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89-663: It became an autonomous part of the French protectorate of Tonkin , and thereby of French Indochina , in 1889. In 1948, during the period of the First Indochina War , it was transformed into the Tai Federation ( French : Fédération Thaï ) that was recognized as an autonomous component of the French Union . In 1950 it was made a crown domain of Vietnamese emperor Bảo Đại without being integrated into

178-448: A "common defence" of Indochina. Decoux however resisted stating that this would be a catalyst for an Allied invasion but suggested that Japanese control would be accepted if they actually invaded. This was not enough and Tsuchihashi accused Decoux of playing for time. On 9 March, after more stalling by Decoux, Tsuchihashi delivered an ultimatum for French troops to disarm. Decoux sent a messenger to Matsumoto urging further negotiations but

267-452: A decree that established a budget for the government of Tonkin. Furthermore, the French president also decreed that the budget of Tonkin would be financed through direct tax revenue collected in the territory as opposed to only indirect taxes . This decree also meant that the treasury of the Nguyễn dynasty was abolished and all finances to be directly managed by the French. The resident-superior

356-657: A federation to promote a free Indochina and cooperation with the Japanese. The 11th R.I.C ( régiment d'infanterie coloniale ) based at the Martin de Pallieres barracks in Saigon were surrounded and disarmed after their commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Moreau, was arrested. In Hue there was sporadic fighting; the Garde Indochinoise , who provided security for the résident supérieur , fought for 19 hours against

445-497: A general surrender, the Japanese launched an attack against the town. The French resisted for three days. The Japanese were then reinforced by two regiments from 22nd Division from Lạng Sơn and finally overran the French colonial force. Fifty-three survivors were beheaded or bayoneted to death. In the North West General Gabriel Sabattier's Tonkin division had enough time to be spared an assault by

534-625: A measure which angered French and Vietnamese alike. Many of the tirailleurs were far from their homes and some were captured by the Japanese. Others joined the Viet Minh. The remaining French and Foreign Legion units gradually discarded all of their heavy weapons, motor vehicles and left behind several tons of ammunition without destroying any of it. The division were soon reduced in numbers by disease and missing men as they moved towards Son La and Dien Bien Phu where they fought costly rearguard actions. By this time de Gaulle had been informed of

623-766: A part of the Union of Indochina . In 1945, the emperor Bảo Đại rescinded the Patenôtre Treaty , ending the French protectorates over Annam and Tonkin, creating the Empire of Vietnam , a Japanese puppet state. Following the surrender of Japan , ending World War II , the Việt Minh launched the August Revolution which led to the abolition of the Nguyễn dynasty and the Proclamation of Independence of

712-783: A potential invasion by the Allies. French Indochina comprised the colony of Cochinchina and the protectorates of Annam , Cambodia and Tonkin , and the mixed region of Laos . After the fall of France in June 1940 the French Indochinese government had remained loyal to the Vichy regime , which collaborated with the Axis powers . The following month governor Admiral Jean Decoux signed an agreement under which Japanese forces were permitted to occupy bases across Indochina. In September

801-583: The Colonial Army plus three battalions of the Foreign Legion . A separate force of indigenous gardes indochinois ( gendarmerie ) numbered 27,000. Despite superiority in number, since the fall of France in June 1940 no replacements or supplies had been received from outside Indochina. By March 1945, only about 30,000 French troops could be described as fully combat ready, the remainder serving in garrison or support units. French troops, since

890-473: The French Union . It had its own flag, constitution and parliament. Đèo Văn Long was appointed president for life and Lai Châu was chosen as the capital. The Tai Federation was however not only populated by Tai peoples, but also other " hill tribes " (montagnards) , including Hmong , Yao , Yi (Lolo) and Khmu . They were labeled as "sub-minorities" and treated inferior to the Tais. Đèo Văn Long monopolized all

979-585: The Northern frontier . Japan issued instructions to the government of Thailand to seal off its border with Indochina and to arrest all French and Indochinese residents within its territory. Instead, Thailand began negotiating with the Japanese over their course of action, and by the end of March they hadn't fully complied with the demands. Dōmei Radio (the official Japanese propaganda channel) announced that pro-Japanese independence organizations in Tonkin formed

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1068-609: The Potsdam Conference , stated an intention to hand the region back to French rule, a sharp contrast to Franklin D. Roosevelt 's strong opposition to colonialism and commitment to support the Viet Minh. However, after the Japanese withdrew from Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Ba Đình Square . Hanoi was later reoccupied by the French and conflict between

1157-697: The State of Vietnam . It was dissolved after the Geneva Agreements of 1954. The number Sip Song is Tai language for twelve, as with Thai "twelve" (12, ๑๒, สิบสอง, sip song, Thai pronunciation: [sìp sɔ̌ːŋ] ). A parallel etymology with the number twelve can also be found in the place name Sip Song Panna ( Xishuangbanna ) in China. Chau is land (similar to sino-Vietnamese 州 and not to be confused with similar sounding Thai chau , lord ) and Tai (ไต๋, Chinese 傣 ). Tai peoples have settled in

1246-580: The Trans-Indochinois Railway linking Hanoi to Saigon. Under French economic plans, mines yielding gold, silver, and tin as well as the farming of rice, corn, and tea powered Tonkin's economy. The imports included rice, iron goods, flour, wine, opium and cotton goods. Industrialization later led to the opening of factories producing textiles and ceramics for export throughout the French Empire. French cultural influence on Tonkin

1335-754: The Viet Minh and France broke out into the First Indochina War . As the French sought to establish a coherent government in Vietnam as an alternative to Ho Chi Minh , Tonkin was merged in 1948 into the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam , which was replaced the next year by the State of Vietnam , following the reunification with Cochinchina. After the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in Western Tonkin in 1954,

1424-1106: The toc bieu. Hanoi and Haiphong had municipal councils appointed by the governor-general of Indochina. Each province was headed by "Công sứ" ( 公使 ), a French resident-minister, who was also assisted by a number of different agencies such as the Resident-Minister's Office, the Provincial Council, etc. [REDACTED] Media related to French protectorate of Tonkin at Wikimedia Commons 21°00′00″N 106°00′00″E  /  21.0000°N 106.0000°E  / 21.0000; 106.0000 Japanese coup d%27%C3%A9tat in French Indochina [REDACTED]   Empire of Japan [REDACTED] France [REDACTED] Việt Minh [REDACTED] Khmer Issarak 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Second Sino-Japanese War The Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina , known as Meigō Sakusen ( 明号作戦 , Operation Bright Moon ) ,

1513-496: The "Tai-Meo [i.e. Hmong] Autonomous Region" (Vietnamese: Khu Tự trị Thái-Mèo ), modeled on the national autonomies of communist China . It was renamed the "Northwest Autonomous Region" (Khu Tự trị Tây Bắc) in 1961, in order to not highlight just two of the many ethnic groups in this zone. The autonomy was rescinded after the Vietnamese reunification of 1975. Following Đèo Văn Long's death in 1975, his title and position among

1602-537: The 12 principalities, then 16 ones, were : Following Đèo Văn Trị's death, leadership of the White Tai passed to his third son Đèo Văn Long , passing over the second son. After the Japanese coup of 1945 , Đèo Văn Long fled Lai Chau with retreating French units. On his return, with the assistance of a Eurasian agricultural official named Louis Bordier, Đèo Văn Long was reestablished, and the French agreed to honor

1691-620: The Allies by surrendering Indochina to Japan and that France had no right to return. On 9 March 1946, the French Permanent Military Tribunal in Saigon (FPMTS) also known as the Saigon Trials was set up to investigate conventional war crimes ("Class B") and crimes against humanity ("Class C") committed by the Japanese forces after the 9 March 1945 coup d'état. The FPMTS examined war crimes committed between 9 March 1945 and 15 August 1945. The FPMTS tried

1780-575: The Americans flew thirty-four bombing, strafing and reconnaissance missions over the North of Indochina but they had little effect in stemming the Japanese advance. By mid April Alessandri, having realised he was on his own, split his force into two. Soon a combination of disease, ration shortages and low morale forced him into a difficult decision. With reluctance he disarmed and disbanded his locally recruited colonial troops, leaving them to their fate in

1869-628: The Americans. During the South China Sea raid in January 1945 American carriers' aircraft sank twenty-four vessels and damaged another thirteen. Six U.S. navy pilots were shot down but were picked up by French military authorities and housed in the central prison of Saigon for safe keeping. The French refused to give the Americans up and when the Japanese prepared to storm the prison the men were smuggled out. The Japanese demanded their surrender but Decoux refused and General Yuitsu Tsuchihashi,

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1958-532: The Communist state of North Vietnam was formed, consisting of Tonkin and northern Annam. Tonkin was a component of French Indochina. It was a de facto French colony despite being a protectorate on paper. The British Naval Intelligence Division wrote during World War II that "at first the native political organization was maintained, but in 1897 the office of the viceroy, representing the king of Annam in Tonkin,

2047-551: The Democratic Republic of Vietnam . Tonkin was briefly occupied by the Chinese National Army before being returned to France. After eliminating virtually all nationalist oppositions, the communist-led Việt Minh clashed with the French over control of the territory. In 1948, Tonkin and Annam were officially merged under the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam . The French legally maintained

2136-488: The French and the Japanese (although US bombing played a part). They established their bases in the countryside without meeting much resistance from the Japanese who were mostly present in the cities. Viet Minh numbers increased especially after they ransacked between 75 and 100 warehouses, dispersed the rice and refused to pay taxes. In July OSS with the Viet Minh—some of whom were remnants of Sabattiers division—went over

2225-590: The French in the Northern Frontier in general saw the heaviest fighting. One of the first places they needed to take and where they amassed the 22nd division was at Lang Son , a strategic fort near the Chinese border. The defences of Lạng Sơn consisted of a series of fort complexes built by the French to defend against a Chinese invasion. The main fortress was the Fort Brière de l'Isle . Inside

2314-581: The French protectorate of Tonkin —and therefore French Indochina —after 1888. This was arranged by the French explorer and colonial representative Auguste Pavie who signed a treaty with Đèo Văn Trị , the White Tai lord of Muang Lay ( Lai Châu ) on 7 April 1889. Thereby the Sip Song Chau Tai accepted the French overlordship, while the colonial power promised to respect the positions of the Tai lords and their autonomy in internal affairs. At that time

2403-532: The French separated Tonkin from the Nguyễn imperial court in Huế by establishing the office of "Viceroy" ( 經略衙 , Kinh lược nha ). However, on 26 July 1897, the position of Viceroy was abolished, officially making the French resident-superior of Tonkin both the representative of the French colonial administration and the Nguyễn dynasty court in Huế, giving him the power to appoint local mandarins . In 1887, Tonkin became

2492-479: The French. They also lacked precise orders and communications from the provisional government as well as the practical means to mount any large-scale operations. In northern Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh 's Viet Minh started their own guerilla campaign with the help of the American OSS who trained and supplied them with arms and funds. The famine in Vietnam had caused resentment among the population both towards

2581-672: The French; the liberation of Paris in August 1944 raised further doubts as to where the loyalties of the colonial administration lay. The Vichy regime by this time had ceased to exist, but its colonial administration was still in place in Indochina, though Decoux had recognized and contacted the Provisional Government of the French Republic led by Charles de Gaulle . Decoux got a cold response from de Gaulle and

2670-698: The Guangxi 62nd army corps and the Red River region and Lai Cai were occupied by a column from Yunnan . Lu Han occupied the French governor general's palace after ejecting the French staff under Sainteny. Ho Chi Minh sent a cable on 17 October 1945 to American President Harry S. Truman calling on him, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Premier Stalin and Premier Attlee to go to the United Nations against France and demand France not be allowed to return to occupy Vietnam, accusing France of having sold out and cheated

2759-690: The Indochina Peninsula strengthened. During the Sino-French War (1884–85), the northernmost part of Vietnam, Tonkin (then considered a crucial foothold in Southeast Asia and a key to the Chinese market), was invaded by the French . After the Treaty of Tientsin , all of Vietnam was governed by the French. During the French colonial administration, Vietnam was administratively divided into three different territories: Tonkin (in

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2848-526: The Japanese Kempeitai swiftly uncovered the plot against them and discussed the next move against the French. British intelligence—mission Force 136 —air-dropped several Free French operatives into Indochina in late 1944. They provided detailed information on targets, mostly related to ship movements, along the coast to British headquarters in India and China, who in turn transmitted them to

2937-551: The Japanese and were able to retreat northwest from their base in Hanoi, hoping to reach the Chinese border. However they were soon harried by the Japanese air force and artillery fire, being forced to abandon all their heavy equipment as they crossed the Red River . Sabattier then found that the Japanese had blocked the most important border crossings at Lao Cai and Ha Giang during the reductions of Lang Son and Dang Dong. Contact

3026-425: The Japanese before their barracks was overrun and destroyed. Three hundred men, one third of them French, managed to elude the Japanese and escape to the A Sầu Valley . However, over the next three days, they succumbed to hunger, disease and betrayals - many surrendered while others fought their way into Laos where only a handful survived. Meanwhile, Mordant led opposition by the garrison of Hanoi for several hours but

3115-408: The Japanese bombarded Fort Brière de l'Isle , attacking with infantry and tanks. The small forts outside had to defend themselves in isolation; they did so for a time, proving impenetrable, and the Japanese were repelled with some loss. They tried again the next day and succeeded in taking the outer positions. Finally, the main fortress of Brière de l'Isle was overrun after heavy fighting. Lemonnier

3204-409: The Japanese commander, decided to act. Tsuchihashi could no longer trust Decoux to control his subordinates and asked for orders from Tokyo . The Japanese High Command were reluctant for another front to be opened up in an already poor situation. Nevertheless, they ordered Tsuchihashi to offer Decoux an ultimatum and if this was rejected then at his discretion a coup would be authorised. With this coup

3293-947: The Japanese diplomatic mission in Indochina and later advisor to Bao Dai Bảo Đại complied in Vietnam where they set up a puppet government headed by Tran Trong Kim and which collaborated with the Japanese. King Norodom Sihanouk also obeyed, but the Japanese did not trust the Francophile monarch. Nationalist leader Son Ngoc Thanh , who had been exiled in Japan and was considered a more trustworthy ally than Sihanouk, returned to Cambodia and became Minister of foreign affairs in May and then Prime Minister in August. In Laos however, King Sisavang Vong of Luang Phrabang, who favoured French rule, refused to declare independence, finding himself at odds with his Prime Minister, Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa , but eventually acceded on 8 April. On 15 May with

3382-565: The Japanese occupation. On 11 September British and Indian troops of the 20th Indian Division under Major General Douglas Gracey arrived at Saigon as part of Operation Masterdom . After the Japanese surrender all French prisoners had been gathered on the outskirts of Saigon and Hanoi and the sentries disappeared altogether on 18 September. The six months spent in captivity cost an additional 1,500 lives. By 22 September 1945, all prisoners were liberated by Gracey's men and were then armed and dispatched in combat units towards Saigon to conquer it from

3471-476: The Japanese planned to overthrow the colonial administration and intern or destroy the French army in Indochina. Several friendly puppet governments would then be established and win the support of the indigenous populations. In early 1945, the French Indochina army still outnumbered the Japanese in the colony and comprised about 65,000 men, of whom 48,500 were locally recruited Tirailleurs indochinois under French officers. The remainder were French regulars of

3560-502: The Japanese. Losing only three killed and seventeen wounded they inflicted 143 killed and another 205 wounded on the Japanese before they too were overcome. A much larger force of Japanese came the next day but they found the garrison empty. In Annam and Cochinchina only token resistance was offered and most garrisons, small as they were, surrendered. Further north the French had the sympathy of many indigenous peoples. Several hundred Laotians volunteered to be armed as guerrillas against

3649-525: The Japanese; French officers organized them into detachments but turned away those they did not have weapons for. In Haiphong the Japanese assaulted the Bouet barracks: headquarters of Colonel Henry Lapierre's 1st Tonkin Brigade. Using heavy mortar and machine gun fire, one position was taken after another before the barracks fell and Lapierre ordered a ceasefire. Lapierre refused to sign surrender messages for

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3738-579: The Kempeitai prison in bamboo cages and were tortured and cruelly interrogated. The locally recruited tirailleurs and gardes indochinois who had made up the majority of the French military and police forces, effectively ceased to exist. About a thousand were killed in the fighting or executed after surrender. Some joined pro-Japanese militias or Vietnamese nationalist guerrillas. Deprived of their French cadres, many dispersed to their villages of origin. Over three thousand reached Chinese territory as part of

3827-534: The Lao, Thai, Shan and other Tai peoples, who later spread to the territories of modern Laos, Thailand, Burma, northeast India and the south of China's Yunnan province. Like in other Tai societies, the core social units of the Tai Dam, Tai Dón and Tai Daeng were the village (ban) and the chiefdom ( mueang , Vietnamese mường ), each consisting of several villages and ruled by a feudal lord (chao) . Their base of life

3916-508: The Nguyễn emperor Đồng Khánh delegated all of his powers in Tonkin to a Kinh lược sứ ( 經略使 , equivalent of Viceroy ), who acted under French supervision. On May 9, 1889, the Résidence supérieure of Annam-Tonkin was abolished, with Annam and Tonkin being separated in two Résidences supérieures, each subordinated to the governor-general of French Indochina . On July 26, 1897, Governor-General Paul Doumer had Emperor Thành Thái abolish

4005-531: The North and the United Party in the South. This, however, allowed nationalist groups to take over public buildings in most of the major cities. The Viet Minh were thus presented with a power vacuum, and on the 19th the August Revolution commenced. On 25 August, Bảo Đại was forced to abdicate in favour of Ho and the Viet Minh - they took control of Hanoi and most of French Indochina. The Japanese did not oppose

4094-529: The US Fourteenth Air Force flying in support of the French, mistook a column of Tonkinese prisoners for Japanese and bombed and strafed them. Reportedly between 400 and 600 of the prisoners were killed or wounded. On the 12th the Japanese then advanced further north to the border town of Dong Dang where a company of the 3rd Regiment of Tonkinese Rifles and a battery of colonial artillery were based. Following Lemonnier's refusal to order

4183-470: The Vichy regime which had formerly collaborated with the Japanese. Both countries ordered that their forces provide no assistance to the French, but American general Claire Lee Chennault went against orders, and aircraft from his 51st Fighter Group and 27th Troop Carrier Squadron flew support missions as well as dropping medical supplies for Sabattier's forces retreating into China. Between 12 and 28 March,

4272-545: The Viet Minh's takeover as they were reluctant to let the French retake control of their colony. Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam's independence on 2 September 1945. Charles de Gaulle in Paris criticized the United States, United Kingdom and China for not helping the French in Indochina during the coup. De Gaulle however affirmed that France would regain control of Indochina. French Indochina had been left in chaos by

4361-635: The Vietminh. They were later joined by the French Far East Expeditionary Corps (which had been established to fight the Japanese), having arrived a few weeks later. Around the same time General Lu Han's 200,000 Chinese National Revolutionary troops occupied Indochina north of the 16th parallel. 90,000 arrived by October, the 62nd army came on 26 September to Nam Dinh and Haiphong. Lang Son and Cao Bang were occupied by

4450-406: The border to conduct operations. Their actions were limited to a few attacks against Japanese military posts. Most of these were unsuccessful however as the Viet Minh lacked the military force to launch any kind of attack against the Japanese. Japan surrendered when Emperor Hirohito announced the capitulation on 16 August. Soon after Japanese garrisons officially handed control to Bảo Đại in

4539-405: The chambers of agriculture and commerce, assisted the resident in performing his duties. There was also an advisory council made up of Vietnamese. On 31 July 1898 the president of France , Félix Faure , issued a decree that established a central bank for the entirety of French Indochina and that this bank would set the federal French Indochinese budget, on the same day the French president issued

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4628-410: The collapse of their authority in Indochina, were exclusively used by the Japanese to suppress insurgencies by various nationalist movements in Vietnam, mainly the Việt Minh ; the French had already developed a reputation of repressive behaviour toward the native population, which hindered any opportunity to recruit local support. At the beginning of 1945, the understrength Japanese Thirty-Eighth Army

4717-490: The colony. The French were caught off guard and all of the garrisons were overrun, with some then having to escape to Nationalist China , where they were harshly interned . The Japanese replaced French officials, and effectively dismantled their control of Indochina. The Japanese were then able to install and create a new Empire of Vietnam , Kingdom of Kampuchea and Kingdom of Luang Phrabang which under their direction would acquiesce with their military presence and forestall

4806-784: The coup complete and the nominally independent states set up, General Tsuchihashi declared mopping up operations complete and released several brigades to other fronts. The coup had, in the words of diplomat Jean Sainteny , "wrecked a colonial enterprise that had been in existence for 80 years." French losses were heavy. 15,000 French soldiers in total were held prisoner by the Japanese. Nearly 4,200 were killed with many executed after surrendering - about half of these were European or French metropolitan troops. Practically all French civil and military leaders as well as plantation owners were made prisoners, including Decoux. They were confined either in specific districts of big cities or in camps. Those who were suspected of armed resistance were jailed in

4895-579: The coup the Japanese urged the declarations of independence from the traditional rulers of the different regions, resulting in the creation of the Empire of Vietnam , the independence of the Kingdom of Kampuchea , and the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang under the Japanese direction. On 11 March 1945, Emperor Bảo Đại was permitted to announce the Vietnamese "independence"; this declaration had been prepared by Yokoyama Seiko , Minister for Economic Affairs of

4984-401: The exile community of the "Pays Taï" passed to his daughter Deo Nang Toï , who has lived in Paris until her death in 2008. Tonkin (French protectorate) Tonkin ( chữ Hán : 東京 ), or Bắc Kỳ ( 北圻 ), was a French protectorate encompassing modern Northern Vietnam . Like the French protectorate of Annam , Tonkin was still nominally ruled by the Nguyễn dynasty , but in 1886,

5073-406: The intersection of several larger mandalas (circles of influence): At different times, it had to pay tribute to China, Vietnam, Lan Xang / Luang Phrabang (in today's Laos) and/or Siam (Thailand). Nevertheless, the Tai chiefdoms always maintained their autonomy in internal affairs. Even though the upland Tai had stronger ethnic and cultural ties to Laos, Sip Song Chau Tai was incorporated into

5162-408: The lowland Vietnamese and their wish to retain the autonomy they enjoyed under the French. In 1948, the French colonial administration declared the Tai Federation ( French : Fédération Thaï , native name: Phen Din Tai , Vietnamese : Khu tự trị Thái ; by that time consisting of 19 Tai states in then three Vietnamese provinces of Lai Châu, Sơn La and Phong Thổ) to be an independent component of

5251-420: The main French garrison towns throughout Indochina, linked by radio to the Southern area headquarters. French officers and civilian officials were however forewarned of an attack through troop movements, and some garrisons were put on alert. The Japanese envoy in Saigon Ambassador Shunichi Matsumoto declared to Decoux that since an Allied landing in Indochina was inevitable, Tokyo command wished to put into place

5340-423: The message arrived at the wrong building. Tsuchihashi, assuming that Decoux had rejected the ultimatum, immediately ordered commencement of the coup. That evening Japanese forces moved against the French in every center. In some instances French troops and the Garde Indochinoise were able to resist attempts to disarm them, with the result that fighting took place in Saigon, Hanoi , Haiphong and Nha Trang and

5429-443: The north), Annam (in the centre), and the colony of Cochinchina (in the south). These territories were fairly arbitrary in their geographic extent as the vast majority of the Vietnamese regarded their country as a single land and minor resistance to French rule continued over the next 70 years to achieve an independent state. Annam and Tonkin were originally a single entity, the Résidence supérieure of Annam-Tonkin. On June 3, 1886,

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5518-410: The northwestern parts of what now is Vietnam since the early first millennium CE or, at the latest, the fifth to eighth century. They mainly settled along the Black River (Sông Đà) . One Black Tai chiefdom—located at the place today known as Điện Biên Phủ —was named Muang Thaeng , just like the legendary kingdom of Khun Borom , protagonist of a Tai creation myth and believed to be the progenitor of

5607-435: The others, but each of them maintained the power over his chiefdom. The alliance has been formalized since at least the 17th century, but the chiefdoms never merged into one homogenous state. The number of mueangs belonging to the confederation altered during the course of time, but the number "twelve" was kept in the name for symbolic reasons. In premodern Southeast Asia's complex political geography, Sip Song Chau Tai lay at

5696-405: The post of Kinh lược sứ . Also, the Nguyễn dynasty still nominally reigned over Tonkin; it was now de facto under direct French rule. During French rule, Hanoi was made capital of Tonkin and, in 1901, of the whole French Indochina . Cities in Tonkin saw significant infrastructure and economic development under the French, such as the development of the port of Haiphong and construction of

5785-418: The prisoners and either beheaded or bayoneted the wounded survivors. The battle of Lạng Sơn cost the French heavy casualties and their force on the border was effectively destroyed. European losses were 544 killed, of which 387 had been executed after capture. In addition 1,832 Tonkinese colonial troops were killed (including 103 who were executed) while another 1,000 were taken prisoner. On 12 March planes of

5874-447: The protectorate until they formally signed over sovereignty to the Bảo Đại and the State of Vietnam in 1950 after signing the Élysée Accords in 1949. After helping to unify Vietnam under the Nguyen dynasty , the French Navy began its heavy presence in the Mekong Delta and later colonised the southern third of Vietnam including Saigon in 1867. Central Vietnam later became the French protectorate of Annam and French influence in

5963-423: The protectorate was in the hands of the resident-superior with both the monarch and the local high officials playing a subordinate role to his office. Tonkin was administered by a French resident similar to those in Annam, Laos, and Cambodia, but he had much greater authority because of the absence of any indigenous administration. A conseil du protectorat composed of important officials and representatives from

6052-475: The remaining garrisons in the area. Codebooks had also been burnt which meant the Japanese then had to deal with the other garrisons by force. In Laos, Vientiane , Thakhek and Luang Prabang were taken by the Japanese without much resistance. In Cambodia the Japanese with 8,000 men seized Phnom Penh and all major towns in the same manner. All French personnel in the cities on both regions were either interned or in some cases executed. The Japanese strikes at

6141-416: The retreating French columns. What was left of the French forces that had escaped the Japanese attempted to join the resistance groups where they had more latitude for action in Laos. The Japanese there had less control over this part of the territory and with Lao guerilla groups managed to gain control of several rural areas. Elsewhere the resistance failed to materialize as the Vietnamese refused to help

6230-438: The same year Japanese troops invaded and took control of Northern Indochina, and then in July 1941 they occupied the Southern half as well. The Japanese allowed Vichy French troops and the administration to continue on albeit as puppets . By 1944 with the war going against the Japanese after defeats in Burma and the Philippines they then feared an Allied offensive in French Indochina. The Japanese were already suspicious of

6319-512: The situation in Indochina and then swiftly told Sabattier via radio orders to maintain a presence in Indochina for the sake of France's pride at all costs. By 6 May however many of the remaining members of the Tonkin Division were over the Chinese border where they were interned under harsh conditions. Between 9 March and 2 May the Tonkin division had suffered heavily; many had died or were invalided by disease. In combat 774 had been killed and 283 wounded with another 303 missing or captured. During

6408-706: The state power in his person and family, as well as the opium trade (which was tolerated by the French). In 1950, the Tai Federation was made a crown domain of the French-installed Vietnamese emperor Bảo Đại , but not an integrated part of the State of Vietnam. Bảo Đại refrained from delegating a governor to Lai Châu, but rather left the power in the hands of Đèo Văn Long and the Tai lords. The emperor visited his domain only once, in 1952. Many of

6497-543: The subjugated groups supported the Viet Minh on their advance to the Northwest starting in 1952. There were also rising tensions between the different Tai groups and their lords. Đèo Văn Long had simply dismissed the Black Tai lord of Muang Thaeng (Dien Bien Phu), Lò Văn Hặc, and replaced him by his own son. The disempowered chief and many members of his tribe joined forces with the Viet Minh to both seek retaliation against

6586-447: The terms of Pavie's 1889 agreement with Long's father. Bordier married Long's daughter and as his son-in-law proceeded to direct military operations of the White Tai against the Black Tai at Son La who supported the Viet Minh. Several Tai companies fought alongside the French in the First Indochina War , against both the communist Viet Minh and the nationalist Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD), probably motivated by their distrust vis-à-vis

6675-528: The whole of North Vietnam to the communist-led Democratic Republic (DRV) and dissolved the autonomous Tai Federation, marking the end of the centuries-old rule of the feudal lords. Thousands of Tais left their native land and emigrated to France, Australia and the United States (mainly settling in Iowa ). In order to avoid ethnic tensions, the DRV designated its northwestern provinces of Lai Châu, Sơn La and Nghĩa Lộ as

6764-624: The Đèo family and to dislodge the dominance of the White Tai. Following the death of Đèo Văn Long's oldest son, his third son Deo Van Un took command of 4,000 White Tai partisans, but was killed at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu of March to May 1954. This was a decisive battle of the First Indochina War and sealed the defeat of the French. Đèo Văn Long was evacuated by helicopter to Hanoi, then departed to Laos and finally went into exile in France. The Geneva Agreements of July 1954 awarded

6853-402: Was wet rice cultivation , which is why the Tai settled in valleys alongside the course of rivers. A number (first 12 - then 16) of these mueang , situated in the modern-day provinces of Điện Biên , Lai Châu , Sơn La as well as western parts of Lào Cai and Yên Bái grouped together and formed a long-term alliance, called Sip Song Chau Tai. Usually one of the lords was considered senior to

6942-408: Was a Japanese operation that took place on 9 March 1945, towards the end of World War II . With Japanese forces losing the war and the threat of an Allied invasion of Indochina imminent, the Japanese were concerned about an uprising against them by French colonial forces. Despite the French having anticipated an attack, the Japanese struck in a military campaign attacking garrisons all over

7031-613: Was a French garrison of nearly 4,000 men, many of them Tonkinese, with units of the French Foreign Legion. Once the Japanese had cut off all communications to the forts they invited General Émile Lemonnier , the commander of the border region, to a banquet at the headquarters of the 22nd division of the Imperial Japanese Army . Lemonnier declined to attend the event, but allowed some of his staff to go in his place. They were taken prisoner and soon after

7120-498: Was abolished, and since then other changes have further weakened the influence of the native government." Formally the four protectorates of French Indochina were ruled by their respective monarchs, but in fact the protectorates were all under the close control of the French senior residents. As the governor-general of French Indochina Pierre Pasquier stated: "The King reigns but the Resident superior rules." The effective power in

7209-623: Was allowed during Japanese occupation as a puppet government, Japan briefly took full control of Vietnam in March 1945 under the Empire of Vietnam and Tonkin became the site of the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 during this period. At the end of the war, the north of Vietnam (including Tonkin) saw a sphere of influence by China while the south was briefly occupied by the British for French forces to regroup and regain control. Harry Truman at

7298-644: Was also significant as French became the primary language of education, government, trade and media and heavy Catholic missionary activity resulted in almost 10% of the population identifying as Catholic by the 1940s. Prominent buildings in Hanoi were also constructed during the period of French rule, such as the Hanoi Opera House and the Hanoi University of Technology . French colonial administration lasted until March 9, 1945, during Japanese occupation (1941–1945). Although French administration

7387-659: Was assisted by various agencies such as the Tokin Protectorate Council, the Tokin Chamber of Commerce, the Tonkin Chamber of Agriculture, and the House of People's Representatives. Despite its name the House of People's Representatives was not democratically elected but was composed of appointed Vietnamese elites and it only discussed issues related to taxation rather than legislation. Tonkin

7476-418: Was composed of 30,000 troops, a force that was substantially increased by 25,000 reinforcements brought in from China, Thailand , and Burma in the following months. Despite an initial disparity in numbers, the disciplined, well-equipped and battle-hardened Japanese troops enjoyed local superiority over their French counterparts even prior to the coup. In early March 1945 Japanese forces were redeployed around

7565-464: Was forced to capitulate, with 292 dead on the French side and 212 Japanese. An attempt to disarm a Vietnamese garrison ended badly for the Japanese when 600 of them marched into Quảng Ngãi . The Vietnamese nationalists had been armed with automatic weapons supplied by the OSS parachuted nearby at Kontum . The Japanese had been led to believe that these men would readily defect but the Vietnamese ambushed

7654-456: Was made up of 23 provinces, subdivided into phu or huyen, cantons, and communes. Local administration was in the hands of Vietnamese mandarins, although they were appointed by the resident rather than the emperor as in Annam. The smallest unit of administration, the commune, was overseen by two councils: the toc bieu, and the mandarin-dominated ky muc with the authority to veto decisions of

7743-517: Was stripped of his powers as governor general but was ordered to maintain his post with orders to deceive the Japanese. Instead Decoux's army commander General Eugène Mordant secretly became the Provisional Government's delegate and the head of all resistance and underground activities in Indochina. Mordant however was careless – he was too talkative and had an inability to keep his preparations secret, so much so that

7832-507: Was subsequently taken prisoner himself and ordered by a Japanese general to sign a document formally surrendering the forces under his command. Lemonnier refused to sign the documents. As a result, the Japanese took him outside where they forced him to dig a grave along with French Resident -superior ( Résident-général ) Camille Auphelle . Lemonnier again was ordered to sign the surrender documents and again refused. The Japanese subsequently beheaded him. The Japanese then machine-gunned some of

7921-429: Was then lost with Major-General Marcel Alessandri 's 2nd Tonkin Brigade, numbering some 5,700 French and colonial troops. This column included three Foreign Legion battalions of the 5ème Étranger . Their only option was to fight their own way to China. The United States and China were reluctant to start a large-scale operation to restore French authority, as they did not favour colonial rule, and had little sympathy for

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