The C-segment is the 3rd category of the European segments for passenger cars and is described as "medium cars". It is equivalent to the Euro NCAP "small family car" size class, and the compact car category in the United States.
90-462: The Singer SM1500 is a small family car produced by Singer Motors from 1948 to 1956. The first new design produced by Singer after World War II it was planned to replace their Super Ten and Super Twelve . Following a minor facelift in 1952 the SM1500 was given a traditional Singer radiator grille in 1954 and in that form, known as a Singer Hunter, it remained in production until shortly after
180-424: A glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting point). Ordinary A-glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be remelted, as so-called cullet glass,
270-556: A 5 mg/m total limit. As of 2001, the Hazardous Substances Ordinance in Germany dictates a maximum occupational exposure limit of 86 mg/m . In certain concentrations, a potentially explosive mixture may occur. Further manufacture of GRP components (grinding, cutting, sawing) creates fine dust and chips containing glass filaments, as well as tacky dust, in quantities high enough to affect health and
360-621: A November, 2011 modification to its Proposition 65 listing to include only "Glass wool fibers (inhalable and biopersistent)." Therefore a cancer warning label for biosoluble fiber glass home and building insulation is no longer required under federal or California law. As of 2012, the North American Insulation Manufacturers Association stated that fiberglass is safe to manufacture, install and use when recommended work practices are followed to reduce temporary mechanical irritation. As of 2012,
450-402: A Packard designed coil spring independent suspension built under licence. The brakes were hydraulically operated using a Lockheed system with 9 in (229 mm) drums. The four-speed gearbox had a column change which made it difficult or impossible to select second and reverse. "Many an exasperated driver rammed his knuckles into the mock-wood-painted metal dashboard in the attempt". The car
540-439: A binder. It is typically processed using the hand lay-up technique, where sheets of material are placed on a mold and brushed with resin. Because the binder dissolves in resin, the material easily conforms to different shapes when wetted out. After the resin cures, the hardened product can be taken from the mold and finished. Using chopped strand mat gives the fiberglass isotropic in-plane material properties. A coating or primer
630-516: A capacity of 1497 cc to bring it into the sub 1500 class. From 1952 a 58 bhp (43 kW) twin-carburettor version was available for an extra £28. It was reported that the engine block was so tough that the manufacturers were happy to quote 65,000 miles (105,000 kilometers) as a "normal" interval between rebores. The body was styled by Leo Shorter, Singer's chief engineer since 1937. He had been inspired by Howard Darrin 's 1946 Kaiser-Frazer . Shorter lacked Darrin's flair and "produced one of
720-417: A chemical solution. The individual filaments are now bundled in large numbers to provide a roving . The diameter of the filaments, and the number of filaments in the roving, determine its weight , typically expressed in one of two measurement systems: These rovings are then either used directly in a composite application such as pultrusion , filament winding (pipe), gun roving (where an automated gun chops
810-401: A combined stream from a chopper gun. Workers roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood, foam or other core material may then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer imbeds the core between the laminates. The part is then cured, cooled, and removed from the reusable mold. Pultrusion is a manufacturing method used to make strong, lightweight composite materials. In pultrusion, material
900-686: A large margin. According to 2011 sales, compact cars are currently the second segment in Europe after the subcompact one (which in Europe corresponds to A-segment + B-segment ), with approximately 3 million units sold. Because of the Volkswagen Golf 's definition and long standing dominance of this class it is often referred to as the "Golf segment" in much of Europe. Mainstream compact sedans began falling in popularity since 1990s, when Peugeot stopped production of 306 in 4-door saloon form, and also sharply declining since 2010s, as well as
990-402: A length of approximately 4.5 metres (15 ft). As of 2021 C-segment category size span from approx. 4.2m to 4.6m Examples include Volkswagen Golf, Ford Focus, Citroën C4, Mercedes-Benz A-Class, BMW 1 Series, Audi A3, Škoda Scala, Honda Civic and Toyota Corolla. The most common body styles for C-segment cars in Europe are hatchbacks , and much less sedans and wagons/estates . In 2020
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#17328012325021080-430: A liner to prevent gas leakage or as a barrier to protect the composite from the fluid to be stored. Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such as pipe and small pressure vessels that are wound and cured without any human intervention. The controlled variables for winding are fiber type, resin content, wind angle, tow or bandwidth and thickness of the fiber bundle. The angle at which
1170-936: A post-exposure recovery period." Historic reviews of the epidemiology studies had been conducted by Harvard's Medical and Public Health Schools in 1995, the National Academy of Sciences in 2000, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ("ATSDR") in 2004, and the National Toxicology Program in 2011. which reached the same conclusion as IARC that there is no evidence of increased risk from occupational exposure to glass wool fibers. Genetic and toxic effects are exerted through production of reactive oxygen species , which can damage DNA, and cause chromosomal aberrations , nuclear abnormalities, mutations, gene amplification in proto-oncogenes , and cell transformation in mammalian cells. There
1260-415: A thermoplastic inner tank which acts as a preform during construction. Much more reliable tanks are made using woven mat or filament wound fiber, with the fiber orientation at right angles to the hoop stress imposed in the sidewall by the contents. Such tanks tend to be used for chemical storage because the plastic liner (often polypropylene ) is resistant to a wide range of corrosive chemicals. Fiberglass
1350-486: A top speed of only 71 mph (114 km/h), a 0-60 mph (97 km/h) time of 27.9 seconds and an impressive overall fuel consumption figure for the road test of 29 miles per imperial gallon (9.7 L/100 km; 24 mpg ‑US ). A coupé utility variant was produced. It was advertised in Australia as "specially designed for Australian conditions". 17,382 SM1500 cars were made. In September 1954
1440-666: A traditional saloon of this size though, with Volkswagen using the Golf as the base for its Jetta saloon, and Ford launching the Escort-based Orion in 1983. Also in the 1980s saloons became popular again in certain Western European markets, often with a different model name than the hatchback, for example the Renault 9 (Renault 11-based), Fiat Regata (Ritmo-based) and SEAT Málaga . Some carmakers later created
1530-624: A twin overhead camshaft engine (using an HRG designed cylinder head). Very few, possibly 20, of the 75s were made before the range was cancelled. The Singer Gazelle was announced in September 1956 but the Hunter remained available. The Hunter name was revived by Rootes in 1966 for their Rootes Arrow range, in the form of the Hillman Hunter. A Hunter appears in the film Fire Maidens from Outer Space by Cy Roth , which has been called
1620-422: Is a common type of fiber-reinforced plastic using glass fiber . The fibers may be randomly arranged, flattened into a sheet called a chopped strand mat, or woven into glass cloth . The plastic matrix may be a thermoset polymer matrix —most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy , polyester resin , or vinyl ester resin —or a thermoplastic . Cheaper and more flexible than carbon fiber , it
1710-427: Is a fabrication technique mainly used for manufacturing open (cylinders) or closed-end structures (pressure vessels or tanks). The process involves winding filaments under tension over a male mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a wind eye on a carriage moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the desired pattern. The most common filaments are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with synthetic resin as they are wound. Once
1800-551: Is also indirect, inflammation-driven genotoxicity through reactive oxygen species by inflammatory cells . The longer and thinner as well as the more durable (biopersistent) fibers were, the more potent they were in damage. In the US, fine mineral fiber emissions have been regulated by the EPA , but respirable fibers (“particulates not otherwise regulated”) are regulated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA); OSHA has set
1890-432: Is also used for septic tanks . Glass-reinforced plastics are also used to produce house building components such as roofing laminate, door surrounds, over-door canopies, window canopies and dormers, chimneys, coping systems, and heads with keystones and sills. The material's reduced weight and easier handling, compared to wood or metal, allows faster installation. Mass-produced fiberglass brick-effect panels can be used in
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#17328012325021980-401: Is applied to the chosen mold to allow the finished product to be cleanly removed from the mold. Resin—typically a 2-part thermoset polyester, vinyl, or epoxy—is mixed with its hardener and applied to the surface. Sheets of fiberglass matting are laid into the mold, then more resin mixture is added using a brush or roller. The material must conform to the mold, and air must not be trapped between
2070-479: Is applied to the roving to help protect the glass filaments for processing and manipulation and to ensure proper bonding to the resin matrix, thus allowing for the transfer of shear loads from the glass fibers to the thermoset plastic. Without this bonding, the fibers can 'slip' in the matrix causing localized failure. An individual structural glass fiber is both stiff and strong in tension and compression —that is, along its axis. Although it might be assumed that
2160-600: Is because premium cars are included. From 2013–2018 premium cars had separate count, and are not included in mainstream total sales. Premium brands and models are marked italic . Electric cars are included in C-segment from 2020. year. 2019 – The compact car segment in Europe sees 5% fewer deliveries in 2019, as Europe’s #2 segment is down to 2.65 million sales, or 16.9% of the total European car market, down from 18% in 2018. 2020 – Sales of compact cars in Europe are down 24% to 2.03 million in 2020, perfectly in line with
2250-483: Is called pultrusion . The manufacturing process for glass fibers suitable for reinforcement uses large furnaces to gradually melt the silica sand, limestone , kaolin clay , fluorspar , colemanite , dolomite and other minerals until a liquid forms. It is then extruded through bushings ( spinneret ), which are bundles of very small orifices (typically 5–25 micrometres in diameter for E-Glass, 9 micrometres for S-Glass). These filaments are then sized (coated) with
2340-592: Is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937 but did not proceed further at the time because of the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a passenger boat of plastic materials, and the United States a fuselage and wings of an aircraft. The first car to have a fiberglass body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab , but the model did not enter production. Unlike glass fibers used for insulation, for
2430-401: Is essentially an entire two-dimensional plane; with woven fabrics or unidirectional layers, directionality of stiffness and strength can be more precisely controlled within the plane. A fiberglass component is typically of a thin "shell" construction, sometimes filled on the inside with structural foam, as in the case of surfboards. The component may be of nearly arbitrary shape, limited only by
2520-513: Is pulled through forming machinery using either a hand-over-hand method or a continuous-roller method (as opposed to extrusion , where the material is pushed through dies). In fiberglass pultrusion, fibers (the glass material) are pulled from spools through a device that coats them with a resin. They are then typically heat-treated and cut to length. Fiberglass produced this way can be made in a variety of shapes and cross-sections, such as W or S cross-sections. People can be exposed to fiberglass in
2610-639: Is required, such as equipment cabinets and steel support structures, due to the ease with which it can be molded and painted to blend with existing structures and surfaces. Other uses include sheet-form electrical insulators and structural components commonly found in power-industry products. Because of fiberglass's lightweight and durability, it is often used in protective equipment such as helmets. Many sports use fiberglass protective gear, such as goaltenders' and catchers' masks. Storage tanks can be made of fiberglass with capacities up to about 300 tonnes . Smaller tanks can be made with chopped strand mat cast over
2700-510: Is sometimes referred to as "fiberglass", the composite is also called fiberglass-reinforced plastic ( FRP ). This article uses "fiberglass" to refer to the complete fiber-reinforced composite material, rather than only to the glass fiber within it. Glass fibers have been produced for centuries, but the earliest patent was awarded to the Prussian inventor Hermann Hammesfahr (1845–1914) in the U.S. in 1880. Mass production of glass strands
2790-635: Is stronger than many metals by weight, non- magnetic , non- conductive , transparent to electromagnetic radiation , can be molded into complex shapes, and is chemically inert under many circumstances. Applications include aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and enclosures, swimming pools , hot tubs , septic tanks , water tanks , roofing, pipes, cladding, orthopedic casts , surfboards , and external door skins. Other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic ( GRP ), glass-fiber reinforced plastic ( GFRP ) or GFK (from German : Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff ). Because glass fiber itself
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2880-402: Is that the resins used are subject to contraction during the curing process. For polyester this contraction is often 5–6%; for epoxy, about 2%. Because the fibers do not contract, this differential can create changes in the shape of the part during curing. Distortions can appear hours, days, or weeks after the resin has set. While this distortion can be minimized by symmetric use of the fibers in
2970-464: Is used when tensile strength (high modulus) is important and is thus an important building and aircraft epoxy composite (it is called R-glass, "R" for "reinforcement" in Europe). C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator"—a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to chemical attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass. Fiberglass
3060-433: Is versatile because it is lightweight, strong, weather-resistant, and can have a variety of surface textures. During World War II, fiberglass was developed as a replacement for the molded plywood used in aircraft radomes (fiberglass being transparent to microwaves ). Its first main civilian application was for the building of boats and sports car bodies, where it gained acceptance in the 1950s. Its use has broadened to
3150-555: The Fiat 124 and Fiat 125 ) and Lada Samara (since 1984) were very popular in Central and Eastern Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. The modern-day Lada 's compact cars are Lada Priora and Lada Vesta . There was also the lineup of the AZLK -factory, Moskvitch (from 1947 to 2003): 400 , 402 , 408 , 412 , Izh 2125 (the first Soviet hatchback ), 2140 and Aleko . At the start of
3240-572: The Ford Escort , Vauxhall Viva , Austin Allegro and Hillman Avenger were still only available as saloons or estates, although some cars of this size, like the BMC/BL 1100 and 1300 saloons and Italy's Fiat 128 featured front-wheel drive from their launch during the 1960s. The C-segment was revolutionized in 1974 with the launch of the Volkswagen Golf , a front-wheel drive hatchback, which
3330-573: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as "not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans" ( IARC group 3 ). "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since the previous IARC monographs review of these fibers in 1988 provide no evidence of increased risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational exposures during the manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any cancer risk." In June 2011,
3420-642: The liftback bodystyle like the Peugeot 309 , which replaced the Talbot Horizon in this sector at the end of 1985. Since the mid-1990s, premium brands usually associated with larger and more expensive cars have entered the C-segment with more affordable hatchbacks and saloons. The first such example was the Audi A3 in 1996. Subsequent cars of this type include the BMW 1 Series and Mercedes-Benz A-Class . In
3510-546: The 1960s, the post war economic boom had produced customers who wanted something of intermediate size. These were usually saloons during the 1950s and 1960s. The world's first hatchback , the 1958 FR layout Austin A40 Farina Countryman model that was a co-development of BMC and the Italian design house Pininfarina at a time when this was unusual. It had a lift up rear window and drop down boot lid. It
3600-617: The 1970 GS, Peugeot 304 and Renault 14 . During 1980s, Citroën replaced the GSA with the 1983 BX that was between the sizes of the small family car and large family car, in an attempt to cover both markets with single model. The Citroën ZX was the model which celebrated the entry of PSA Group (now Stellantis) in China during early 1990s. Cars of the Soviet/Russian brand Lada : VAZ-2101 , VAZ-2103 , VAZ-2106 , Lada Riva (based on
3690-582: The 1970s, the two most popular sectors of the UK market were small family cars and large family cars . From its launch in 1962, the BMC 1100/1300 was often Britain's best selling car; other locally produced compact cars included the Ford Escort , Vauxhall Viva and Hillman Avenger . Imported small family cars that were popular in the UK included the Citroën GS and Datsun Sunny 120Y . British Leyland replaced
Singer SM1500 - Misplaced Pages Continue
3780-419: The 1st decade of 21st century, coupé convertibles (cabriolets) with components from these vehicles were being also built. Examples of this are the Peugeot 307 CC and later 308 CC in the first generation, third-generation Opel Astra TwinTop , second generation Ford Focus Coupe-Convertible , and Volkswagen Eos . Early successful compact family cars by French manufacturers are Citroën GS A hatch version of
3870-651: The BMC 1100/1300 with a variety of models: the 1969 Austin Maxi , the 1971 Morris Marina , and the 1973 Austin Allegro . A second-generation Ford Escort (jointly designed in Britain and Germany) was released in 1974. The same year, the German Volkswagen Golf front-wheel-drive hatchback was released, becoming one of the first significantly-imported small family cars in the UK market. The sporty "GTI" version of
3960-555: The European Union and Germany have classified synthetic glass fibers as possibly or probably carcinogenic, but fibers can be exempt from this classification if they pass specific tests. A 2012 health hazard review for the European Commission stated that inhalation of fiberglass at concentrations of 3, 16 and 30 mg/m3 "did not induce fibrosis nor tumours except transient lung inflammation that disappeared after
4050-754: The European version of the Escort was replaced by the global Ford Focus MkI model. General Motors released the Vauxhall Astra Mk3 update in 1991 and the all-new Astra Mk4 in 1998. Rover Group introduced the Rover 200 Mk2 in 1989. The Rover 200 Mk3 was introduced in 1995, replacing the Honda Concerto-based Mk2 with a UK-designed car. Fibreglass Fiberglass ( American English ) or fibreglass ( Commonwealth English )
4140-680: The Golf sparked a huge demand for "hot hatches" in the UK and many other countries. The third-generation Vauxhall Viva was produced until late 1979, when it was replaced by the Vauxhall Astra (a rebadged Opel Kadett D which was initially produced in West Germany and Belgium). The Astra was part of a late-1970s transition in small family cars from being predominantly rear-wheel-drive saloons , to becoming front-wheel-drive hatchbacks (by then increasingly popular in mainland Europe). The Austin Allegro – introduced five years earlier –
4230-567: The UK was the 1981 Triumph Acclaim , a licensed version of the four-door Honda Ballade with a Honda-designed engine. The Acclaim was replaced in 1984 by the Rover 200 . In late 1985 the Peugeot 309 became the first Peugeot to be built in the UK at the Ryton plant . Ford began the 1990s by replacing its 10-year-old Escort (and the Orion saloon version) with the Ford Escort MkV . In 1998,
4320-573: The US National Toxicology Program (NTP) removed from its Report on Carcinogens all biosoluble glass wool used in home and building insulation and for non-insulation products. However, NTP still considers fibrous glass dust to be "reasonably anticipated [as] a human carcinogen (Certain Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable))". Similarly, California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) published
4410-458: The air near manufacturing facilities or when they are near building fires or implosions . The American Lung Association advises that fiberglass insulation should never be left exposed in an occupied area. Since work practices are not always followed, and fiberglass is often left exposed in basements that later become occupied, people can get exposed. No readily usable biological or clinical indices of exposure exist. Fiberglass will irritate
4500-599: The automotive and sport equipment sectors. In the production of some products, such as aircraft, carbon fiber is now used instead of fiberglass, which is stronger by volume and weight. Advanced manufacturing techniques such as pre-pregs and fiber rovings extend fiberglass's applications and the tensile strength possible with fiber-reinforced plastics. Fiberglass is also used in the telecommunications industry for shrouding antennas , due to its RF permeability and low signal attenuation properties. It may also be used to conceal other equipment where no signal permeability
4590-680: The business was sold to Rootes Securities at the beginning of 1956. The sturdy Singer engine was briefly installed in a modified Hillman Minx named Singer Gazelle . Both the completion of a first prototype and a general description of the new unnamed car were announced in November 1947 and an early production car was displayed at the Earls Court Motor Show in October 1948. Singer's first demonstrators were sent overseas at Christmas time 1948. Production finally commenced just before
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#17328012325024680-564: The car was re-branded as the Singer Hunter with a traditional radiator grille and fibreglass bonnet lid. The Hunter was well equipped with twin horns and screenwash as standard. A horse-head mascot was fitted over the radiator. 4772 Hunters were made. The Times motoring correspondent tested the new model and reported in June 1955, under the headline "Reversion to "Traditional" Radiator Shell" followed by "Cushioned Comfort", that this car
4770-550: The complexity and tolerances of the mold used for manufacturing the shell. The mechanical functionality of materials is heavily reliant on the combined performances of both the resin (AKA matrix) and fibers. For example, in severe temperature conditions (over 180 °C), the resin component of the composite may lose its functionality, partially due to bond deterioration of resin and fiber. However, GFRPs can still show significant residual strength after experiencing high temperatures (200 °C). One notable feature of fiberglass
4860-412: The construction of composite housing, and can include insulation to reduce heat loss. In rod pumping applications, fiberglass rods are often used for their high tensile strength to weight ratio. Fiberglass rods provide an advantage over steel rods because they stretch more elastically (lower Young's modulus ) than steel for a given weight, meaning more oil can be lifted from the hydrocarbon reservoir to
4950-973: The design, a certain amount of internal stress is created; and if it becomes too great, cracks form. The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass , which is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass ( A lkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass ( E lectrical/ C hemical R esistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low D ielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as R einforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength). Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into
5040-433: The early 1940s, and many sailing vessels made after 1950 were built using the fiberglass lay-up process . As of 2022, boats continue to be made with fiberglass, though more advanced techniques such as vacuum bag moulding are used in the construction process. Though most bullet-resistant armours are made using different textiles, fiberglass composites have been shown to be effective as ballistic armor. Filament winding
5130-463: The end of July 1949 with export-only deliveries beginning after that. The chairman explained to the shareholders' meeting in December 1950 that Singer made no motor vehicles from March 1940 until after the end of the war and for this reason the SM1500 employed and was built using out-dated pre-war technology. Singer's SM1500 had a pressed-steel body mounted on a separate chassis with at the front
5220-562: The eyes, skin, and the respiratory system. Hence, symptoms can include itchy eyes, skin, nose, sore throat, hoarseness, dyspnea (breathing difficulty) and cough. Peak alveolar deposition was observed in rodents and humans for fibers with diameters of 1 to 2 μm. In animal experiments, adverse lung effects such as lung inflammation and lung fibrosis have occurred, and increased incidences of mesothelioma , pleural sarcoma , and lung carcinoma had been found with intrapleural or intratracheal instillations in rats. As of 2001, in humans only
5310-563: The fiber has an effect on the properties of the final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential or "burst" strength, while lower angle patterns (polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal tensile strength. Products currently being produced using this technique range from pipes, golf clubs, Reverse Osmosis Membrane Housings, oars, bicycle forks, bicycle rims, power and transmission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts. A release agent, usually in either wax or liquid form,
5400-434: The fiber is weak in compression, it is actually only the long aspect ratio of the fiber which makes it seem so; i.e., because a typical fiber is long and narrow, it buckles easily. On the other hand, the glass fiber is weak in shear—that is, across its axis. Therefore, if a collection of fibers can be arranged permanently in a preferred direction within a material, and if they can be prevented from buckling in compression,
5490-415: The fiberglass and the mold. Additional resin is applied and possibly additional sheets of fiberglass. Hand pressure, vacuum or rollers are used to be sure the resin saturates and fully wets all layers, and that any air pockets are removed. The work must be done quickly before the resin starts to cure unless high-temperature resins are used which will not cure until the part is warmed in an oven. In some cases,
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#17328012325025580-420: The final structure to be strong, the fiber's surfaces must be almost entirely free of defects, as this permits the fibers to reach gigapascal tensile strengths . If a bulk piece of glass were defect-free, it would be as strong as glass fibers; however, it is generally impractical to produce and maintain bulk material in a defect-free state outside of laboratory conditions. The process of manufacturing fiberglass
5670-459: The gas content of the material was replaced by plastic. This reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time, the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Many glass fiber composites continued to be called "fiberglass" (as a generic name) and the name was also used for the low-density glass wool product containing gas instead of plastic. Ray Greene of Owens Corning
5760-473: The glass into short lengths and drops it into a jet of resin, projected onto the surface of a mold), or in an intermediary step, to manufacture fabrics such as chopped strand mat (CSM) (made of randomly oriented small cut lengths of fiber all bonded together), woven fabrics, knit fabrics or unidirectional fabrics. Chopped strand mat (CSM) is a form of reinforcement used in fiberglass. It consists of glass fibers laid randomly across each other and held together by
5850-488: The highest selling C-segment cars in Europe were the Volkswagen Golf, Škoda Octavia, Ford Focus, Mercedes A-Class, Toyota Corolla, SEAT León, BMW 1-Series, Audi A3, Citroen C4, Peugeot 308, Renault Mégane, Kia Ceed, Opel Astra, Mercedes-Benz CLA and Volkswagen ID.3. 200,000 – 300,000 sales (Best-Selling) 100,000 – 200,000 sales 50,000 – 100,000 sales Notes: Jump in segment total sales after 2019. year
5940-474: The interior trim used Vynide, "a plastic material". A twin-carb version tested by The Motor magazine in 1952 had a top speed of 76 mph (122 km/h) and could accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 23.5 seconds. A fuel consumption of 22.5 miles per imperial gallon (12.6 L/100 km; 18.7 mpg ‑US ) was recorded. The test car cost £1168 including taxes. A single carb version tested by The Autocar Magazine that same year managed
6030-441: The legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for fiberglass exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total and 5 mg/m in respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 3 fibers/cm (less than 3.5 micrometers in diameter and greater than 10 micrometers in length) as a time-weighted average over an 8-hour workday, and
6120-413: The mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness, the resin is cured; often the mandrel is placed in an oven to achieve this, though sometimes radiant heaters are used with the mandrel still turning in the machine. Once the resin has cured, the mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product. For some products such as gas bottles, the 'mandrel' is a permanent part of the finished product forming
6210-449: The material will be preferentially strong in that direction. Furthermore, by laying multiple layers of fiber on top of one another, with each layer oriented in various preferred directions, the material's overall stiffness and strength can be efficiently controlled. In fiberglass, it is the plastic matrix which permanently constrains the structural glass fibers to directions chosen by the designer. With chopped strand mat, this directionality
6300-586: The more biopersistent materials like ceramic fibres, which are used industrially as insulation in high-temperature environments such as blast furnaces , and certain special-purpose glass wools not used as insulating materials remain classified as possible carcinogens ( IARC Group 2B ). The more commonly used glass fibre wools including insulation glass wool , rock wool and slag wool are considered not classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans ( IARC Group 3 ). In October 2001, all fiberglass wools commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation were reclassified by
6390-399: The name on estate cars / Station Wagons so it is largely forgotten. This hatchback layout was further pioneered along with the European switch to front wheel drive FF layout with the smaller 1964 (Fiat) Autobianchi Primula . The modern C-segment market in Europe can be traced back to the 1968 launch of the Renault 6 , the first successful hatchback of this size. The hatchback bodystyle
6480-410: The overall market. And while Europeans bought more small crossovers than compact cars in the first three quarters of the year, in the full-year score the pecking order is returned to “normal”, with an advantage of 17,000 sales for the compact class. This result is mostly due to a wave of VW ID.3 (self)registrations, especially in December. We expect small crossovers to become Europe’s #2 segment in 2021 by
6570-785: The rear-wheel-drive saloon format of the Mk2 with a hatchback and front-wheel drive. (A saloon version called the Ford Orion was added in 1983.) Only in 1983 was the Austin Allegro replaced by the Austin Maestro hatchback. In 1984, the Vauxhall Astra Mk2 hatchback/estate/cabriolet was released, alongside a saloon version called the Vauxhall Belmont . The first significant Japanese-designed compact car in
6660-697: The reduced sales of 4-door Ford Focus . During the late 1990s, compact MPVs increased in popularity as a competitor to the compact car, with models such as the Renault Scenic and the Citroën C4 Picasso becoming popular in Europe. By the early 2010s, demand for compact MPVs was declining, due to the rise of the compact SUV . After the Second World War, European manufacturers usually featured two vehicle types: small economy cars that were usually saloons and large saloons . By
6750-460: The steering column gear change defeated many. At first, it sold well and was used by some police forces. It became a popular choice for provincial taxis but in the longer term there were fewer and fewer buyers. Full-width bodies became common and the car was over-priced. In 1952 the car was face-lifted with a reworked grille and raised headlamps. Offered only as an optional extra was leather upholstery for slightly less than £39 (UK market). Otherwise
6840-628: The surface with each stroke, all while reducing the load on the pumping unit. Fiberglass rods must be kept in tension, however, as they frequently part if placed in even a small amount of compression. The buoyancy of the rods within a fluid amplifies this tendency. GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems, including those for desalination, water treatment, water distribution networks, chemical process plants, water used for firefighting, hot and cold drinking water, wastewater/sewage, municipal waste and liquified petroleum gas . Fiberglass composite boats have been made since
6930-407: The ugliest saloons of its period". Inside, the car had a bench front seat with folding armrest and was optionally covered in leather. The metal trim was given a wood-grain finish. The car was considered well equipped in 1952, with a "heating and demisting unit" fitted as standard. The SM1500 as well as spacious and stable was sturdy and reliable but all the controls were too heavy for most women and
7020-482: The work is covered with plastic sheets and vacuum is drawn on the work to remove air bubbles and press the fiberglass to the shape of the mold. The fiberglass spray lay-up process is similar to the hand lay-up process but differs in the application of the fiber and resin to the mold. Spray-up is an open-molding composites fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a mold. The resin and glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in
7110-415: The workplace during its fabrication, installation or removal, by breathing it in, by skin contact, or by eye contact. Furthermore, in the manufacturing process of fiberglass, styrene vapors are released while the resins are cured. These are also irritating to mucous membranes and respiratory tract. The general population can get exposed to fibreglass from insulation and building materials or from fibers in
7200-399: The worst film ever made. The car is shown in several rather pointless tracking shots at the beginning of the film, and it may be that this was an early example of product placement. Small family car In 2011, the C-segment had a European market share of 23%. The European segments are not based on size or weight criteria. In practice, C-segment cars have been described as having
7290-495: Was accidentally discovered in 1932 when Games Slayter , a researcher at Owens-Illinois , directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibers. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933. Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented "Fiberglas" (spelled with one "s") in 1936. Originally, Fiberglas
7380-425: Was a glass wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator, especially at high temperatures. A suitable resin for combining the fiberglass with a plastic to produce a composite material was developed in 1936 by DuPont . The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamid 's resin of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin
7470-518: Was almost unique among British volume-produced saloons in featuring an overhead camshaft engine though both Wolseley's postwar cars and the Morris Six MS did also use Wolseley's normal single overhead camshafts. Singer's engine was based on the one used in the Super 12 but with larger bore and shorter stroke, giving a capacity of 1506 cc. From 1951 the stroke was further reduced to give
7560-561: Was also sold as a two-door saloon. It was built in Italy by Innocenti as well as in the UK. For 1965 Innocenti designed a new single-piece rear door for their Combinata version of the Countryman. This top-hinged door used struts to hold it up over a wide cargo opening and was a true hatchback – a model never developed in the home (United Kingdom) market. The Countryman name has 'estate' type associations, and BMC successor company Rover used
7650-416: Was excellent and the engine quiet beneath its plastic bonnet. The steering column gear lever was "rather stiff". A central old-fashioned floor-mounted lever was now available. The car's outstanding feature was its springing, its ride smoother than most cars provide. New models were announced for the October 1955 Earls Court Motor Show, a more basic model, the Hunter S, and a more powerful Hunter 75 which had
7740-540: Was first introduced by Renault with the 1964 Renault 16 , which was elected the 1965 Car of the year in Europe . A review in the English Motoring Illustrated in May 1965 stated: "The Renault Sixteen can thus be described as a large family car but one that is neither a four door saloon and nor is it quite an estate. But, importantly, it is a little different." Even the later similar-sized cars like
7830-463: Was front-wheel-drive, but was built in only saloon and estate body styles. Only the related Austin Maxi was a hatchback. The Hillman Avenger (marketed as a Chrysler Avenger 1976–1979 and as a Talbot Avenger 1979–1981) continued to sell well, in spite of the 1978 launch of the Talbot Horizon front-wheel-drive hatchback. The Ford Escort Mk3 went on sale in the autumn of 1980, replacing
7920-601: Was hugely successful all over Europe. Within a decade, most cars of this size in Europe were front-wheel drive hatchbacks. These included the Fiat Ritmo (Strada in the UK), Ford Escort (from the MK3 model launched in 1980), Opel Kadett ( Vauxhall Astra in the UK), Renault 11 , and the Talbot Horizon (originally a Chrysler / Simca until Peugeot took over Chrysler's European division in 1979). Most manufacturers still offered
8010-506: Was intended for the motorists who are prepared to pay for a rather better finish and more complete equipment than usually available in cars of this size. He remarked that the Singer was unusual in having a completely flat windscreen — less expensive to replace — and a good view through it was spoiled by unusually thick pillars, door surround and ventilator window surround. He put the car's fast cruising speed at 67 mph. Top gear acceleration
8100-443: Was the first type of glass used for fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial Electrical application), is alkali-free and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world, and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "stiff")
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