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80-692: Ruins at Henchir-Simindja, Bou-Zid have been identified with the Roman era town of Simingi . Simingi was a civitas of the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis . Roman era Simingi was also the seat of an ancient bishopric , suffragan of the Archdiocese of Carthage . It was the site of a battle which took place in February 1943, part of the Tunisian Campaign of World War II. This battle began on 14 February 1943 at nearby Faid Pass when

160-540: A Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India . Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India . The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj . Southern India saw

240-569: A volcanic eruption in the 1st century CE, and its uncovered ruins are now preserved as a World Heritage Site . The city of Lisbon in Portugal was also completely destroyed in 1755 by a massive earthquake and tsunami ; and the 1906 San Francisco earthquake in the United States had left the city in almost complete ruin. Apart from acts of war, some important historic buildings have fallen victim to deliberate acts of destruction as

320-583: A consequence of social, political and economic factors. The spoliation of public monuments in Rome was under way during the fourth century, when it was covered in protective legislation in the Theodosian Code and in new legislation of Majorian . The dismantling increased once popes were free of imperial restrictions. Marble was still being burned for agricultural lime in the Roman Campagna into

400-458: A cultural elite, as examples for a consciously revived and purified architecture all' antica , and for a new aesthetic appreciation of their innate beauty as objects of venerable decay. The chance discovery of Nero's Domus Aurea at the turn of the sixteenth century, and the early excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii had marked effects on current architectural styles, in Raphael's Rooms at

480-419: A highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity. According to Tim Dyson: Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in

560-461: A more direct result, such as the case of Beverston Castle , in which the English parliament ordered significant destruction of the castle to prevent it being used by opposition Royalists . Ireland has encouraged the ruin of grand Georgian houses, seen as symbols of Britain. As a rule, towers built of steel are dismantled, when not used any more, because their construction can be either rebuilt on

640-677: A nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress , led by Mahatma Gandhi . Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state . The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan , each gaining its independence. Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached

720-504: A new site or if the state of construction does not allow a direct reuse, the metal can be recycled economically. However, sometimes tower basements remain, because their removal can be expensive. One example of such a basement is the basement of the former radio mast of Deutschlandsender Herzberg/Elster . The basements of large wooden towers such as Transmitter Ismaning may also be left behind, because removing them would be difficult. The contemplation of " rust belt " post-industrial ruins

800-399: A number of major cities around the world – such as Beirut , Kabul , Sarajevo , Grozny , and Baghdad – have been partially or completely ruined in recent years as a result of more localized warfare. Entire cities have also been ruined, and some occasionally lost completely, to natural disasters . The ancient Roman city of Pompeii in modern-day Italy was completely destroyed during

880-466: A state of partial or total disrepair over time due to a variety of factors, such as lack of maintenance, deliberate destruction by humans, or uncontrollable destruction by natural phenomena . The most common root causes that yield ruins in their wake are natural disasters , armed conflict , and population decline , with many structures becoming progressively derelict over time due to long-term weathering and scavenging . There are famous ruins all over

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960-449: A system of weights, punch-marked coins , and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit , while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits . Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of Gautama Buddha . These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. Magadha formed one of

1040-522: A vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry , 20,000 cavalry , 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of

1120-632: Is described in the texts of Vedas , still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit . The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab , and

1200-901: Is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana , Mahabharata and Puranas . The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas , Gandharis , and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism . Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Early sources, from

1280-625: Is in its infancy. In the Middle Ages Roman ruins were inconvenient impediments to modern life, quarries for pre-shaped blocks for building projects, or marble to be burnt for agricultural lime, and subjects for satisfying commentaries on the triumph of Christianity and the general sense of the world's decay, in what was assumed to be its last age, before the Second Coming . With the Renaissance , ruins took on new roles among

1360-424: Is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an Indus script , the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts , which is presently undeciphered. This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain. After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation,

1440-481: Is represented by the Étoile Olympique de Sidi Bouzid in the Tunisian football competitions. It played in the national Tunisian football league for the first time in 2016 and after 2 years it return to the second division. Ruins Ruins (from Latin ruina  'a collapse') are the remains of a civilization 's architecture. The term refers to formerly intact structures that have fallen into

1520-411: Is the concept that a building be designed such that if it eventually collapsed, it would leave behind aesthetically pleasing ruins that would last far longer without any maintenance at all. Joseph Michael Gandy completed for Sir John Soane in 1832 an atmospheric watercolor of the architect's vast Bank of England rotunda as a picturesquely overgrown ruin, that is an icon of Romanticism . Ruinenwert

1600-412: Is today Nepal and Bihar state); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Aruni , and Gārgī Vāchaknavī . The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas , across Northern India. The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw

1680-519: The Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas ). The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira ( c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism , and Gautama Buddha ( c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to

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1760-590: The Atharvaveda . The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the srauta ritual to uphold the social order. Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya , who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India. When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours,

1840-655: The Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam . To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya ( Kautilya ) in Magadha (in modern Bihar ) when he overthrew the Nanda Empire . Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE

1920-629: The Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan . Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on

2000-827: The Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds: The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing

2080-573: The Indus Valley Civilisation , one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World , flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration . The Vedic Period of

2160-592: The Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration . The Vedic period is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period. The Vedic culture

2240-464: The 20th century, a number of European historic buildings fell into ruin as a result of taxation policies, which required all structures with roofs to pay substantial property tax . The owners of these buildings, like Fetteresso Castle (now restored) and Slains Castle in Scotland , deliberately destroyed their roofs in protest at, and defiance of, the new taxes. Other decrees of government have had

2320-470: The 23rd Tirthankara , was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement. The period from c.  600 BCE to c.  300 BCE featured the rise of the Mahajanapadas , sixteen powerful kingdoms and oligarchic republics in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west to Bengal in

2400-904: The 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis . This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries,

2480-536: The 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms , republics and kingdoms —notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru , Panchala , Kosala and Videha . The Kuru Kingdom ( c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800 BCE, as well as with the composition of

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2560-513: The 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni . The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Central Asian Turks who were Indianized . They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple Turk , Afghan and Indian dynasties, including the Turco-Mongol Indianized Tughlaq Dynasty but declined in the late 14th century following

2640-738: The Buddhist Pāli Canon , the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas , mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty ( c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal . King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru , who continued

2720-709: The German 10th and 21st Panzer Divisions attacked elements of the US 1st Armored Division and 168th Infantry. This Battle of Sidi Bou Zid was the opening act in what became known as the Battle of Kasserine Pass . On 17 December 2010, clashes occurred in Sidi Bouzid between residents and the police following the public suicide of Mohamed Bouazizi . Bouazizi worked as one of the city's street Named ( Rahba ) vendors selling fruit. He set fire to himself on 17 December as protest against

2800-645: The Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts. At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around

2880-458: The Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago. According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson: Modern human beings— Homo sapiens —originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of

2960-554: The Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. After the Kalinga War , the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been

3040-657: The Indian subcontinent. The East India Company , acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government , gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown , in the British Raj . After World War I ,

3120-630: The Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin : Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka. Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher , states: Scholars estimate that

3200-631: The Panchala kingdom. The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what

3280-824: The Vatican and in neoclassical interiors , respectively. The new sense of historicism that accompanied neoclassicism led some artists and designers to conceive of the modern classicising monuments of their own day as they would one day appear as ruins. In the period of Romanticism ruins (mostly of castles ) were frequent object for painters, place of meetings of romantic poets, nationalist students etc. (e.g. Bezděz Castle in Bohemia , Hambach Castle in Germany, Devin Castle in Slovakia). Ruin value ( German : Ruinenwert )

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3360-653: The Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns ( Vedas ). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system , incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain . Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies ( janapadas ) were consolidated into larger states ( mahajanapadas ). Second urbanization took place, which came with

3440-523: The area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated. The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads , which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism , and are also known as

3520-680: The assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga . Shunga would form the Shunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the north-west and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom . Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire , in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing

3600-546: The authorities' seizure of his goods, after an alleged refusal to pay a bribe to officials, and the police harassment and violence he suffered as a result. He died of his injuries on 4 January 2011. In early January 2011, more clashes with the police in Sidi Bouzid led to at least 20 deaths. Protesters in Sidi Bouzid began taking pictures, but most importantly video clips, of these events and the violence meted out to them (including firing live rounds) using 'smart phones' and other mobile devices. They were then posted extensively on

3680-418: The beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa , Ganweriwal , and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira , Kalibangan , Rakhigarhi , and Lothal in modern-day India. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation

3760-583: The central focus of armed conflict and would be sacked and ruined in defeat. Delhi , the capital of India , has been destroyed and ransacked seven to ten times and subsequently rebuilt. Every ruler decided to build the city in their own way either overlapping the ruins or next to the ruins. Ruins of seven cities of Delhi can still be traced in the modern-day city. Although less central to modern conflict, vast areas of 20th-century cities such as Warsaw , Dresden , Coventry , Stalingrad , Königsberg , and Berlin were left in ruins following World War II , and

3840-515: The concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara , and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Śramaṇa religions. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as

3920-431: The cultural and political landscape of India. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation , becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas , who took control of extensive regions of

4000-436: The dating of fluvial sediments , have not been independently verified. The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis , from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of

4080-411: The eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans- Vindhyan region. Ancient Buddhist texts , like the Aṅguttara Nikāya , make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics— Anga , Assaka , Avanti , Chedi , Gandhara , Kashi , Kamboja , Kosala , Kuru , Magadha , Malla , Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala , Surasena , Vṛji , and Vatsa . This period saw

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4160-418: The empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I , founder of the Seleucid Empire , during the Seleucid–Mauryan war , thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However,

4240-426: The era of Northern Black Polished Ware . The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel

4320-402: The expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha , the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya , gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty ( c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka,

4400-404: The first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along

4480-432: The following uprisings across North Africa and other Arab nations . In late July, 2013, officials declared that their city had seceded from Tunisia and would not return to control of the central government unless Islamist government led by Ennahda party was removed from power. Sidi Bouzid has a borderline hot semi-arid / hot desert climate ( BSh / BWh ) according to the Köppen climate classification . The city

4560-591: The formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain. The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns,

4640-416: The foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India. Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the Indo-Mediterranean , into Sri Lanka , Southeast Asia , West Asia , North Africa , and Mediterranean Europe . The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in

4720-523: The hierarchy of the four varnas , or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities). The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period. The Mahabharata remains

4800-468: The inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin. During the 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals. Starting c.  1900 BCE , Indo-Aryan tribes moved into

4880-418: The invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa , Gujarat , and Bahmani Sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates . The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms , notably the Vijayanagara Empire and the Rajput states , emerged and played significant roles in shaping

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4960-435: The land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [ Bos indicus ] and unhumped [ Bos taurus ]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well. The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region

5040-399: The largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire , was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. "It was

5120-459: The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha , was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire . Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road , one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting

5200-415: The longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE. The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to

5280-408: The nineteenth century. In Europe, many religious buildings suffered as a result of the politics of the day. In the 16th century, the English monarch Henry VIII set about confiscating the property of monastic institutions in a campaign which became known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Many abbeys and monasteries fell into ruin when their assets, including lead roofs, were stripped. In

5360-470: The region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha ) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south. Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka , whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and

5440-450: The rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics , including Hindu numerals , influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world , including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system . Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as

5520-571: The rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism . The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism . Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire . India's Mauryan king Ashoka is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on

5600-415: The ruined Dunnottar Castle in Scotland was used for filming of Hamlet . History of India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into

5680-425: The second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation . Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha , such as Shakyas , Koliyas , Mallakas , and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇasaṅgha s, such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara , and the Vajjika League , centred in the city of Vaishali , existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until

5760-494: The sixteen Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit : "Great Realms") or kingdoms in ancient India . The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges ; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna ). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha

5840-497: The subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy. Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into

5920-630: The upper Gangetic Plain . The Peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma , trace their roots to Vedic antecedents. Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda , the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE, in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from

6000-559: The warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, although this interpretation is disputed. The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into

6080-414: The web using social media sites. As a direct result, violent protests soon spread through the country, eventually reaching the capital of Tunis . As the uprising intensified, President Ben Ali fled the country on 14 January 2011. The success of protesters from Sidi Bouzid in publicizing their efforts and plight via social media has been seen as the most distinctive and decisive feature in facilitating

6160-1050: The world, with notable sites originating from ancient China , the Indus Valley and other regions of ancient India , ancient Iran , ancient Israel and Judea , ancient Iraq , ancient Greece , ancient Egypt , ancient Yemen , Roman , ancient India sites throughout the Mediterranean Basin , and Incan and Mayan sites in the Americas . Ruins are of great importance to historians, archaeologists and anthropologists , whether they were once individual fortifications , places of worship , ancient universities , houses and utility buildings, or entire villages, towns, and cities. Many ruins have become UNESCO World Heritage Sites in recent years, to identify and preserve them as areas of outstanding value to humanity. Ancient cities were often highly militarized and had fortified defensive settlements . In times of war, they were

6240-479: Was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons). The Nanda Empire ( c. 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range . The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors. Nanda empire have built

6320-485: Was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World ; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million. The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking

6400-599: Was popularized in the 20th century by Albert Speer while planning for the 1936 Summer Olympics and published as Die Ruinenwerttheorie ("The Theory of Ruin Value"). Ruins remain a popular subject for painting and creative photography and are often romanticized in film and literature, providing scenic backdrops or used as metaphors for other forms of decline or decay. For example, the ruins of Dunstanburgh Castle in England inspired Turner to create several paintings; in 1989

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