Misplaced Pages

#471528

96-536: It has been described as a mystical strand of Twelver Shi'a Islam . As of 2001, there remained a following in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan. The primary force behind Ahmad's teachings is the belief in the occultation of the Twelfth Imam . Believers in this doctrine, hold that the last divine ordained leader, or Imam , lives in occultation and will reappear as the promised Mahdi . Following

192-587: A mujtahid , an interpreter of Islamic Law. He contended with Sufi and Neo-Platonist scholars, and attained a positive reputation among their detractors. He declared that all knowledge and sciences were contained (in essential form) within the Qurʼan, and that to excel in the sciences, all knowledge must be gleaned from the Qurʼan. His leadership style and approach to interpretation draw both on traditional and theosophical methods, attempting to harmonize these two streams of Shiʻia thought in unprecedented ways, and emphasizing

288-562: A charismatic leader whose work was suggested to share in the infallibility of the Imams, Shakyh Ahmad suggested that the diversity of rulings promoted by the ulama could be replaced with a singular set of doctrines-this view would later find widespread support in the Ayatollah system of modern Usulism. His views resulted in his denunciation by several learned clerics, and he engaged in many debates before moving on to Persia where he settled for

384-527: A divine figure who would restore and reform the spiritual state of the world. This expectation and the subsequent recognition of the Báb as the fulfillment of the prophecies were significant reasons why a large portion of the Shaykhi community transitioned to become Bábís, the number of whom ranged from around 100,000 to 200,000 adherents, and were subject to fierce persecutions sulminating in intense conflicts with

480-545: A doer of evil actions. Predestination is rejected in Shiism. However, some philosophers believe that all the existence is His creation including a human being and his actions. But actions have two dimensions. The first is committing the action by free will, the second is the creation of that action by God's will with which he gave the people the power to commit the action. Sadr al-Din Shirazi states that "God, may He be exalted,

576-460: A great seminary ( Hawza ) in Qazvin and Isfahan , consequently, Iran once again became center of Imami jurisprudence. Suhrawardi tried to harmonize rational philosophy and intellectual intuition, but Mir Damad is the founder of it. Mir Damad combined the teachings of Ibn Arabi, Suhrawardi, Ibn Sina and Nair al-Din and founded a new intellectual dimension in the texture of Shi'ism. The scholars of

672-535: A messenger, an angel conveys the inspiration to the man. By the verses 72:26–28 two types of guardians protect the integrity of the revelation: an angel who protects the prophet against any kind of error, God who protects the angels and the prophets. Ayatollah Ayatollah ( UK : / ˌ aɪ ə ˈ t ɒ l ə / , also US : / ˌ aɪ ə ˈ t oʊ l ə / ; Arabic : اية الله , romanized :  ʾāyatu llāh ; Persian : آیت‌الله , romanized :  âyatollâh [ɒːjjætˌolˈlɒːh] )

768-542: A move away from their traditional apolitical stance, a Shaykhi political party stood in the Basra governorate election, 2009 ; they came third, winning 5% of the votes and 2 out of 35 seats. The Shaykhi movement, particularly through the teachings of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai and his successor Sayyed Kazim Rashti , contained prophecies regarding the advent of the Qa'im—the promised 12th Imam. Shaykh Ahmad and Sayyed Kazim emphasized

864-503: A new religion, writing four essays against them. He repudiated some of the more radical teachings of Ahsai and Rashti and moved the Shaykhi school back towards the mainstream Usuli teachings. Karim Khan Kirmani was succeeded by his son Shaykh Muhammad Khan Kirmani (1846–1906), then by Muhammad's brother Shaykh Zaynal 'Abidln Kirmani (1859–1946). Shaykh Zayn al-'Abidin Kirmani was succeeded by Shaykh Abu al-Qasim Ibrahimi (1896–1969), who

960-484: A new title, Ayatollah al-Uzma ( lit.   ' Great Sign of God ' ). Originally, about half a dozen people were addressed as al-Uzma, but as of 2015, the number of people who claimed that title was reportedly over 50. Another post- revolutionary change in what makes an ayatollah has been the falling away (at least in many important situations), of purely religious credentials and informal acclamation, and its replacement by political criteria. Ali Khamenei —who

1056-469: A reporter of hadith. He also introduced the principle of Taqiyya . Al-Baqir narrated many a hadith about Jurisprudence and other religious sciences which based the foundations for the Shia instructions. With change in political situations and a suitable conditions for the development of religious activities and the time of elaborating the religious sciences, Ja'far al-Sadiq had an important role in forming

SECTION 10

#1732766232472

1152-412: A significant following and they are recognized for religiously correct views, they are considered a Marja'-e-Taqlid , which in common parlance is "grand ayatollah". Usually as a prelude to such status, a mujtahid is asked to publish a juristic treatise in which he answers questions about the application of Islam to present-time daily affairs. Risalah is the word for treatise, and such a juristic work

1248-584: A time in the province of Yazd . It was in Isfahan that most of this was written. Al-Ahsa'is most prominent student, Kazim Rashti, was given the authority to teach on his behalf in Karbala and became his undisputed successor. Abbas Amanat notes that, in contrast to other religious schools in Iran where students came from families of high-ranking clerics, "the majority of the students in Rashti's circle, with

1344-538: Is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright. God guides each human through sending messengers and He does not impose upon them obligations that are beyond their capacity. In the Message of The Quran by Mohammad Asad, the interpretation of v 20:50 is as follows; He(Moses) replied (to Pharaoh); Our Sustainer is He who gives unto every thing [ that exists ] its true nature and form, and thereupon guides it [towards its fulfillment]. Tabataba'i states that

1440-487: Is Tawhid. Ali insists that God is Just and he is the Justice Itself and the virtue of Justice flows from him to the souls of men. Since he is Justice, every thing he does is Just. Shiism considers Justice as innate to Divine nature, i.e. God can not act unjustly, because it is his nature to be just. Twelvers believe that God grants every existent what is appropriate for it as the verse 20:50 states: Our Lord

1536-510: Is a combination of created letters while attributes are what is implied by that name. It is stated in Al-Kafi that whoever worships God's names has committed disbelief in God, as they are not Him. Al-Hur Al-Amilly states that God created everything except humans' actions. According to some Twelvers, Tawhid of Creatorship means that there is no creator but God, that is the causes and effects of

1632-415: Is an honorific title for high-ranking Twelver Shia clergy . In Iran it came into widespread usage in the 20th century. Originally used as a title bestowed by popular/clerical acclaim for a small number of the most distinguished marja' at-taqlid mujtahid , it suffered from "inflation" following the 1979 Iranian Revolution when it came to be used for "any established mujtahid". By 2015 it

1728-506: Is called a risalah-yi'amaliyyah or "practical law treatise", and it is usually a reinvention of the book Al-Urwatu l-Wuthqah . A Grand Ayatollah is often seen as a spiritual guide and mentor to millions of Shia Muslims. Their influence extends beyond the mosque and into the social and political arenas. Unlike many religious leaders of other religions, a grand ayatollah is often involved in state affairs, especially in countries with large Shia populations such as Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. In

1824-418: Is deserved to be worshipped. According to Morteza Motahhari , oneness in worship means rejecting all kinds of counterfeit worship (such as worship of carnal desires, money or prestige), and as Quran says, every act of obedience to an order is worship. Contrary to Tawhid is Shirk . It is a belief that the world has more than one principle or pole. According to the mystic and philosopher Morteza Motahhari ,

1920-464: Is different from his creation and that both are separate entities. However, Sayyid Haydar Amuli , a prominent Shia mystic and philosopher, defines God as alone in being, name, attributes, actions, and theophanies. The totality of being, therefore, is God, through God, comes from God, and returns to God. God is not a being next to or above other beings; God is Being; the absolute act of Being ( wujud mutlaq ). The divine unitude does not have

2016-525: Is far removed from doing any evil deeds and goes about His Kingdom at will." The view that God creates humans' actions is rejected by traditional Twelvers. Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates from his fathers that Muhammad, in one of his sermons expressed that "[God] sent to people messengers so they might be His conclusive argument against His creatures and so His messengers to them might be witnesses against them. He sent among them prophets bearing good tidings and warning. " Tabataba'i states that God has perfected

SECTION 20

#1732766232472

2112-535: Is oriented around trees, specifically the primal universal tree of Eden, described in Jewish scripture as being two trees. This primal tree is, in some ways, the universal spirit of the prophets themselves: The symbol of the preexistent tree appears elsewhere in Shaykh Ahmad's writings. He says, for instance, that Muhammad and the Imams exist both on the level of unconstrained being or preexistence, wherein they are

2208-447: Is presumably a particular reference to the verse 41:53 "We shall show them Our signs on the horizons and in their own selves", while it has been also used to refer to The Twelve Imams by Shias. Variants used are ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-ʾanʿām ( Arabic : آية الله في الأنعام , lit.   'Sign of God among mankind'), ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-ʿālamayn ( Arabic : آية الله في العالمَین , lit.   'Sign of God in

2304-586: Is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam , comprising about 85% of all Shīas. The term Twelver refers to its adherents' belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imams ( Arabic : ٱلْأَئِمَّة ٱلْٱثْنَا عَشَر ), and their belief that the last Imam, Imam al-Mahdi , lives in Occultation ( Arabic : غَيْبَة , romanized :  ghaybah ) and will reappear as the promised Mahdi ( Arabic : المهدي المنتظر ). Twelvers believe that

2400-504: Is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord ;... The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person. Traditional Twelvers strictly believe that God

2496-451: The 2003 Invasion of Iraq and subsequent Iraqi Civil War they have been targeted by Iraqi nationalists who accused them of being Saudis on the grounds that Ahmad al-Ahsai was from present-day Saudi Arabia . They responded by creating an armed militia and asking all local political groups to sign a pact allowing them to live in peace. This was done at the al-Zahra conference in April 2006. In

2592-499: The Islamic Republic , four levels of studies were introduced and those clerics who end the fourth level, also known as Dars-e-Kharej ( lit.   ' beyond the text ' ) and pass the final exam, were called Ayatollahs. Moojan Momen wrote in 2015 that every cleric who finished his training calls himself an Ayatollah and this trend has led to emergence of "thousands of Ayatollahs". This inflation led to invention of

2688-523: The Qurʼan 's eschatological surahs are seen as allegorical , similar to Ismaili doctrine, where common Muslim interpretation is that events involving celestial bodies will happen literally at the Day of Judgment. In an effort to "harmonize reason and religion" and "explain some doctrines of Islam that appear contrary to reason" and the laws of the natural world, Shaykh Ahmad, postulated an intermediary world between

2784-538: The Shia Jurisprudence . Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Baqir are the founders of the Imami Shiite school of religious law. Al-Sadiq acquired a noteworthy group of scholars around himself, comprising some of the most eminent jurists, traditionists, and theologians of the time. During his time, Shia developed in the theological and legal issues. Both Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja'far al-Sadiq improved the position of

2880-735: The Usul of the Jurisprudence under the influence of the Shafe'i and Mu'tazili doctrines. Al- Kulayni and al-Sadduq, in Qom and Ray, were concerned with traditionalist approach. Twelver Imams amongst other Shia imam with their early Imams are shown in the chart below. This also indicate twelvers amongst various other sects in the present world. The beginner of this school, Ibn Idris al-Hilli (d. 1202), with his rationalistic tendency, detailed Shi'ite jurisprudence in his al-Sara'ir. Ibn Idris, with rejecting

2976-545: The 'prominent' converts to the Bábí Faith in its first four years were Shaykhis according to Moojan Momen and Peter Smith . One key similarity between Shaykhism and the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths is their shared emphasis on a symbolic and allegorical understanding of religious scripture. Twelver Twelver Shīʿism ( Arabic : ٱثْنَا عَشَرِيَّة ; ʾIthnā ʿAshariyya ), also known as Imāmiyya ( Arabic : إِمَامِيَّة ),

Shaykhism - Misplaced Pages Continue

3072-603: The 18th century when Behbahani led Usulis to dominance and "completely routed the Akhbaris at Karbala and Najaf," so that "only a handful of Shi'i ulama have remained Akhbari to the present day." The reestablishment of the Usuli School led to the enhancement of the authority of the legal scholars in the Qajar dynasty. During the 1960s, Ruhollah Khomeini called for the abolition of the western-backed monarchy in Iran . He

3168-580: The Baghdad School, defining reason as an important principle of Jurisprudence, al-Hillah school laid the theoretical foundation upon which the authority of Jurisprudents is based today. The second wave of the Usulies was shaped in the Mongol period when al-Hilli used the term Mujtahid, the one who deduces the ordinance on the basis of the authentic arguments of the religion. By Ijtihad, al-Hilli meant

3264-598: The Bahá'í Faith. The Shaykhi emphasis on the esoteric aspects of Shi'a Islam and their specific interpretation of the Mahdi’s role makes this prophecy a key component of the mystical and apocalyptic currents within Shi'a thought. The Shaykhi leaders were instrumental in fostering a climate of anticipation that was receptive to claims of divine revelation during a turbulent period of religious fervor in Iran. The specific argument for 1844 as

3360-610: The Complete Word and the Most Perfect Man, and on the level of constrained being. On this second, limited plane, the cloud of the divine Will subsists and from it emanates the Primal Water that irrigates the barren earth of matter and of elements. Although the divine Will remains unconstrained in essential being, its manifest aspect has now entered into limited being. When God poured down from the clouds of Will on

3456-597: The Essence, the attributes, the creatorship, the lordship and oneness in worship. Tawhid of the essence of God means his essence is one and peerless. Regarding this, Quran 112 states: Say, "He is Allah, [who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent. " Tawhid of the attributes means God's attributes have no other reality than His essence. Ali argues that "Every attribute testifies to its being other than

3552-498: The Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, Muhammad and the Imams must be free from error and sin, a doctrine known as Ismah ( Arabic : عِصْمَة , lit.   'protection') or infallibility, and must be chosen by divine decree, or nass ( Arabic : نَصّ ), through Muhammad. Globally, there are about 160 million Twelvers: most of Iran , Iraq , Bahrain and Azerbaijan ; half

3648-890: The Islamic world who propagated the Shi'ism. During the tenth century and the Buyid era, Baghdad was the center of Mu'tazila theologians. Their ideas about attribute and justice of God and human free will affected Shia theologians. Bani Nawbakht , particularly Abu Sahl Al-Nawbakhti (d. 923–924), fuzed Mu'tazili theology with Imami system of thought. On the other hand, Imami traditionists of Qom, particularly Ibn Babawayh (d. 991), react to their theological ideas based on Twelve Imams' Hadiths. He tried to defend Imami ideas against Mu'tazili criticism regarding Anthropomorphism ( Tashbih ). The three prominent figures of Baghdad school were Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (d. 1022 CE), Sharif al-Murtaza (d. 1044) and Shaykh al-Tusi (d. 1067). Al-Mufid

3744-542: The Justice of God necessitates that the virtuous and evil people become separated; the virtuous have a good life and the evil have a wretched life. He will judge the beliefs and the deeds of all the people according to the truth and he will give every one his right due. Then the reality of every thing as it is will be revealed for the man. Through his faith and good deeds, he can get to friendship with God. The form of man's deeds are joined to his soul and accompany him which are

3840-751: The Mahdi's appearance, Ahmad teaches that the Imam Hussain ibn Ali will return to re-conquer the world and that Ali and Muhammad will kill Satan . Al Raj'a (meaning "the return" in English) was heavily emphasized by Ahmad and is more important in Shaykhism than in the Usuli school of Islam. Shaykh Ahmad's perspectives on accepted Islamic doctrines diverged in several areas, most notably on his mystical interpretation of prophesy. The sun, moon and stars of

3936-641: The Muslim world and major events of the Twelver history, such as the Battle of Karbala and the occultation of the twelfth Imam , Muhammad al-Mahdi . Mystics, philosophers, and traditional scholars all have diverse opinions about the unity of God, free will, and Judgement Day, as stated by Jafaar Seedaan. Care has been taken to mention the traditional view first and then mention other views as objectively as possible. According to Hossein Nasr , Ali ibn Abi Talib ,

Shaykhism - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-672: The Muslims in Lebanon ; a sizeable minority in India , Pakistan , Afghanistan , Saudi Arabia , Bangladesh , Kuwait , Oman , UAE , Qatar . Iran is the only country where Twelver Shi'ism is the state religion . Twelvers share many tenets with other Shīʿīte sects, such as the belief in the Imamate , but the Ismāʿīlī and Nizārī branches believe in a different number of Imams and, for

4128-546: The Persian authorities during the mid-19th century, leading to massacres which severely reduced the number of adherents. Bábís and then Baháʼís see Shaykhism as a spiritual ancestor of their movement, preparing the way for the Báb and eventually Baháʼu'lláh. According to this view, Shaykhism has outlived its eschatological purpose and is no longer relevant. There are many connections between Bábism and Shaykhism. The Báb met with Siyyid Kazim several times and more than half of

4224-653: The Qur'an. Alevis in Turkey and Albania , and Alawites in Syria and Lebanon , share belief in the Twelve Imams with Twelvers, but their theological doctrines are markedly different. The term Twelver is based on the belief that twelve male descendants from the family of Muhammad, starting with ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and ending with Muhammad al-Mahdi , are Imams who have religious and political authority. The Twelvers are also known by other names: In 610, when Muhammad received

4320-477: The School of Isfahan integrated the philosophical, theological, and mystical traditions of Shi'ism into a metaphysical synthesis known as Divine Wisdom or theosophy(Persian:hikmat-i ilahi). The most important representative of the School of Isfahan was Mulla Sadra. Mulla Sadra produced his own synthesis of Muslim thought, including theology, peripatetic philosophy, philosophical mysticism, and Sufi studies, particularly

4416-401: The Shia and elaborated the intellectual basis of the interpretation and practice of Shiite Islam. Their teachings were the basis for the development of Shiite spirituality and religious rituals. At the beginning of the third/ninth century once again Shia flourished and it was due to the translation of scientific and philosophical books from other languages to Arabic, Al-Ma'mun giving freedom to

4512-695: The Sufism of Ibn al-'Arabi. Mulla Sadra trained eminent students, such as Mulla Muhsin Kashani and 'Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji who passed down the traditions of the School of Isfahan in later centuries in both Iran and India. By the end of the Safavid era (1736), the Usuli School of thought was attacked by the Akhbari (traditionalist) trend whose founder was Mulla Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi. Astarabadi attacked

4608-546: The Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad . According to the theology of Twelvers , the Twelve Imams are exemplary human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community ( Ummah ) with justice, but are also able to preserve and interpret the Islamic law ( sharīʿa ) and the esoteric meaning of the Qur'an . The words and deeds ( Arabic : سنة , sunnah ) of Muhammad and

4704-588: The West, particularly the United States , the term "Ayatollah" may be used as a pejorative to describe religious fundamentalism. Sam Miller of London Review of Books states that following the Iranian Revolution, "ayatollah" became common use; Miller described the pejorative version of the term as "[evoking] evokes an old, turbaned, bearded man, sitting in judgment, looking like a crow and ordering

4800-645: The barren earth, he thereby sent down this water and it mixed with the fallow soil. In the garden of the heaven known as as-Saqurah, the Tree of Eternity arose, and the Holy Spirit or Universal Intellect, the first branch that grew upon it, is the first creation among the worlds. Shaykh Ahmad, at about age forty, began to study in earnest in the Shiʻa centres of religious scholarship such as Karbala and Najaf . He attained sufficient recognition in such circles to be declared

4896-523: The bases of reasoning in Shia Jurisprudence. His book al-Mabsut is the first book of Ijtihad which derives the subordinates from the principles. Tusi bought the Shia religious law to a new period. The main point is that he recognized the needs of the community and preserved the principles. By his debates and books, Al-Mufid, Sayyid-al Murtada and Shaykh al-Tusi in Iraq were the first to introduce

SECTION 50

#1732766232472

4992-420: The capital of Islam to Kufa and there began to fight against Mu'awiyah, who rejected giving allegiance to Ali. The death of Husayn played an important role in the spread of Shi'ism in the regions of Iraq, Yemen and Persia. At the end of the first century, the influential leaders in the government established the city of Qom for the settlement of the Shia. Muhammad Al-Baqir was teacher of law for 20 years and

5088-446: The capital of his future life. The verse 96: 8 refers to getting back to God. According to Twelvers' narrations, God does not create Humans' actions and instead they are fully created by humans. According to a narration by Musa Al-Khadhim, if God created humans' actions then He should not punish humans for it. Jaafar Al-Subhani argues that the justice of God requires that humans' actions cannot be created by God, otherwise God would be

5184-421: The dead in the grave. The journeyers, Harut and Marut are also among them. Tabataba'i expresses that according to the thesis of general guidance, as the human reason cannot perceive the perfect law of happiness (Sa'adah) and he could not get it through the process of creation, there should be a general awareness of this law and it could be within the reach of every one. He adds there must be people who apprehend

5280-641: The deeds of men. They follow the commands of God and do not precede him 21:27 . Izz al-Din Kashani discusses that the angels are different in degree and station. Some of them cling to the Threshold of Perfection, others manage the affairs of the creation. Al-Qazwini , on the base of Quran and hadith, names them as the Bearers of the Throne, the Spirit, he governs all the affairs of the earth and heaven according to

5376-617: The disciplined reasoning on the basis of the shari'ah. By developing the principles of the Usul, he introduced more legal and logical norms which extended the meaning of the Usul beyond the four principle sources of Shari'ah. Amili was the first who fully formulated the principles of the Ijtihad. In 1501 Isma'il I took the power in Iran and set up the Safavid dynasty . While most of the larger cities of Iran were Sunni, he declared Twelverism as

5472-437: The distinction of theoretical Tawhid from Shirk is recognition of the idea that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness ( Arabic : انّالله )). Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God's permission as Quran points to it. Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, but to assume it as a path to God (to Him-ness ( Arabic : انّاالیه ))

5568-485: The exception of a few, were alike in their humble origins". Al-Rashti had hundreds of students and several of his leading students claimed to be the true successors to his scholarship. The two main currents of Shaykhism since then came to be known as the Kermani and Tabrizi Schools . Karim Khan Kermani (1809/1810-1870/1871) became the leader of the main Shaykhi group. He became the foremost critic of those that formed

5664-492: The existence of the angels is one of the articles of Iman. Unseen beings of a luminous and spiritual substance, angels act as intermediaries between God and the visible world. Although superior in substance, angels are inferior to mankind, because man can reflect the image of God. The verse 2:34 implies the superiority of the mankind. God revealed the Quran to Muhammad by Gabriel who was also his guide on Mi'raj . The angels record

5760-399: The first Shia Imam is credited with establishing Islamic theology and, among Muslims, his sermons contain the first philosophical proofs of God's unity ( Tawhid ). Ali is quoted as arguing that "unity of God" means that God has no like; is not subject to numeration; and is indivisible in neither reality nor imagination. On another occasion, he is quoted saying: The first step of religion

5856-607: The first revelation, Ali was 10 years old. At the time of Muhammad, some of the supporters of Ali, particularly Miqdad ibn al-Aswad, Salman the Persian, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Ammar ibn Yasir were called the Shiites of Ali. The division of Islam into Shia and Sunni traces back to the crisis of the succession to Muhammad. The followers of Ali fought with some of the Quraysh and some of the companions of Muhammad like Talhah and Zubayr . As most of his supporters were in Iraq, Ali moved

SECTION 60

#1732766232472

5952-488: The guidance of people through sending the prophets; When the doctrines and practices of the revealed law gets to its perfection, the prophecy comes to an end, too. That is why the Quran points out that Islam is the last and the most perfect religion and Muhammad is the "seal of the prophets", he adds. Al-Hilli states that "the Prophets are greater in merit than the angels, because the prophets have conflicts with rational power and they compel it to submit to reason. " Belief in

6048-417: The idea of Ijtihad and called the Usulies as the enemies of religion. He recognized the hadith as the only source for the Islamic law and the understanding of the Quran. Muhammad Baqir Behbahani , as the founder of a new stage in Shia Jurisprudence, took a new practical method. He attacked the Akhbaris and their method was abandoned by Shia. The dominance of the Usuli over the Akhbari came in last half of

6144-468: The imminent fulfillment of the prophecy of the return of the Hidden Imam circa 1844 - a full thousand years following the occultation of the Hidden Imam - setting an expectation among their followers that the fulfillment of these prophecies was near. Sayyed Kazim , before his death, even instructed his followers to actively search for the Qa'im , indicating a sense of urgency and belief that the promised figure would appear in their lifetime, potentially around

6240-428: The imminent manifestation of the Mahdi and the fulfillment of Shaykhi-Shia prophecy set the stage for the later emergence of the Bábí and Bahá'í movements, which emerged in precise coincidence with the prophecies of Skaykh Admad al-Ahsai to claim fulfillment of these eschatological expectations, with Sayyid `Ali Muhammad Shirazi declaring himself the Báb (meaning "Gate") in 1844, initiating the Bábí Faith that evolved into

6336-441: The meaning of an arithmetical unity , among, next to, or above other unities. For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique , i.e., the only one to be. As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence. Essentially, there is one Reality, which is one and indivisible. According to Twelver theology, Tawhid consists of several aspects, including Tawhid of

6432-413: The mid to late 20th century. Only the titles 'jurisconsult' ( faqih ) and 'model for imitation' ( marja' al-taqlid ) had fixed meaning. Otherwise titles ... really expressed the informal consensus of mullahs as to the degree of deference they wished to show one another. A teacher in madreseh might be greatly offended if a letter from a layman failed to call him 'ayatollah', but he would vigorously reject

6528-419: The most part, a different path of succession regarding the Imamate. They also differ in the role and overall definition of an Imam. Twelvers are also distinguished from Ismāʿīlīs by their belief in Muhammad's status as the "Seal of the Prophets" ( Arabic : خاتم النبيين , Khatam an-Nabiyyin ), in rejecting the possibility of abrogation of sharīʿa laws, and in considering both esoteric and exoteric aspects of

6624-461: The number of individuals who call themselves an Ayatollah dramatically. An unwritten rule of addressing for Shia clerics has been developed after the 1980s as a result of Iranian Revolution, despite the fact no official institutional way of conferring titles is available. At first the title that had been reserved for a Marja', was gradually applied to an established Mujtahid. With the post-revolutionary bureaucratization of Shia seminaries under

6720-455: The object to which it is attributed, and every such object in turn testifies to its being other than the attribute." Tawhid of the attributes means to deny the existence of any sort of multiplicity and combination in the Essence itself. A differentiation between the essence and the attributes or between the attributes implies a limitation in being. Traditional Twelvers believe that God's names are created by Him and are not His attributes. A name

6816-400: The official religion of his empire. Many Shia scholars were brought to set up the Shia seminaries in Iran. One of those was Karaki who stated that, for the interest of Umma, it is necessary for a Shia scholar to be a legitimate leader to carry out the tasks of the Imam who is hidden. Under Safavids, religious authorities ( Shaykh al-Islam ) were appointed for all major cities. Karaki established

6912-496: The physical and spiritual worlds that he called hurqalya . Everything in the physical world would have counterparts in hurqalya , and events and concepts of Islamic doctrine that did not make sense in the physical world -- heaven , hell , resurrection from the dead , Muhammad's Isra' and Mi'raj , the long life of the Twelfth Imam and the two cities "he is supposed to live" in, Jabulqa and Jabulsa -- all would exist in

7008-544: The principle of creation; Israfil , he places the spirits in the bodies and will blow the trumpet on the Last Day. Gabriel , who took the revelation to Muhammad. Michael , Azrael , the angel of death. The cherubim (al-karrūbiyyūn) who just praise God. The angels of seven heavens and the Guardian angels, two of them are concerned with men. The Attendant angels, they bring blessings upon human. Munkar and Nakir who question

7104-532: The propagation of different religious views and his interest in intellectual debates. Under the rule of al-Ma'mun, Shia was free from the political pressures and was somehow at liberty. In the fourth/tenth century, the weaknesses in the Abbasid government and coming up the Buyid rulers caused the spread, strength and open propagation of the Shi'ism. From the fifth/eleventh to the ninth century many Shia kings appeared in

7200-529: The prophesied year emerges from the millenarian expectations of the Shaykhis , which were shaped by various esoteric and mystical calculations based on Islamic traditions. Sayyed Kazim's teachings often alluded to a particular timeline, indicating that significant events would coincide with the completion of the first millennium of the Hijri calendar and the beginning of the 13th century AH, which aligns roughly with

7296-401: The prophets got through the revelation was religion which consists of doctrine and practice or method. He further adds that with passing of the time and gradual development of the society, the gradual development in the revealed law is apparent. By three ways the speech of God reaches to man, by revelation or divine inspiration; behind a veil, man can hear God's speech but can not hear him; or by

7392-441: The real duties of life and bring them within the reach of human being. Tabataba'i refers to this power of perception, which is other than the reason and the sense, as the prophetic consciousness or the consciousness of revelation as the verse 4: 163 points to this perception namely revelation. Tabataba'i describes that the reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three principles of ontological guidance. What

7488-444: The realm of hurqalya . Consequently, everyone would have two bodies, one in the natural world and one in hurqalya . It was this concept of hurqalya, "more than anything else" that led to Shaykh Ahmad's conflict with the ulama. In other writings, Shaykh Ahmad synthesizes rather dramatic descriptions of the origin of the prophets, the primal word, and other religious themes through allusions and mystical language. Much of this language

7584-473: The rulers were downgraded by not being addressed as an Ayatollah. The earliest known address of this title is for Ibn Mutahhar Al-Hilli (died 1374), however it was not in use as a title for those qualifying until the 20th century. Glassé states that following domination of Twelver branch by followers of Usuli school and demise of Akhbari school, the title was popularized by Usuli s as an attempt to promote their status. Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi

7680-404: The title Ayatollah was awarded by popular usage only to the very few highest ranking, prominent Mujtahid . Qualifications included Consequently, by the 1960s a cleric addressed as an Ayatollah was expected to be a Marja' . The title of Ayatollah (and other Iranian Shi'i titles) has been "cheapened" since then. Roy Mottahedeh describes how the title of ayatollah was determined in

7776-491: The title if addressed as an ayatollah in public - vigorously, that is, until he sensed that other mullahs of his level would tolerate hearing him so addressed, at which point he would quietly let his students impose the title on him. According to Michael M. J. Fischer , the Iranian Revolution led to "rapid inflation of religious titles", so that almost every senior cleric began to be called an Ayatollah. raising

7872-417: The two worlds', dual form ) or fī l-ʿālamīn ( Arabic : في العالمین , lit.   'in the worlds', plural form ) and ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-warā ( Arabic : آية الله في الورى , lit.   'Sign of God among mortals'). Though no formal hierarchical structure exists among Shia clerics, a "hierarchy of difference" can be elaborated to describe the situation. Traditionally,

7968-424: The universe are not independent from God, just as the beings which are not independent in essence. There is no power except God, according to Motahari. Tawhid of Lordship means the governance of the world and that human beings only belong to God. This oneness of lordship has two aspects: creative governance ( tadbir takwini ), and religious governance ( tadbir tashrii ). At last oneness in worship, i.e., God alone

8064-402: The validity of intuitive knowledge for religious thought. Rather than relying entirely on Ijtihad , or independent rational justification, Shakyh Ahmad claimed to derive direct guidance from the Imams. Relying entirely on individual justification for religious guidance had, he suggested, led to the introduction into Shiʻa belief of erroneous views of particular scholars. By emphasizing the role of

8160-424: The validity of the isolate hadith, states rational faculty ( 'aql ) as the fourth source of law in deducing legal norms before Quran and hadith. But the real Usuli doctrinal movement began by al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 1277) who brought up ijtihad and qiyas (analogy) to jurisprudence. Ijtihad brought dynamism into Shia law. Muhaqqiq Hilli and al-Hilli gave a definite shape to Shia jurisprudence and they separated

8256-482: The weak hadith from the sound. According to John Cooper, after al-Hilli, Imami theology and legal methodology became thoroughly infused with the terminology and style of philosophy. In 1256 the Abbasid dynasty collapsed with the invasion of Mongols to Baghdad . Under the ruling of Mongols , Shi'a were more free to develop and al-Hilla became the new learning center for Shia. Continuing the rationalistic tradition of

8352-522: The year 1844 in the Gregorian calendar . The Shaykhis believed that they were on the brink of witnessing a transformative spiritual era, and many of them viewed the events of 1844—particularly the declaration of the Báb—as the fulfillment of these prophecies. After the Báb's declaration in 1844, many Shaykhis became convinced that he was the intermediary, if not the Qa'im himself, as they had been anticipating

8448-408: The year 1844. The Shayki prophecy originates from Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai, who himself reported to have spiritually received the revelation from the 12th Imam directly. According to the Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai, the advent of the imminent arrival of the Mahdi, the "hidden Imam," was not only near, but immanent - so much so that they urged their followers to prepare spiritually for his advent. This belief in

8544-504: Was a Twelver theologian, Muhaddith and Fiqih who used Bani Nawbakht as well as Baghdadi Mu'tazila ideas to form his theology while trying to adapt theological ideas with Twelve Imams' Hadith. While the Mu'tazila was dominant in Baghdad, he tries to distinguish Shia and Mu'tazila ideas and assert reason needs revelation . Shaykh Tusi, founder of Shia Ijtihad, was the first to establish

8640-534: Was addressed with mid-level title of Hujjat al-Islam when he was in office as President of Iran —was bestowed the title Ayatollah immediately after he was elected Supreme Leader of Iran in 1989, without meeting regular unwritten criteria (such as authoring a Risalah ). Since the 2010s, sources under government control tend to give him more distinguished titles like Grand Ayatollah and Imam . Certain clerics, such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari and Hussein-Ali Montazeri , who had fallen out of favor with

8736-523: Was an "indirect result of the reform and strengthening of the religious institution in Qom ". Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi (1859–1937) who founded Qom Seminary , may be the first to bear the title according to Algar. While the title Ayatollah was sporadically used during the 1930s, it became widespread in the 1940s. Only a few of the most important ayatollahs are accorded the rank of Grand Ayatollah ( Ayatollah Uzma , "Great Sign of God"). When an ayatollah gains

8832-547: Was further expanded to include any student who had passed their Mujtahid final exam, leading to "thousands" of Ayatollahs. The title is not used by the Sunni community of Iran, nor by Shias in Lebanon , Pakistan , or India . In Iraq , the title is not unknown, but is only used for clerics of Iranian origin. In the Western world – especially after the Iranian Revolution – it was associated with Ruhollah Khomeini , who

8928-578: Was sent into exile in Iraq, where he continued his opposition to the Iranian regime. He further ordered the opposition to the Shah and led the 1979 revolution . Twelver theology, which mainly consists of five principles, has formed over the course of history on the basis of the Quran , hadiths from Muhammad and the Twelve Imams (especially Jafar al-Sadiq ), as well as in response to intellectual movements in

9024-447: Was so well known as to often be referred to as "The Ayatollah". The title is originally derived from Arabic word Āyah pre-modified with the definite article al and post-modified with the word Allah , making ʾāyatu llāh ( Arabic : آية الله ). The combination has been translated to English as 'Sign of God', 'Divine Sign' or 'Reflection of God'. It is a frequently-used term in Quran , but its usage in this context

9120-526: Was succeeded by his son 'Abd al-Reza Khan Ebrahimi who was a leader until his death. The late Ali al-Musawi was the leader of a community with followers in Iraq - mainly Basrah and Karbala - Iran and the Persian Gulf . Basrah has a significant Shaykhi minority, and their mosque is one of the largest in the city holding up to 12,000 people. The Shaykhiya were resolutely apolitical and hence were allowed relative freedom under Saddam Hussein . Since

9216-602: Was the first one to use the term Ayatullah for the sources of emulation in Najaf, especially Akhund Khurasani (1839–1911), to distinguish them from the clerics of lower rank in Tehran, during the 1905-1911 Persian Constitutional Revolution . ( Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai and Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani were also given that honorific by constitutionalists according to Loghatnameh Dehkhoda .) Hamid Algar maintains that this title entered general usage possibly because it

#471528