 6 military campaigns that Marco De Odorico affirms as easily identifiable given that "the subdivision of paragraphs by horizontal lines... as well as the introduction begin with 'in my succession year'". Considering that much of Tiglath-Pileser I's reign involved military campaigns, it is unsurprising that most of his literary texts would include such information as "Altogether I conquered 42 lands and their rulers from

670-664: A people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age . They spoke the Hurrian language , and lived throughout northern Syria , upper Mesopotamia and southeastern Anatolia . The Hurrians were first documented in the city of Urkesh , where they built their first kingdom. Their largest and most influential Hurrian kingdom was Mitanni . The population of the Hittite Empire in Anatolia included

737-405: A period of retrenchment, as Aramaean tribesmen put pressure on his realm. He died in 1076 BC and was succeeded by his son Asharid-apal-Ekur . The later kings Ashur-bel-kala and Shamshi-Adad IV were also his sons. Tiglath-Pileser's I inscriptions from his "fifth year annals" varied in form, from inscriptions on prisms to cuneiform inscriptions on tablets. A.0.87.i (or RIMA 2) was inscribed on

SECTION 10

#1732776109373

804-625: A record of his victories engraved on copper plates in a fortress he built to secure his Cilician conquests. The Arameans emerged in a region which was largely under the domination of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) and quickly posed a threat to the Assyrian polity which was largely located west of the Euphrates. In order to nullify this threat, Tiglath-Pileser I performed many campaigns in Aramean territory, although

871-485: A region stretching from the Caucasus Mountains in the north, to the borders of northern Assyria and northern Ancient Iran in the south, and controlled much of eastern Anatolia. Some scientists consider Urartu to be a re-consolidation of earlier Hurrian populations mainly due to linguistic factors, but this view is not universally held. After the destruction of Mitanni by the Hittites around 1350-1325 BC,

938-531: A ship to sail the Mediterranean, on which he killed a nahiru or "sea-horse" (which A. Leo Oppenheim translates as a narwhal ) in the sea. The general view is that the restoration of the temple of the gods Ashur and Hadad at Assyrian capital of Assur was one of his initiatives. It is also believed he was one of the first Assyrian kings to commission parks and gardens with foreign trees and plants. The latter part of his reign seems to have been

1005-583: A string of states across the Levant and make notable expansions into Assyrian territory in this time such as in the Khabur Valley . For the time being, Assyria was unable to expand east of the Euphrates. The control of the high road to the Mediterranean was secured by the possession of the Hittite town of Pitru at the junction between the Euphrates and Sajur ; thence he proceeded to Gubal ( Byblos ), Sidon , and finally to Arvad where he embarked onto

1072-479: A vessel for as much information about his reign as possible, with the intent to be handed down to his successor. The son of Ashur-resh-ishi I , he ascended to the throne in 1115 BC, and became one of the greatest of Assyrian conquerors. Tiglath-Pileser I referred to himself as "unrivalled king of the universe, king of the four quarters, king of all princes, lord of lords… whose weapons the god Assur has sharpened and whose name he has pronounced eternally for control of

1139-456: Is characterized by reddish painted lines with a geometric triangular pattern and dots, while Nuzi ware has very distinctive forms, and are painted in brown or black. They were also skilled at glass working. The Hurrians had a reputation in metallurgy . It is proposed that the Sumerian term for "coppersmith" tabira / tibira was borrowed from Hurrian, which would imply an early presence of

1206-552: Is recorded in a letter from Esarhaddon to the god Ashur , which is partially preserved on two tablets. According to the letter, the Shubrian ruler Ik-Teshub rejected Esarhaddon's demand to extradite Assyrian fugitives (possibly conspirators involved in the assassination of Esarhaddon's father Sennacherib ), after which the Assyrians besieged Uppumu. The Shubrian king tried to surrender, but Esarhaddon ignored his pleas and conquered

1273-490: The Amarna Letters during the time of Pharaoh Akhenaten (1353–1336 BC). Domestically, Mitanni records have been found at a number of places in the region including several Hittite sites as well as Tell Bazi , Alalakh , Nuzi , Mardaman , Kemune , and Müslümantepe among others. Another major center of Hurrian influence was the kingdom of Arrapha . Excavations at Yorgan Tepe, ancient Nuzi, proved this to be one of

1340-654: The Hebraic form of Middle Assyrian Akkadian : 𒆪𒋾𒀀𒂍𒈗𒊏 , romanized:  Tukultī-apil-Ešarra , "my trust is in the son of Ešarra ") was a king of Assyria during the Middle Assyrian period (1114–1076 BC). According to Georges Roux , Tiglath-Pileser was "one of the two or three great Assyrian monarchs since the days of Shamshi-Adad I ". He was known for his "wide-ranging military campaigns, his enthusiasm for building projects, and his interest in cuneiform tablet collections". Under him, Assyria became

1407-446: The Hurrian and Urartian languages are related, there is little similarity between corresponding systems of belief. The main gods in the Hurrian pantheon were: Hurrian cylinder seals often depict mythological creatures such as winged humans or animals, dragons and other monsters. The interpretation of these depictions of gods and demons remains uncertain. They may have been both protective and evil spirits. Some are reminiscent of

SECTION 20

#1732776109373

1474-538: The 12th century BC. He identifies the Proto-Armenians with the Mushki and considers an identification with the Urumeans possible. He notes that while Shubria had a Hurrian ruling dynasty and apparently also a Hurrian population, its people were deported after Esarhaddon's conquest, and it is likely that the Proto-Armenians settled Shubria from that time. The Hurrian god Teshub was the main god of Shubria, as evidenced by

1541-452: The Armenian ruler of Shubria was recognized as king by the Median king Cyaxares after participating in the victory over the Assyrians. Boris Piotrovsky , who identified Arme and Shubria with each other, places this polity ruled by "Paroyr" "in the immediate vicinity of Arme, if it did not constitute it [Arme]" and also suggests that its ruler received Median recognition after participating in

1608-517: The Assyrian shedu . The Hurrian gods do not appear to have had particular home temples, like in the Mesopotamian or Ancient Egyptian religion . Some important cult centres were Kummanni in Kizzuwatna and Hittite Yazilikaya . Harran was at least later a religious centre for the moon god, and Shauskha had an important temple in Nineve , when the city was under Hurrian rule. A temple of Nergal

1675-495: The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I ( r.  1114–1076 BC ) fought against the "unsubmissive Shubaru" early in his reign. In the 1st millennium BC, Shubria, the continuation of the earlier Subartu, appears as an independent kingdom occupying a difficult geopolitical position: it was wedged between two great powers of Assyria and Urartu . The king of Shubria, Anhitti, is recorded as presenting tribute to King Ashurnasirpal II of Assyria ( r.  883–859 BC ); here,

1742-451: The Hurrian deity Teshub , and several Shubrian names have Hurrian origins. Hurrians formed part of the Shubrian population and may have been the predominant group. Some scholars have suggested that Shubria was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians. Karen Radner writes that Shubria "can certainly be described as [a] (linguistically and culturally) Hurrian" state. According to Radner,

1809-554: The Hurrians way before their first historical mention in Akkadian sources. Copper was traded south to Mesopotamia from the highlands of Anatolia . The Khabur Valley had a central position in the metal trade, and copper, silver and even tin were accessible from the Hurrian-dominated countries Kizzuwatna and Ishuwa situated in the Anatolian highland. Gold was in short supply, and the Amarna letters inform us that it

1876-480: The Middle Assyrian period. The texts were believed to be "justification of war." Although little literary text is available from the time of Tiglath-Pileser I, there is evidence to show that the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I inspired the act of recording information, including that of his military campaigns. Toward the end of Tiglath-Pileser's reign literary texts took the form of "summary texts" which served as

1943-559: The Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. The Middle Assyrian kings Adad-nirari I , Shalmaneser I , and Tukulti-Ninurta I claimed to have defeated the Shubaru/Subarians. After the Hurrian king Shattuara of Mitanni-Khanigalbat was defeated by Adad-nirari I in the early 13th century BC, he appears to have become ruler of a reduced vassal state, Subartu. The Subarian peoples continued to revolt against Assyrian rule; for example,

2010-584: The Shubrian cities, taking many captives. After this, Shubria was ruled as two Assyrian provinces: Kullimeri and Uppumu. Esarhaddon rebuilt the Shubrian cities, giving them Assyrian names, and populated them with people resettled from elsewhere. In 657 BC, the Urartians made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Shubria. The Urartian general or governor Andaria was killed in a failed attack on the city of Kullimeri. Assyrian control may have remained weak in Shubria, as

2077-715: The Shubrians had a refuge sanctuary at Uppumu, as well as a temple to Teshub there. Karen Radner speculates that it was the Tigris Grotto that served as a refuge sanctuary. Since the Birkleyn cave system, known as the "Tigris source," was known to and considered sacred by the Assyrians, Radner suggests that it was likely known to the Shubrians as well. Hurrians The Hurrians ( / ˈ h ʊər i ən z / ; Hurrian : 𒄷𒌨𒊑 , romanized:  Ḫu-ur-ri ; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were

Shupria - Misplaced Pages Continue

2144-800: The Syrian Department of Antiquities. The tells, or city mounds, often reveal a long occupation beginning in the Neolithic and ending in the Roman period or later. The characteristic Hurrian pottery, the Khabur ware, is helpful in determining the different strata of occupation within the mounds. The Hurrian settlements are usually identified from the Middle Bronze Age to the end of the Late Bronze Age, with Tell Mozan (Urkesh) being

2211-589: The Upper Euphrates ; then he overran Commagene and eastern Cappadocia , and drove the Hittites from the Assyrian province of Subartu , northeast of Malatia . In a subsequent campaign, the Assyrian forces penetrated into the mountains south of Lake Van and then turned westward to receive the submission of Malatia . In his fifth year, Tiglath-Pileser attacked Comana in Cappadocia , and placed

2278-887: The ancient sites are the many dam projects in the Euphrates , Tigris and Khabur valleys. Several rescue operations have already been undertaken when the construction of dams put entire river valleys under water. The first major excavations of Hurrian sites in Iraq and Syria began in the 1920s and 1930s. They were led by the American archaeologist Edward Chiera at Yorghan Tepe (Nuzi), and the British archaeologist Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak. Recent excavations and surveys in progress are conducted by American, Belgian, Danish, Dutch, French, German and Italian teams of archaeologists, with international participants, in cooperation with

2345-726: The area of Kirkuk in modern Iraq by the Middle Bronze Age . Their presence was attested at Nuzi , Urkesh and other sites. They eventually occupied a broad arc of fertile farmland stretching from the Khabur River valley in the west to the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in the east. By this point, during the Old Babylonian period in the early second millennium BC, the Amorite kingdom of Mari to

2412-421: The coastal region of Adaniya in the country of Kizzuwatna , southern Anatolia. Yamhad eventually weakened vis-a-vis the powerful Hittites, but this also opened Anatolia for Hurrian cultural influences. The Hittites were influenced by both the Hurrian cultures over the course of several centuries. The city of Shibaniba (Tell Billa) may have also played an important role at that time. Possible Hurrian occupation

2479-522: The control of the Assyrians. The Hurrian entity of Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC, was first mentioned in the records of Egyptian pharaohs Thutmose I (1506–1493 BC) and Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), the later most notably associated with the Battle of Megiddo in that pharaoh's 22 regnal year. Most of the time Egyptians referred to the kingdom as Naharin . Later, Mitanni and Hanigalbat (the Assyrian name for Mitanni) are mentioned in

2546-458: The east of Šubria," while Urartian Arme may have simply meant "Aramaic-speaking country," indicating the area between Amid (modern Diyarbakır) and the upper Tigris where the Aramaic and Proto-Armenian linguistic zones met. After the destruction of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni by the Hittites in the third quarter of the 14th century BC, the term Shubaru was used to refer to the remnants of

2613-535: The end of the 7th century BC, like other fringe territories of the Assyrian Empire. Based on the Armenian legend about the first Armenian king Paroyr Skayordi , some scholars have hypothesized that an Armenian-populated kingdom emerged in or near Shubria, possibly ruled by a dynasty of Scythian origin, which allied with the Medes to defeat the Assyrian Empire c.  612 BC . Suren Yeremian argues that

2680-465: The four quarters… splendid flame which covers the hostile land like a rain storm". Alongside this view of himself, he emphasized the brutality of his takeover of numerous lands, and was the first Assyrian king to claim hostages, occasionally children, as a political instrument against conquered peoples. His first campaign was against the Mushku in 1112 BC, who had occupied certain Assyrian districts in

2747-2006: The gates in the City of Ashur" These statues were mainly used to decorate the "royal entrance", a practice that was taken up by Tiglath-Pileser I's son Aššur-bel-kala after his father's passing. In addition to erecting statues of animals his people had never seen, Tiglath-Pileser I returned from some war campaigns with the living animals themselves, including calves of wild bulls as well as elephants. Attribution: ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

Shupria - Misplaced Pages Continue

2814-593: The inhabitants of Kullimeri appear to have fought off this attack on their own, although they did send the head of the Urartian commander to the Assyrian king as a sign of their loyalty. According to Diakonoff, it is "quite probable" that Shubria was settled by speakers of Proto-Armenian—who he believes were known as the (eastern) Mushki and possibly also the Urumeans—from the time of Esarhaddon's conquest and deportations. Shubria likely regained its independence towards

2881-622: The late 8th century BC, Shubria successfully preserved its independence, disregarding the interests of Urartu and Assyria. The Shubrian king frequently received refugees and fugitives from Urartu and Assyria and refused to extradite them. This included commoners escaping military or labor obligations. During the reign of Esarhaddon of Assyria, high-ranking military and civil officials, as well as criminals, also found refuge in Shubria. This practice of providing sanctuary to refugees and fugitives may have been rooted in religious tradition. In 673–672 BC, Esarhaddon invaded and conquered Shubria. This conquest

2948-509: The later Armenian region of Sasun . The capital of Shubria was called Ubbumu (also spelled Uppumu). This city may have been located at modern-day Lice, Turkey , with its name likely preserved in the name of the nearby hamlet of Fum . Its other main city was Kullimeri, which may have been located at the mound known as Gre Migro in the Batman River valley. The Urartians referred to Shubria as Qulmeri, after Kullimeri. Kullimeri may also be

3015-553: The leading power of the Ancient Near East , a position the kingdom largely maintained for the next five hundred years. He expanded Assyrian control into Anatolia and Syria, and to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea . From his surviving inscriptions, he seems to have carefully cultivated a fear of himself in his subjects and in his enemies alike. The beginning of Tiglath-Pileser's I reign, laid heavy involvement in military campaigns, as suggested from translated texts from

3082-433: The main exception. The list includes some important ancient sites from the area dominated by the Hurrians. Excavation reports and images are found at the websites linked. As noted above, important discoveries of Hurrian culture and history were also made at Alalakh, Amarna, Hattusa and Ugarit. Tiglath-Pileser I Tiglath-Pileser I ( / ˈ t ɪ ɡ l ə θ p aɪ ˈ l iː z ər , - ˌ l æ θ , p ɪ -/ ; from

3149-545: The most important sites for our knowledge about the Hurrians. Hurrian kings such as Ithi-Teshup and Ithiya ruled over Arrapha, yet by the mid-fifteenth century BC they had become vassals of the Great King of Mitanni. At the end of the second millennium BC the Urartians around Lake Van and Mount Ararat rose in power forming the Kingdom of Urartu . During the 11th and 10th centuries BC, the kingdom eventually encompassed

3216-612: The names of its kings. The Tigris Grotto served as a natural religious site for Shubria. It may have been the most important shrine in the country. The Shubrians performed the religious rites common to the Hurrians: augury and scapegoat rituals. Shubrian scholars engaged in augury were present at the Assyrian royal court. The Shubrian king Ik-Teshub performed a scapegoat ritual in his attempt to surrender during Esarhaddon's invasion. Tamas Deszö argues that Shubria's policy of accepting refugees derived from religious tradition, suggesting that

3283-463: The numerous campaigns that the Assyrian records recorded that he took indicate that Assyrian military campaigns were unsuccessful at exercising power or dominance over the Arameans. Some scholars believe that the Arameans took Nineveh in this time. In the 11th century BC, Assyria fell into decline which may have been caused by the incursions of the emerging Arameans, allowing the Arameans to establish

3350-412: The older name Shubaru is used. In 854 BC, Ashurnasirpal's successor Shalmaneser III captured Shubrian cities and forced Anhitti to submit and pay tribute. Assyrian letters indicate that Shubria was under Urartian rule during the reign of Rusa I ( r.  735–713 BC ). It likely acquired its independence after the Urartians under Rusa were defeated by Assyria under Sargon II in 714 BC. From

3417-540: The origin of the biblical klmd (from a putative original * klmr ), which is mentioned in Ezekiel 27:23 as one of the trading partners of Tyre and is normally read as Kilmad or Chilmad . In the view of some scholars, Qulmeri is the most likely candidate for the native name of Shubria. The lands of Arme and Urmiu ( Urumu in Assyrian sources, land of the Urumeans ) are mentioned in different Urartian inscriptions from

SECTION 50

#1732776109373

3484-652: The other side of the Lower Zab in distant mountainous regions to the other side of the Euphrates, people of Hatti, and the Upper Sea in the west – from my accession year to my fifth regnal year." Tiglath-Pileser I's prism was essentially a year-by-year layout of his military campaigns, and today is considered one of the world's first-preserved annals. Tiglath-Pileser I's annals contain military campaign documentation, as well as other information such as what Tiglath-Pileser I would bring back in an early form of tribute, from

3551-417: The south had subdued Urkesh and made it a vassal state. Urkesh later became a Mitanni religious center. The Hurrians also migrated further west in this period. By 1725 BC they are found also in parts of northern Syria , such as Alalakh . The mixed Amorite–Hurrian kingdom of Yamhad is recorded as struggling for this area with the early Hittite king Hattusilis I around 1600 BC. Hurrians also settled in

3618-452: The southeast, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far as west as Kizzuwatna by the Taurus mountains, Tunip in the south, Arraphe in the east, and north to Lake Van . Their sphere of influence is shown in spread Hurrian place names, personal names. Eventually, after an internal succession crisis, Mitanni fell to the Hittites, later to fall under

3685-521: The southern Armenian highlands. In Babylonian texts, Subartu and Subarians refers to Assyria and the Assyrians. After the destruction of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni by the Hittites in the third quarter of the 14th century BC, the term Shubaru was used in Assyrian sources to refer to the remnants of the Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. In Igor Diakonoff's view, the ending -ia in Shubria cannot be native Akkadian and probably indicates that

3752-568: The swallowed gods is like the Hurrian myth of Teshub and Kumarbi. It has been argued that the worship of Attis drew on Hurrian myth. The agglutinating and highly ergative Hurrian language is related to the Urartian language, the language of the ancient kingdom of Urartu. Together they form the Hurro-Urartian language family . The external connections of the Hurro-Urartian languages are disputed. There exist various proposals for

3819-495: The term Shubaru was used in Assyrian sources to refer to the remnants of the Mitanni in the upper Tigris valley. The Shubaru people revolted against the Assyrians multiple times in the last centuries of the second millennium BC. The term is related to Shubria , the name of a country located north of the upper Tigris River valley. Shubria was located between Urartu and Assyria and existed as an independent kingdom until its conquest by Assyria in 673–672 BC. The Shubrians worshipped

3886-527: The term was borrowed or reborrowed from Urartian . Shubria was located south of modern-day Muş , Turkey, north of the upper Tigris River and to the southwest of Lake Van , extending eastwards to the frontiers of Urartu . It was located near the northern frontier of the Assyrian Empire , across the Tigris from Tushhan and east of the land of Dirru. Geographically, its core district corresponds to

3953-471: The third millennium BC. There is evidence that they were initially allied with the Akkadian Empire of Mesopotamia , indicating they had a firm hold on the area by the reign of Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC). A king of Urkesh with the Hurrian name Tupkish had a queen with the name Uqnitum, Akkadian for "girl of lapis lazuli". Hurrian names occur sporadically in northwestern Mesopotamia and

4020-407: The time of Sarduri II . Giorgi Melikishvili identifies Urmiu with Shubria—a name which does not appear in Urartian inscriptions—and places Arme further west. Igor Diakonoff once considered it likely that Arme and Urmiu were the same land and referred to Shubria as Urme- or Arme-Shubria. However, in a later version of his work, Diakonoff writes that "there is good reason to believe that [Urmiu] lay to

4087-489: The various locations he showed military strength over. Once returned from a successful war campaign Tiglath-Pileser I is said to have had statues of the various animals he had come into contact with as well as hunted. From the translated annals text, it is said that Tiglath-Pileser I had "2 nāhirū (horse of the sea)  sculptures, 4 burhiš sculptures, 4 lions constructed of basalt, 2 bull colossi made of alabaster, 2 burhiš sculptures made of white limestone and had them set up at

SECTION 60

#1732776109373

4154-426: The victory over Assyria. Diakonoff writes that Shubria "undoubtedly played a great role in the emergence of the later Armenian state and nation," although he considers the kingdom of Melid to be a better candidate for the nucleus of the Armenian people and kingdom. Some scholars have concluded from the Hurrian etymology of some Shubrian names that Shubria was mainly populated by Hurrians. Some have suggested that it

4221-439: Was acquired from Egypt. Not many examples of Hurrian metal work have survived, except from the later Urartu. Some small fine bronze lion foundation pegs were discovered at Urkesh. Among the Hurrian texts from Ugarit are the oldest known instances of written music , dating from c. 1400 BC. Among these fragments are found the names of four Hurrian composers, Tapšiẖuni, Puẖiya(na), Urẖiya, and Ammiya. The Hurrian culture made

4288-454: Was built in Urkesh in the late third millennium BC. The town of Kahat was a religious centre in the kingdom of Mitanni. The Hurrian myth "The Songs of Ullikummi", preserved among the Hittites, is a parallel to Hesiod 's Theogony ; the castration of Uranus by Cronus may be derived from the castration of Anu by Kumarbi , while Zeus 's overthrow of Cronus and Cronus's regurgitation of

4355-523: Was identified at Tell Billa during the middle of the second millenium BC. In 2022 Tell Billa was proposed as the possible site of the city of Šimānum (possibly known as Asimānum during the Akkadian Empire). Šimānum was important during the Ur III period (ca 2100 BC). The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the southwest, Kassites to

4422-501: Was the last remnant of Hurrian civilization, or even constituted the original homeland of the Hurrians. However, other Shubrian names have been identified as Aramean by origin. Bradley J. Parker writes that the existing evidence indicates that Shubria had a heterogeneous population including Hurrians, Arameans, and likely also Urartians, Assyrians and others. Karen Radner writes that Shubria "can certainly be described as [a] (linguistically and culturally) Hurrian" state. According to Radner,

4489-443: Was the only long Hurrian text known until a multi-tablet collection of literature in Hurrian with a Hittite translation was discovered at Hattusa in 1983. Hurrian settlements are distributed over three modern countries, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The heart of the Hurrian world is bisected by the modern border between Syria and Turkey. Several sites are situated within the border zone, making access for excavations problematic. A threat to

#372627