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66-653: The name is the French form of the Ottoman Turkish word sipahi , a word derived from New Persian sepâh , سپاه meaning "army", or "horsemen"; or from sipari , meaning "warriors". Following the French occupation of Algiers in 1830, detachments of locally recruited irregular horsemen were attached to the regiments of light cavalry assigned to North African service. These auxiliaries were designated as chasseurs spahis . Between 1834 and 1836 they were organised into four squadrons of regular spahis. In 1841

132-425: A [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as

198-542: A decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish ,

264-508: A dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with

330-676: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

396-615: A few Renault FTs ) and a similar number of armoured cars. In the course of World War II the process of mechanisation was completed. The 3 and 5 RCA were equipped with M4 Sherman and M5 light tanks . The 5 RCA notably landed in Provence in August 1944, and was one of the first units to be fully operational for combat. It was engaged in several battles during the taking of Toulon , in the Rhone valley, through Burgundy , Alsace , and in

462-540: A red cloak (blue cloak for the Moroccan Spahis). French officers wore light blue kepis , red tunics with gold rank braiding and light blue breeches with double red stripes. Muslim officers wore a more elaborate version of the tenue orientale of the Arab and Berber troopers. French Spahis were distinguished by wearing a fez instead of a white Arab turban with its brown camel-hair cord . A less obvious distinction

528-488: A red sash and red breeches. Their normal headdress was the taconnet —a light blue and red shako , similar in shape to that worn by the equivalent light cavalry regiments ( hussars and chasseurs à cheval ) of the metropolitan army, but worn with a white or light khaki cover. Prior to 1873 the casquette d'Afrique had been worn. The traditional fez and sash were worn off duty or when in barracks until World War II. The light blue tunics had yellow facings and reportedly earned

594-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

660-406: A slightly modified version of this parade uniform, with a plain white turban, until they were disbanded in 1962. The modern 1er Spahis still wear the traditional white burnous and red sash, together with the blue cloaks of the former Moroccan regiments, for full dress. The long-skirted sand-khaki gandourah coat adopted in 1915, appears on occasion as part of the modern ceremonial uniform. Headdress

726-427: A standalone for 3rd person. Generally, the verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in

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792-802: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Chasseurs d%27Afrique The Chasseurs d'Afrique were a light cavalry corps of chasseurs in the French Armée d'Afrique (Army of Africa). First raised in 1831 from regular French cavalry posted to Algeria , they numbered five regiments by World War II . For most of their history they were recruited from either French volunteers or French settlers in North Africa doing their military service. As such they were

858-435: A variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with the letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows

924-404: A very striking Zouave style uniform. It comprised a high Arab headdress , a short red jacket embroidered in black, sky blue waist coat ( sedria ) a wide red sash and voluminous light blue trousers (white in hot weather). The four regiments were distinguished by the differing colours of their tombeaus (circular false pockets on the front of the jacket). A white burnous was worn together with

990-409: Is compound verbs. This consists of adding a Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into

1056-607: Is either a scarlet forage cap or the standard light blue and red kepi of the French cavalry. Exceptionally for a French armoured cavalry regiment, it uses gold (and not the usual silver) insignia. The "Ordonnance du Roi portant organisation de la cavalerie indigène en Algerie" of 7 December 1841 establishing the Spahis as a regular corps of the French Army specifies this distinction for sous-officers , brigadiers and officers both French and indigenous. In 1914 spahi armament

1122-466: Is one of the mechanised units of the French Army . Now stationed at Canjuers , it is divided into one instruction squadron and three combat squadrons and is equipped with approximately 45 armoured vehicles . Two other training centers also have names associated with the 3rd and 12th Regiments. Serving units today: The Chasseurs d'Afrique were until 1914 clothed in light blue tunics tucked into

1188-524: Is the basis of the modern standard. The Tanzimât era (1839–1876) saw the application of the term "Ottoman" when referring to the language ( لسان عثمانی lisân-ı Osmânî or عثمانلیجه Osmanlıca ); Modern Turkish uses the same terms when referring to the language of that era ( Osmanlıca and Osmanlı Türkçesi ). More generically, the Turkish language was called تركچه Türkçe or تركی Türkî "Turkish". Historically, Ottoman Turkish

1254-434: The chasseurs à cheval , other metropolitan cavalry regiments and some infantry units. Initially about 40 members of each squadron were locally recruited indigenous horsemen. Two additional regiments were created in 1832 and 1833 respectively, while the Arab and Berber troopers were transferred to the newly organised Spahis in 1836. In addition to numerous campaigns in North Africa , these colorful regiments also served in

1320-604: The Algerian War of 1954-62. The 9th Algerian Spahis remained a mounted regiment throughout the Algerian War, suffering 24 deaths in the course of active service. Except for one mounted platoon per squadron and the regimental fanfare (trumpeters) the unit was finally mechanized in 1961 and its several hundred horses either sold in Algeria or shipped back to France. The 6th Spahis had been disbanded in 1956, followed by

1386-661: The Army of the Loire . A serious uprising against French rule in Algeria during 1871–72 was sparked off by a mutiny of the 5th squadron of the 3rd Spahis, who had been ordered to France to reinforce those units already there. Under the Third Republic, between 1871 and 1914 Spahi units saw active service in Indochina, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal and Madagascar. While a visually conspicuous presence in any French military force,

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1452-546: The Black Forest . The regiment earned the Rhine and Danube badge. The dissolution dates for the individual regiments were: Algerian independence brought an end to the corps through a series of disbandments and transfers between 1962 and 1964, after over a century of service. However one regiment ( fr:1er régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique ) was re-established in 1998 to preserve the force's traditions. The modern regiment

1518-596: The Crimean War , Second Italian War of Independence , Franco-Prussian War , Indochina , France's invasion of Mexico , Dahomey (1892), Madagascar (1895) and both world wars . The 1st and 4th Regiments of Chass. d'Af. distinguished themselves by securing the flank of Lord Cardigan during the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade . On this and other occasions they used their characteristic African tactic of advancing rapidly in open order, in contrast to

1584-629: The Western Front . In addition a detached squadron accompanied two squadrons of Chasseurs d'Afrique and served as part of the 5th Light Horse Brigade during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign against the Ottoman Empire . This composite force of French cavalry was known as the 1er Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie de Levant . In 1918 a "marching regiment" of Moroccan spahis ( Régiment de Marche des Spahis Marocains ) saw active service in

1650-592: The list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish

1716-755: The 1 and 4 RCA ended the war in the Middle East fighting against the Turks as part of the 5th Light Horse Brigade , while the 5 RCA detached squadrons to serve in the Balkans. In 1933 the regiments de chasseurs d'Afrique (RCA) began the process of conversion to mechanised units. The first vehicles adopted were White TBC armoured cars, followed by White-Laffly 50 AMs. Both models were obsolete for European warfare but suitable for colonial campaigning. Other vehicles were provided for individual squadrons and in 1939 Hotchkiss H35 and H39 light tanks were received by

1782-723: The 14 squadrons by then in existence were brought together in a single corps of spahis. Finally, in 1845 three separate Spahi regiments were created: the 1st of Algiers; the 2nd of Oran and the 3rd of Constantine. The spahi regiments saw extensive service in the French conquest of Algeria , in the Franco-Prussian War , in Tonkin towards the end of the Sino-French War (1885), in the occupation of Morocco and Syria , and in both World Wars. A detachment of Spahis served as

1848-514: The 1930s of the Chasseurs d'Afrique and Foreign Legion cavalry, the Spahis remained an entirely mounted force until after 1942. In 1939 the Spahis comprised three independent brigades , each of two regiments and still horse mounted. Each regiment was made up of four sabre squadrons with five officers and 172 troopers in each. Three regiments saw active service in France in 1940. Hermann Balck

1914-402: The 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example,

1980-589: The 1er RCA. On the outbreak of World War II (September 1939) regiments of chasseurs d'Afrique were deployed as follows: Only the 1 and 4 RCA were fully mechanised at this date, the other regiments comprising a mix of mounted and mechanised squadrons . In 1941, 6 and 7 RCA were created in the Levant, that is in Syria and Lebanon. Both were involved in heavy fighting against Allied forces in 1941 Operation Exporter , equipped with 90 tanks (mostly Renault R-35 with

2046-506: The 9th in 1961. Following the end of the Algerian War in 1962, the 2nd, 3rd 4th and 8th Spahis were also disbanded leaving only one, formerly Moroccan, regiment in existence as the 1st Spahis. Today, the French Army retains one Spahi regiment, the 1 Régiment de Spahis Marocains ; an armoured unit which saw service in the Gulf War . The regiment also maintains the traditions of the entire Spahi corps as it previously existed. Until 1984,

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2112-869: The Balkans, winning the collective distinction of the Médaille militaire . By 1921 the Spahi regiments had been increased to twelve (from four in 1914) and this became the permanent establishment. During the 1920s mounted Spahi regiments saw extensive active service in the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon , as well as in Morocco. They continued to perform policing and garrison duties in Algeria and Tunisia, as well as providing detachments based in Metropolitan France. Although mechanisation began in

2178-545: The Chasseurs d'Afrique the nickname of "Blue Butchers" amongst some of their opponents. From 1915, as was the case with other units of the Armée d'Afrique , a more practical khaki uniform was adopted for service. The khaki uniforms worn by the Chasseurs d'Afrique from 1915 onwards were distinguished by dark blue collar patches with yellow braiding and regimental numbers. The modern armoured regiment had by 2014 reintroduced

2244-735: The French spahis prior to 1962 and wear red and green uniforms with white burnouses, which broadly resemble those of their predecessors. A similar ceremonial mounted unit is maintained as part of the Tunisian President's Bodyguard. Descended from the 4th Tunisian Spahis Regiment the modern unit retains the uniform of the French period but in the red and white of the Tunisian national colours. ` The Italian colonial administration of Libya raised squadrons of locally-recruited Spahi cavalry between 1912 and 1942. The Italian Spahis differed from their French namesakes in that their prime role

2310-464: The North African tirailleur (infantry) units the mounted spahis were drawn from "the big tents": i.e. the higher social classes of the Arab and Berber communities. This dated back to the establishment of the corps when Colonel Marey-Monge  [ fr ] required that each recruit provide his own horse. As Spahi units were mechanized during World War II, the proportion of Frenchmen in

2376-543: The Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools,

2442-538: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

2508-750: The Regiment was located in Speyer , West Germany . Their former base there is now the Technikmuseum Speyer . The 1 Spahis are currently based in Valence , the French department of Drôme , 100 km (62 mi) south of Lyon , in the Rhone Valley, or what is commonly referred to in France as The Doors of Provence . Throughout most of their history the Algerian and Tunisian Spahis wore

2574-584: The Spahis usually served in small detachments as scouts, skirmishers and escorts. An exception was the Battle of Isly (Morocco) in 1844 when the 1st and 2nd Spahis fought successfully as full regiments. Prior to 1914 there were four regiments of Spahis in the French Army , three based in Algeria and one in Tunisia. During their period as mounted cavalry the Spahis comprised for the most part Arab and Berber troopers commanded by French officers . This division

2640-442: The additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows the positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels,

2706-516: The annual Bastille Day parade in Paris always featured Spahi cavalry in their traditional dress uniforms, on white Arabian horses . While Arab and Berber troopers continued to make up the bulk of numbers in the mounted units retained, mechanisation led to French personnel becoming a majority in the armoured regiments. Armoured Spahi units saw service in both the Indochina War of 1947-54 and

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2772-550: The cadre around which a newly-raised mounted gendarmerie was formed. The modern Gendarmerie Nationale of the Republic of Senegal therefore traces its origins to the spahis, and the Red Guard still wears the burnous , fez and red tunic of the French period. The modern Republican Guard of Algeria includes a mounted detachment for ceremonial purposes. This unit is mounted on the same breed of white barbs as those utilised by

2838-417: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

2904-546: The four remaining regiments were on garrison duty in Algeria and Tunisia. Seven regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique (including three marching regiments ) were transferred to France between 1914 and 1918. Four squadrons were present during the Gallipoli campaign with the Corps Expéditionnaire d'Orient , the unit being renamed as the 8th Marching Regiment of Chasseurs d'Afrique on 29 July 1915. Two squadrons of

2970-422: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

3036-641: The inhabitants of Senegal and the French Sudan while their French officers were seconded from Algerian Spahi regiments. The Senegalese Spahis saw extensive active service in the French West African territories of Tchad, the Sudan and the Congo between 1853 and 1898, as well as serving in Morocco between 1908 and 1919. The Senegalese Spahis were disbanded in 1928 as an economy measure but provided

3102-569: The mounted equivalent of the French Zouave infantry. The other major cavalry element in the Armee d'Afrique were the Spahis —recruited from the indigenous peoples of Algeria, Tunisia , and Morocco with mostly French officers. First raised in 1831, shortly after the French occupation of Algiers, the Chasseurs d'Afrique ( Chass. d'Af. in common vernacular) were created through transfers from

3168-462: The personal escort of Marshal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud in the Crimean War and were photographed there by Roger Fenton . A contingent of Spahis also participated in the North China campaign of 1860. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 one detached squadrons of Spahis formed part of the forces defending Paris, while a provisional regiment comprising three squadrons was attached to

3234-448: The ranks increased. Spahis were sent to France at the outbreak of war in August 1914. They saw service during the opening period of mobile warfare but inevitably their role diminished with the advent of trench warfare . During World War I the number of units increased with the creation of Moroccan Spahi regiments and the expansion of the Algerian arm. By 1918 there were seven Spahi regiments then in existence, all having seen service on

3300-415: The reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state . See

3366-564: The regiments then in existence participated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, with only depot squadrons remaining in Algeria. They suffered heavy casualties in a series of charges at the Battle of Sedan . Drawing on reservists and volunteers it was possible to reconstitue three provisional regiments, two of which continued to fight on as part of the new Republican armies. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, six regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique were in existence. The 1 and 2 RCA had detached squadrons on active service in eastern Morocco while

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3432-523: The rigid lines of the Light Brigade. On 5 May 1863 the 1st Chasseurs d'Afrique distinguished itself in a clash with Mexican lancers during the Battle of San Pablo del Monte . The regimental flag was subsequently decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honour, the first French cavalry regiment to receive this distinction. 5 May remains the annual day of celebration for the modern Chass. d'Af. All four of

3498-496: The same way, with a possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

3564-609: The second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of a negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish),

3630-410: The suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in a vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding

3696-476: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

3762-739: Was a small detachment of "Spahis Tonkinese" raised in Tonkin in 1883 and disestablished in 1889 for budgetary reasons. Senegal maintains a mounted cavalry detachment of spahi origin as its modern presidential security unit and ceremonial guard. In addition to the North African cavalry, two squadrons of spahis were raised in French West Africa . The first spahis in Senegal were an Algerian detachment sent to West Africa in 1843 to deal with an outbreak of tribal conflict. This platoon-sized unit of 25 French and Algerian spahis stayed and began recruiting locally. The new indigenous troopers came from

3828-442: Was not absolute however and there were always a certain number of French volunteers in the ranks (for example, the later well known lyricist Raymond Asso was a Spahi between 1916 and 1919). About 20% of the rank and file were French and the remainder Arab or Berber. In addition, a fixed number of commissioned positions up to the level of captain were reserved for Muslim officers. NCOs were both French and Muslim. In contrast to

3894-403: Was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use the Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making the switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until

3960-703: Was of the opinion that they were the best troops that he met in both world wars. One Spahi regiment ( 1er Régiment de Marche de Spahis Marocains ) distinguished itself in service with the Free French during World War II . Garrisoned in Vichy -controlled Syria as part of a mounted cavalry unit some of the regiment crossed the frontier into the Transjordan in June 1940. After mounted service in Eritrea , this detachment

4026-555: Was subsequently reorganised and equipped with armoured cars by the British in Egypt. The expanded and mechanised regiment served in Egypt, Libya and Tunisia, and was part of the French forces that liberated Paris in August 1944. In the course of World War II most Spahi regiments were mechanised, but several squadrons remained mounted for patrol work in North Africa plus escort and other ceremonial duties in France itself. Until 1961

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4092-530: Was that of mounted police , tasked with patrolling rural and desert areas. Although they had Italian officers, they were more loosely organised than the regular Libyan cavalry regiments ( Savari ). They wore a picturesque dress modelled on that of the desert tribesmen from whom they were recruited. Ottoman Turkish language Ottoman Turkish ( Ottoman Turkish : لِسانِ عُثمانی , romanized :  Lisân-ı Osmânî , Turkish pronunciation: [liˈsaːnɯ osˈmaːniː] ; Turkish : Osmanlı Türkçesi )

4158-587: Was the M1822/82 sabre of the French light cavalry together with the 1892 carbine . All harness was of dark-red red leather, of indigenous North African pattern and manufacture. Short-lived cavalry units designated as "spahis" were raised by the French Colonial Army in Indochina . The first of these was a squadron of spahis recruited from Cochinchina in 1861 and disbanded in 1871. The second

4224-466: Was the footwear—short sabattes or traditional North African boots in red Morocco leather for Arab/Berber troopers, conventional black leather for French troopers. From 1915, in common with other units of the Armée d'Afrique , a more practical khaki uniform was adopted for service, but the classic red and blue tenue orientale with white burnous reappeared for parade and off-duty wear in 1927. The mounted squadrons retained for ceremonial duties wore

4290-477: Was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian . It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet . Ottoman Turkish was largely unintelligible to the less-educated lower-class and to rural Turks, who continued to use kaba Türkçe ("raw/vulgar Turkish"; compare Vulgar Latin and Demotic Greek ), which used far fewer foreign loanwords and

4356-420: Was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of

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