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109-641: The temple was built in 1535–1536 by King Min Bin to commemorate his conquest of Bengal. It is located on the western face of Pokhaung Hill, north of the Royal Palace, and adjacent to the Andaw-thein Temple . It is typical of the many Buddhist temples found in Burma: a central bell-shaped stupa , surrounded by four smaller stupas at the corners, and a multitude of even-smaller stupas surrounding them. At

218-619: A tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Bangladesh and India. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves , where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring

327-445: A 16-year-old princess of Bengal royalty to queen. He then paid a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya on 26 March 1533 (2nd waxing of Kason 895 ME). He left Dhaka for Mrauk-U on 13 April 1533 (5th waning of Kason 895 ME). He appointed governors of the new acquired territories on 14 May 1533 (6th waning of Nayon 895 ME). According to historians, his control of Bengal beyond Chittagong, where coins bearing his name and styling him sultan were struck,

436-912: A 2020 assessment under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework. The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about 10,277 km (3,968 sq mi), of which forests in Bangladesh's Khulna Division extend over 6,017 km (2,323 sq mi) and in West Bengal's Presidency division , they extend over 4,260 km (1,640 sq mi) across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts . The most abundant tree species are sundri ( Heritiera fomes ) and gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ). The forests provide habitat to 453 fauna wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species. Despite

545-599: A 5,000-man army through the Padaung Pass across the Arakan Yoma range, and a 7000-man, 700-boat flotilla by the coast to break the siege. However, the army, as it came out of the pass, walked into a trap, and was wiped out by a 6000-strong Toungoo army led by Gen. Kyawhtin Nawrahta . The navy had taken Pathein but retreated after hearing that the army had been annihilated. After the setback, Min Bin reinforced

654-461: A concubine. Although Min Pa was older than Gazapati and had a more legitimate claim to the throne, he stayed out of the limelight. He managed to survive intrigues and power struggles at the court which saw three different kings (Gazapati, Saw O and Thazata ) in the next eight years. In 1521, King Thazata died, and the king's younger brother Minkhaung succeeded in getting the throne. Though he lost out

763-512: A deposit of silt. It covers 14,600 square kilometres (5,600 sq mi) of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta , finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal from the northern part of Khulna District and the southern part of North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and

872-537: A few marches away, and stuck around for another week until a combined army and flotilla of Arakanese forces drove them out to the sea on 7 March. Like many rulers in the region, Min Bin realized that the Portuguese problem was not going away, and decided to hire Portuguese mercenaries to his armed forces. In the following years, Min Bin enlisted many Portuguese mercenaries and their firearms, and with their help, he established well-armed naval and army forces. After

981-466: A hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora ( Sonneratia apetala ) and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer ( Axis axis ). There is abundance of dhundul or passur ( Xylocarpus granatum ) and kankra ( Bruguiera gymnorhiza ) though distribution

1090-553: A mere 130 km of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by Heritiera minor , Xylocarpus molluccensis , Bruguiera conjugata , Sonneratia apetala , Avicennia officinalis , and Sonneratia caseolaris , with Pandanus tectorius , Hibiscus tiliaceus , and Nipa fruticans along

1199-497: A network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline. The event was very threatening to trees, plankton, and vast populations of small fishes and dolphins. The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area, home to the rare Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins . Until 15 December 2014 only 50,000 litres (11,000 imp gal; 13,000 US gal) of oil from the area had been cleaned up by local residents,

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1308-537: A remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in

1417-431: A significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed which include beaches, estuaries , permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks , coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in

1526-587: A small but well-armed army of Portuguese mercenaries landed on 22 February 1535, and advanced to up the Kaladan river by boats, reaching Kandaza, a few miles away from Mrauk-U, by 26 February. After defeating an Arakanese force at Kandaza on 27 February, the Portuguese then proceeded to attack Mrauk-U on 28 February. With the king himself leading the defense, the Arakanese forces drove back the better armed but much smaller Portuguese army. The Portuguese fell back to

1635-553: A storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists. The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists. The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of

1744-602: A strong, united Irrawaddy valley, which in the past had interfered with the coastal kingdom. When King Minkhaung of Prome , the only holdout in Lower Burma and a vassal of the Confederation of Shan States , asked for an alliance by presenting his sister, the former queen of Hanthawaddy, Min Bin readily agreed. When 17,000-strong Toungoo armies laid siege to Prome (Pyay) in November 1541, Min Bin in early 1542 sent

1853-441: A total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates , it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining". The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include

1962-437: A total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there has been a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century, with the ecological quality of the forest declining. Despite preservation commitments from both governments, the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human-made causes. In 2007, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of

2071-539: A unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks , were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps , an improved methodology that yields more accurate results. Tiger attacks were historically common in

2180-659: A world conqueror or cakravartin ", and in commemoration of his victory in Bengal he built the Shitthaung Temple , one of the premier Buddhist pagodas of Mrauk-U . His expansionist drive was to run into serious obstacles however. His control of Bengal beyond Chittagong was largely nominal and he, like the sultans of Bengal before him, never solved Tripuri raids into Bengal. Moreover, his interference in Lower Burma (1542) against Toungoo provoked Toungoo invasions in (1545–47) that nearly toppled his regime. He survived

2289-492: Is Excoecaria . As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear. A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903. While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae , Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae , the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by

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2398-465: Is "beautiful forest". Alternatively, it was proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban , Shomudrobôn ("Sea Forest"), or Chandra-bandhe , the name of a tribe. However, the likely origin of the word is Sundari or Sundri , the local name of the mangrove species Heritiera fomes abundant in the area. The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to Mauryan era (4th-2nd century BCE). A ruin of an abandoned city

2507-399: Is 4,143 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi); the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres (724 sq mi) encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of

2616-521: Is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of

2725-616: Is anticipated to further damage this unique mangrove forest according to a 2016 report by UNESCO. Climate change is expected to continue to negatively affect both natural systems and human populations in the region, resulting in further ecosystem degradation and climate migration . Experts examining the region recommend further focus on mangrove restoration and management and advocating for adaptation of human populations, through processes like managed retreat and investments in resilient infrastructure. The literal meaning of Sundarbans ( Bengali : সুন্দরবন , romanized :  Sundôrbôn )

2834-406: Is discontinuous. Among palms, Poresia coaractata , Myriostachya wightiana and golpata ( Nypa fruticans ), and among grasses spear grass ( Imperata cylindrica ) and khagra ( Phragmites karka ) are well distributed. The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub, littoral forest , saltwater mixed forest , brackish water mixed forest and swamp forest . Besides

2943-446: Is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers are known to attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, with around 40 deaths recorded in 2000–2010. Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari ( Heritiera spp.) and gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983. Despite

3052-454: Is estimated to be about 4,260 km (1,640 sq mi), of which about 1,700 km (660 sq mi) is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of

3161-620: Is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas. Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary , in West Bengal, Sundarbans East , Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh. In May 2019,

3270-505: Is intersected by multiple tidal streams and channels. Sundarbans is home to the world's largest area of mangrove forests. Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites , viz. Sundarbans West (Bangladesh), Sundarbans South (Bangladesh), Sundarbans East (Bangladesh) and Sundarbans National Park (India). Despite the protected status, the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in

3379-743: Is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger . It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile . The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park. Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ) and dense stands of Goran ( Ceriops tagal ), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm ( Phoenix paludosa ) on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of

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3488-550: Is situated 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans. This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants. Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention . The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect

3597-569: Is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks. Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban. The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini ( Satkhira District ) and has sixteen forest stations. It

3706-486: Is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect

3815-628: The Bangladesh Navy , and the government of Bangladesh . Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife. On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River. The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in

3924-485: The Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae . The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari ( Heritiera fomes ), gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ), goran ( Ceriops decandra ) and keora ( Sonneratia apetala ) all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the sundari ( Heritiera littoralis ), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields

4033-550: The Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and completed mapping the area in 1764. However, systematic forest management started a century later. The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Indian Forest Act of 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of

4142-509: The brackish -water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of Bengal. A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km ) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km ) that cover

4251-540: The mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris ) started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British and locals. There are other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur ( Semnopithecus pileatus ), smooth-coated otter ( Lutrogale perspicillata ), Asian small-clawed otter ( Aonyx cinerea ) and large Indian civet ( Viverra zibetha ). The physical development processes along

4360-608: The Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-centimetre (18 in) rise in sea level (likely by

4469-672: The Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile , northern river terrapin ( Batagur baska ), olive ridley sea turtle , Gangetic dolphin , ground turtles, hawksbill sea turtles and king crabs (horse shoe). The Sundarbans hold globally important numbers of the critically endangered masked finfoot and are important wintering sites for the spoon-billed sandpiper and the Indian skimmer . Some species such as hog deer ( Axis porcinus ), water buffalos ( Bubalus bubalis ), barasingha or swamp deer ( Cervus duvauceli ), Javan rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ), Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) and

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4578-458: The Portuguese seamen and mercenaries had established themselves as a serious force in Asia. They had seized trading ports of Goa since 1510 and Malacca since 1511, and controlled important sea lanes in South and Southeast Asia. The Arakanese coastline had not escaped their raids, which by Min Bin's reign, had grown increasingly daring. In 1535, the Portuguese brought war to the fortified capital of Mrauk-U itself. According to Arakanese chronicles,

4687-563: The Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Kolkata , Khulna and Port of Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones . It also protects from tsunami and soil erosion for the coastal population. The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta –

4796-546: The Sundarbans – is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. The larger part is situated in Bangladesh, a smaller portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to

4905-521: The Sundarbans. The forest is also suffering from increased salinity caused by sea level rise due to effects of climate change and reduced freshwater supply. In May 2009, Cyclone Aila devastated the Sundarbans with massive casualties. At least 100,000 people were affected by this cyclone. The proposed coal-fired Rampal power station situated 14 km (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans at Rampal Upazila of Bagerhat District in Khulna, Bangladesh,

5014-586: The Toungoo threat for the remainder of his reign. He sent 3000 troops to aid King Sithu Kyawhtin of Ava, the enemy of Toungoo, put down rebellions. His eldest son Dikkha was the heir apparent throughout the reign. At his accession, Min Bin appointed his brother Min Aung Hla as governor of Thandwe (Sandoway), the second most important city in the kingdom. But he later appointed one of his sons, styled as Upayaza, at Thandwe. According to Burmese chronicles, Aung Hla

5123-590: The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres (660 ft) in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17,179 hectares (42,450 acres) of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7,554 hectares (18,670 acres). Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated

5232-456: The advance. Toungoo forces reached environs of Launggyet , the former capital not far from Mrauk-U, on 23 January 1547 (2nd waxing of Tabodwe 908 ME). The next day, Toungoo forces began their final push, driving out the Mrauk-U army from Launggyet and surrounding the heavily fortified Arakanese capital. They even breached the eastern outworks of Mrauk-U but were flooded out when Min Bin opened

5341-431: The anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of

5450-402: The annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres (0.31 in) in 2010. It had doubled from 3.14 millimetres (0.124 in) recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7,500 hectares (19,000 acres) of forest areas. This, coupled with an around 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of

5559-429: The area , and are still frequent in the Sundarbans, with around 40 people killed in 2000–2010. Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores , which grow upward from

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5668-661: The botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation . The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres , comprising primary colonisation on new accretions to more mature beach forests. Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography. The Sundarbans provides

5777-408: The climatic zone. Robert Scott Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is Sonneratia , followed by Avicennia and Nypa . As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear,

5886-433: The coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon . These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides

5995-429: The coastal population in cyclone -prone Bangladesh. Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop ( kharif crop ) is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However,

6104-522: The combined invasion force defeated a Bengal army of 10,000 men and took Chittagong. The armies then pressed on toward Dhaka on 1 December 1532 (5th waxing of Pyatho 894 ME). The Bengal army made a last stand outside Dhaka but was defeated. The sultan's defenses collapsed afterwards, and Arakanese forces entered Dhaka on 11 December 1532 (15th waxing of Pyatho 894 ME) without a fight. At Dhaka, on 8 February 1533 (Saturday, 15th waxing of Tabaung 894 ME), he received tributes from local lords of Bengal, and raised

6213-729: The confluence of the Ganges , Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal . Spread across parts of India and Bangladesh , this forest is the largest Mangrove forest in the world. It spans the area from the Baleswar River in Bangladesh 's division of Khulna to the Hooghly River in India 's state of West Bengal . It comprises closed and open mangrove forests , land used for agricultural purpose, mudflats and barren land, and

6322-401: The country. A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of

6431-494: The country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey , beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as

6540-433: The defenses of Mrauk-U and forts around the kingdom. History shows that his preparations proved prescient. In October 1545, four Toungoo regiments (4000 men, 100 horses, 10 elephants) intruded into southern Arakan, and marched toward Thandwe, Arakan's second city, which was led by the king's brother Min Aung Hla. On 12 October 1545 (8th waxing of Tazaungmon 907 ME), the king sent a well-armed force, which proceeded to drive out

6649-544: The deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day. The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves. Sundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406). The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are

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6758-477: The east of the temple, there is a recent (though about 75 years old) addition of a flight of stairs and tazaung . There is a central hall at the heart of the temple, which can be easily accessed. Hundreds of Buddha statues line the main hall, some of them in their original positions, others moved from nearby excavation sites. However, the Shitthaung's most prominent feature is not the central hall, but rather

6867-493: The end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves. Already, Lohachara Island and New Moore Island/South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea, and Ghoramara Island is half submerged. In a study conducted in 2012,

6976-485: The flight of human capital from the region According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007. In August 2010, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India's state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016. The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land,

7085-595: The following century would enable Arakan to control the entire 1600-km coastline from the Sundarbans to the Gulf of Martaban . His 22-year reign transformed Mrauk-U into a major regional power, a status which Mrauk-U would maintain well into the second half of the 17th century. The future king was born Min Pa (မင်းပါ) to Crown Prince Raza of Mrauk-U and Princess Saw Nandi in 1493. His parents were first cousins; his mother

7194-420: The forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris ), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, chital , crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with

7303-451: The forest, there are extensive areas of brackish water and freshwater marshes , intertidal mudflats , sandflats , sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. Since Prain's report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of

7412-519: The forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in today Khulna , Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–1898. The Sundarban forest lies in

7521-399: The former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance. Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of

7630-414: The fringing banks. The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the delta and is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometres (7,900 sq mi) of an area covered. The dominant mangrove species Heritiera fomes is locally known as sundri or sundari . Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and

7739-467: The general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris ). The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat ( Felis chaus ), fishing cat ( Prionailurus viverrinus ), and leopard cat ( P. bengalensis ). Several predators dwell in

7848-455: The indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction. Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with

7957-544: The intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways. The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal

8066-405: The intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes is controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on

8175-520: The intruders. The incursion turned out to be an initial probe by Toungoo, which by then controlled all of Lower Burma and parts of Upper Burma to the ancient capital of Pagan . A year later, on 28 October 1546 (4th waxing of Tazaungmon 908 ME), Toungoo invaded by land and sea with a much larger force (19,000 men, 400 horses, 60 elephants, 80 war boats, 50 armored war boats, 10 cargo ships). Toungoo forces quickly overran southern Arakan. Mrauk-U's land and naval forces put up spirited stands but could not stop

8284-533: The invasions and later provided military aid to Ava , hoping to stop Toungoo's advance into Upper Burma. The king died in January 1554, and was succeeded by his eldest son and heir apparent Min Dikkha . His legacy lived on. The defensive works he built up throughout the kingdom would deter another Toungoo invasion until 1580. He is also credited with creating a naval fleet that dominated the Bay of Bengal, which in

8393-519: The labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the chital deer ( Axis axis ), Indian muntjacs ( Muntiacus muntjak ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), and Rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ). It

8502-416: The lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops ( Rabi crops ) can be grown here. Some farms and mangrove areas are being cleared for aquaculture . The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into

8611-560: The late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980. The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing. As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite

8720-505: The local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell. The Sundarban National Park is a National Park , Tiger Reserve , and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta , and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests, and

8829-442: The military successes, Min Bin began to regard himself "as a world conqueror or cakravartin ." To commemorate his victory in Bengal, he began the construction of a massive temple complex that would become the Shitthaung Temple (80,000 Buddha Images) on 9 November 1535 (Full moon of Tazaungmon 897 ME). The design incorporated "elements from Burmese Buddhism and the late Buddhism of northwest India in its iconography, illustrating

8938-509: The monsoon rain. It was discovered in 2003 that the central stupa had begun to leak, dissolving away some of the intricate statues in the two chambers. To prevent this, the local archaeological department hastily poured concrete over the stupas. This prevented the statues inside from being destroyed, but it also destroyed the outer appearance of the temple, which was the focal pagoda to most of the northern Arakanese. Many Arakanese criticize "the defacing" of their most treasured temple, but since it

9047-427: The north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders . The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). Now it has dwindled into about one-third of its original size. The total land area today

9156-657: The power of the king and his religion." He also restored the Andaw-thein Ordination Hall between 1534 and 1542. By the late 1530s, Min Bin had turned Mrauk-U into a serious regional power. Not only did he control the entire Arakan littoral to Chittagong but he also had built up a powerful navy and an army that included many Portuguese mercenaries. But he closely monitored the developments in mainland Burma with great concern, especially after Toungoo 's unlikely victory over Hanthawaddy that gave upstart Toungoo control of Lower Burma . He did not want to see

9265-543: The pretext to exploit the growing weakness of Bengal. The sultanate had been in long decline due to its wars with the Delhi Sultanate and the Ahom Kingdom . On 7 October 1532 (9th waxing of Tazaungmon 894 ME), he led a combined invasion force of 12,000 (three armies of 11,000 men in a three-pronged attack, and a flotilla of war boats carrying 1,000 troops), and invaded Bengal. According to Arakanese chronicles,

9374-765: The property from poachers. The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$ 20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund . A new Khulna Forest Circle

9483-575: The region and partly by climate change. In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi , Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo- tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to

9592-528: The reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered. The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna. The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce

9701-405: The rest of the kingdom, as after 1532, the coastal areas of the kingdom were liable to pillage by Portuguese pirates. ) He also worked to consolidate his rule, and was to face no opposition. Lords from around the kingdom came to pledge their allegiance on 16 September 1531 at the coronation ceremony at the new palace at Mrauk-U. According to chronicles, one notable absence at the coronation ceremony

9810-710: The rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level. Biotic factors here play

9919-458: The same. This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010. A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heidelberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing

10028-421: The sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are wild boar , chital horin ( spotted deer ), Indian otter and macaque monkey . Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present –

10137-448: The sluices of the city's reservoirs. Unwilling to pursue a long siege, Tabinshwehti agreed to a truce with Min Bin on 30 January. Toungoo forces began their retreat three days later, and evacuated Thandwe on 26 March 1547 (5th waxing of Late Tagu 908 ME). After the war, he sent a force to drive out Tripuri marauders who were pillaging Ramu and Chittagong districts. Despite the truce with Toungoo, Min Bin remained very much concerned about

10246-576: The three layers of maze-like corridors that encircle the main hall. The three corridors contain countless reliefs of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas , Kings of Spiritual abodes, Devas, guardian spirits, the 550 Jatakas , Arakanese culture and animals, both real and mythical. The Shite-thaung temple is the main attraction of Mrauk U. Adjacent to it lies another famous temple, the Htukkanthein Temple ( Htukkan Ordination Hall ). Due to Mrauk U's tropical location, much of its temples have been damaged by

10355-434: The throne on Saturday, 27 May 1531, with the royal styles of Thiri Thuriya Sanda Maha Dhamma Yaza and Zabuk Shah . As someone who came to power by force, the new king immediately issued a decree to raise the defenses of Mrauk-U. (In the following decade, the capital Mrauk-U would get an elaborate defensive works consisted of massive stone walls and a deep moat filled with tidal waters. The defense works were later extended to

10464-414: The throne to Minkhaung, Min Pa however managed to get appointed as the new governor of Thandwe (Sandoway), the second most important city in the kingdom. At Thandwe, Min Pa patiently built a loyal following, and collected arms. Ten years later, he revolted, and marched to Mrauk-U with land and naval forces. At Mrauk-U, his forces defeated the king's army, and he had Minkhaung executed. Min Bin ascended to

10573-403: The undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the sundari , other tree species in the forest include Avicennia , Xylocarpus mekongensis , Xylocarpus granatum , Sonneratia apetala , Bruguiera gymnorhiza , Ceriops decandra , Aegiceras corniculatum , Rhizophora mucronata , and Nypa fruticans palms. Twenty-six of the fifty broad mangrove species found in

10682-531: The vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super-confluence of the Hooghly , Padma (both are distributaries of Ganges ), Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh . The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forest lies inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,277 km (3,968 sq mi) of which about 6,017 km (2,323 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. The Indian part of Sundarbans

10791-413: The world grow well in the Sundarbans. The commonly identifiable vegetation types in the dense Sundarbans mangrove forests are salt water mixed forest, mangrove scrub, brackish water mixed forest, littoral forest, wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests. The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations. Unlike

10900-468: The world's largest mangrove forest. On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named Southern Star VII , carrying 358,000 litres (79,000 imp gal; 95,000 US gal) of furnace oil , was sunk in the Sela river of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel. The oil spread over 350 km (140 sq mi) area after the clash, as of 17 December. The slick spread to a second river and

11009-399: Was Chittagong which had paid tribute to strong Arakanese kings Ba Saw Phyu (r. 1459–1482) and Dawlya (r. 1482–1492). Min Bin was determined to restore what he called his forebears' rightful realm, which according to him, included all of Bengal, not just Chittagong. If his claim that all of Bengal belonged to ancient Arakanese kingdoms is unfounded, it was nonetheless used by Min Bin as

11118-425: Was a daughter of Raza's maternal uncle. He had at least one younger brother named Min Aung Hla, and many half-siblings. In 1502, his grandfather King Salingathu died, and his father succeeded the throne. As king, his father raised three new queens, and made his mother just a minor queen. A few years later, the king appointed Min Pa as a general in the army. In 1513, Raza was overthrown by Gazapati , another son by

11227-479: Was a king of Arakan from 1531 to 1554, "whose reign witnessed the country's emergence as a major power". Aided by Portuguese mercenaries and their firearms, his powerful navy and army pushed the boundaries of the kingdom deep into Bengal, where coins bearing his name and styling him sultan were struck, and even interfered in the affairs of mainland Burma. After his initial military successes against Bengal and Tripura (1532–34), Min Bin began to regard himself "as

11336-550: Was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management

11445-695: Was found in the Baghmara Forest Block that is attributed to Chand Sadagar , a pre-Mauryan semi-historical figure in Bengali folklore. Archaeological excavation at Kapilmuni , Paikgacha Upazilla , north of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, revealed ruins of urban settlement dating back to the early middle ages . During the Mughal period, forest tracts were leased out by the local rulers for establishing settlements. In 1757, The British East India Company obtained proprietary rights over Sundarbans from

11554-456: Was nominal. Like Bengal's sultans before him, he had to contend with raids by "Tripuri tribes" from the north throughout his reign, not just on Dhaka but also on Chittagong and Ramu. Within the year of his conquest of Bengal, he had to send a 5,000-strong army to Dhaka to defend against Tripuri raids. After the rainy season of 1533, he personally led the army to drive out the Tripuri raiders. He

11663-410: Was successful, and returned to Mrauk-U on 24 February 1534 (12th waxing of Tabaung 895 ME). Despite the success this time, Min Bin never fully solved the problem of raids by Tripuris. Indeed, when Mrauk-U was under siege by Toungoo forces in 1547, Tripuri forces raided Chittagong and as far south as Ramu. Min Bin had to send a force to drive them out after Toungoo forces retreated. By Min Bin's reign,

11772-655: Was the only way to protect the more precious carvings inside, the actions have not been as widely condemned as expected. Min Bin Siri Sūriya Canda Mahā Dhamma Rājā Min Bin ( Arakanese and Burmese : မင်းဘင် , Burmese pronunciation: [mɪ́ɰ̃ bɪ̀ɰ̃] , Arakanese pronunciation: [máɰ̃ bàɰ̃] ; also known as Min Ba-Gyi (မင်းဗာကြီး, Burmese pronunciation: [mɪ́ɰ̃ bàjí] , Meng Ba-Gri , Arakanese pronunciation: [máɰ̃ bà ɡɹí] ); 1493–1554)

11881-417: Was unhappy and sought help from Toungoo, which led to Toungoo's invasion (1545–1547). However Arakanese chronicles disagree that Aung Hla ever betrayed his brother. Min Bin died on 11 January 1554 (8th waning of Tabodwe 915 ME). He was succeeded by heir-apparent Dikkha. Sundarbans Sundarbans (pronounced / s ʌ n ˈ d ɑːr b ə n z / ) is a mangrove area in the delta formed by

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