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78-579: Strategos , plural strategoi , Latinized strategus , ( Greek : στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί ; Doric Greek : στραταγός, stratagos ; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek to mean military general . In the Hellenistic world and the Eastern Roman Empire the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic Army , it is the highest officer rank. Strategos

156-606: A strategos , based on the various Thracian tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the Roman Empire in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new Roman province , and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until c. 136 that the last of them were abolished. Under the Roman Republic and later through the Principate , Greek historians often used

234-542: A Roman province may be too broad a canvas to generalize. One characteristic of cultural Romanization was the creation of many hundreds of Roman coloniae in the territory of the Roman Republic and the subsequent Roman Empire. Until Trajan , colonies were created by using retired veteran soldiers, mainly from the Italian peninsula, who promoted Roman customs and laws, with the use of Latin . About 400 towns (of

312-450: A strategos died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him. The strict adherence to the principle of a strategos from each tribe lasted until c.  440 BC , after which two strategoi could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own strategos , perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available. This system continued at least until c.  356/7 BC , but by

390-451: A Romanizing effect upon the native communities. This thought process, fueled though it was by early 20th century standards of imperialism and cultural change, forms the basis for the modern understanding of Romanization. However, recent scholarship has devoted itself to providing alternate models of how native populations adopted Roman culture and has questioned the extent to which it was accepted or resisted. One additional reason behind

468-622: A few official duties, his legal or constitutional position is not very clear. This position was featured in Orson Scott Card 's novel Ender's Game . In the novel, the position of Strategos was charged with overall command of solar system defense. The Strategos, along with the positions of Polemarch (responsible for the International Fleet of space warships), and the Hegemon (the political leader of Earth, rather like

546-770: A major crossroads of maritime trade between Rome and the Greek speaking eastern half of the empire. The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the eastern provinces and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome . During this time, Greece and much of the rest of the Roman east came under the influence of Early Christianity . The apostle Paul of Tarsus preached in Philippi , Corinth and Athens, and Thessalonica soon became one of

624-534: A political role, with Themistocles , Aristides , Cimon , or Pericles among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilian rhetores in the later 5th century, the strategoi were limited to their military duties. Originally, the strategoi were appointed ad hoc to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three— strategoi might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where

702-565: A stronger version of the Secretary-General of the United Nations ), was one of the three most powerful people alive. During an earlier war described in the novel, because of a belief in their inherent luck and brilliance—specifically, that no Jewish general had ever lost a war—all three positions were filled with Jewish people: an American Jew as Hegemon, an Israeli Jew as Strategos, and a Russian Jew as Polemarch. The defeat of

780-712: A temple to the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the deities venerated in the temple of Jupiter Best and Biggest on the Capitol in Rome. Livius It has been estimated that at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces. Julius Caesar , Mark Antony and Augustus settled many of their veterans in colonies: in Italy, and the provinces. The colonies that were established in Italy until 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of

858-642: Is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus ." The side facing the Temple of Zeus and the 'new city' (this was still part of the ancient city; e.g. the Panathenaic Stadium has always been on that side) had an inscription stating, "This is the city of Hadrian, and not of Theseus". Adrianou (Hadrian Street) exists to this day, leading from the arch to the Ancient Agora . The Pax Romana was the longest period of peace in Greek history, and Greece became

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936-485: Is a compound of two Greek words: stratos and agos . Stratos (στρατός) means "army", literally "that which is spread out", coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere- "to spread". Agos (ἀγός) means "leader", from agein (ἄγειν) "to lead", from the pelasgic root *ag- "to drive, draw out or forth, move". In its most famous attestation, in Classical Athens , the office of strategos existed already in

1014-661: Is a half-Spartan, half-Macedonian Strategos, called Parmenion . The real life Parmenion was indeed a Strategos in Ancient Greece. Linguistic Latinisation Acculturation proceeded from the top down, with the upper classes adopting Roman culture first and the old ways lingering longest among peasants in outlying countryside and rural areas. Hostages played an important part in this process, as elite children, from Mauretania to Gaul , were taken to be raised and educated in Rome. Ancient Roman historiography and traditional Italian historiography confidently identified

1092-459: Is attested at least for Syracuse from the late 5th century BC, Erythrae , and in the koinon of the Arcadians in the 360s BC. The title of strategos autokrator was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ad hoc basis. Thus Philip II of Macedon was elected as strategos autokrator (commander-in-chief with full powers) of

1170-774: Is called taxíarchos , after a táxis (in modern usage taxiarchía ), which means brigade. The ranks of antistrátigos and ypostrátigos are also used by the Hellenic Police (and the Greek Gendarmerie before), the Greek Fire Service and the Cypriot National Guard , which lack the grade of full stratigós . The oldest use of the term strategos in fiction may be found in the Callirhoe of Chariton of Aphrodisias which

1248-613: Is dated in the first century A.D. There, Hermocrates is the "strategos" of Syracuse and the father of Callirhoe, living in the 5th century B.C. In fact, he was a historical person, the victor over the Athenians in 413 B.C., an event which stopped Athenian expansion to the West. His role as a character in the novel is rather limited. Although his position in Syracuse gives Callirhoe a background, and he gives consent to her marriage and fulfills

1326-516: Is no Athenian variant of them, as they are exclusively Spartan. They are powerful units found in forts and camps, second in power only to that of the Polemarch . They wield heavy blades and shield. In Xenoblade Chronicles 3 , Strategos is the name of an optional character class, given by the character Isurd. The main protagonist in David Gemmell 's Lion of Macedon and Dark Prince ,

1404-574: Is widely accepted today, and it is assumed between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, Greece may have been one of the most economically active regions in the eastern Mediterranean . The Roman emperor Heraclius in the early 7th century changed the empire’s official language from Latin to Greek. As the eastern half of the Mediterranean has always been predominantly Greek, the eastern half of the Roman Empire gradually became Hellenized following

1482-598: The klerouchoi were progressively demilitarized. Ptolemy V Epiphanes (r. 204–181 BC) established the office of epistrategos ( ἐπιστράτηγος , lit.   ' over-general ' ) to oversee the individual strategoi . The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the nomarches and the oikonomos , while the epistrategos retained powers of military command. In addition, hypostrategoi (sing. hypostrategos , ὐποστράτηγος , 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates. The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into

1560-650: The Aeneid of Virgil , and authors such as Seneca the Younger wrote using Greek styles. Some Roman nobles regarded the Greeks as backwards and petty, but many others embraced Greek literature and philosophy . The Greek language became a favorite of the educated and elite in Rome, such as Scipio Africanus , who tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in 66 AD, and performed at

1638-537: The nauarchos commanded the navy, the Athenian strategoi held command both at sea and on land. From the middle of the 4th century, the strategoi increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the strategos epi ten choran ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν ) for the defence of Attica ; the strategos epi tous hoplitas ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας ), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two strategoi epi ton Peiraia ( στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ ), responsible for

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1716-661: The Acarnanian League , whereas the leaders of the Boeotian League and the Thessalian League had different titles, Boeotarch and Tagus respectively. In the Hellenistic empires of the Diadochi , notably Lagid Egypt , for which most details are known, strategos became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties. In Egypt, the strategoi were originally responsible for

1794-666: The Achaean League , where the strategos was annually elected, he was the eponymous chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were Aratus of Sicyon and Philopoemen of Megalopolis . Strategoi are also reported in the Arcadian League , in the Epirote League and in

1872-760: The Achaean War , the Roman Republic had been steadily gaining control of mainland Greece by defeating the Kingdom of Macedon in a series of conflicts known as the Macedonian Wars . The Fourth Macedonian War ended at the Battle of Pydna in 148 BC with the defeat of the Macedonian royal pretender Andriscus . The definitive Roman occupation of the Greek world was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), in which Augustus defeated Cleopatra VII ,

1950-736: The Ancient Olympic Games , despite the rules against non-Greek participation. He was honoured with a victory in every contest, and in the following year, he proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games in Corinth, just as Flamininus had over 200 years previously. Many temples and public buildings were built in Greece by emperors and wealthy Roman nobility, especially in Athens. Julius Caesar began construction of

2028-598: The Formics by half- Māori Mazer Rackham changed this position. Bean (Julian Delphiki) was given the title of Strategos by Peter Wiggin after he assumed the role of Hegemon. The prequel novel Earth Awakens establishes that the position of Strategos was named after the Strategoi, a group of international military commanders in charge of the Mobile Operations Police, which served as the model for

2106-592: The Greek Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, and the Roman general Mark Antony , and afterwards conquered Alexandria (30 BC), the last great city of Hellenistic Egypt . The Roman era of Greek history continued with Emperor Constantine the Great 's adoption of Byzantium as Nova Roma , the capital city of the Roman Empire ; in 330 AD, the city was renamed Constantinople . Afterwards, the Byzantine Empire

2184-682: The Greeks . Romanization was largely effective in the western half of the empire, where native civilizations were weaker. In the Hellenized east, ancient civilizations like those of Ancient Egypt , Anatolia , the Balkans , Syria , and Palestine effectively resisted all but its most superficial effects. When the Empire was divided, the east, with mainly Greek culture, was marked by the increasing strength of specifically Greek culture and language to

2262-654: The Iberian Peninsula , Gaul , southern Germany and Dalmatia . Romanization in most of those regions remains such a powerful cultural influence in most aspects of life today that they are described as "Latin countries" and "Latin American countries". That is most evident in European countries in which Romance languages are spoken and former colonies that have inherited the languages and other Roman influences. According to Theodor Mommsen , cultural Romanization

2340-527: The League of Corinth . Under Philip II of Macedon , the title of strategos was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. strategos tes Europes ('general of Europe'). In several Greek city leagues the title strategos was reserved for the head of state. In the Aetolian League and

2418-640: The Library of Hadrian in the city and completed the construction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus , some 638 years after its construction had been started by Athenian tyrants but ended because of the belief that building on such a scale would cause hubris . The Athenians built the Arch of Hadrian to honor Emperor Hadrian. The side of the arch facing the Athenian agora and the Acropolis had an inscription stating, "This

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2496-571: The Roman agora in Athens, which was finished by Augustus . The main gate, the Gate of Athena Archegetis , was dedicated to the patron goddess of Athens, Athena . The Agrippeia was built in the centre of the Ancient Agora of Athens by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . Emperor Hadrian was a philhellene who before he became emperor had served as eponymous archon of Athens. He saw himself as an heir to Pericles and made many contributions to Athens. He built

2574-409: The Roman period , where the epistrategos was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the procurator ad epistrategiam was placed in charge of the strategoi . The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country. The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace was also divided into strategiai ('generalships'), each headed by

2652-817: The fall of the Latin western half . Over the course of the following centuries, mainland Greece was mainly contested between the Roman and Bulgarian Empires, and suffered from invasions by Slavic tribes and Normans. Crete and Cyprus were contested between the Romans and Arabs and were later taken by the Crusaders who, following the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, established the Latin Empire in Thrace and Greece. The Romans retook Constantinople and re-established control in most of

2730-457: The monarchy , but has not been retained by the current Third Hellenic Republic . Under the monarchy, the rank of full stratigós in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since c.  1970 , in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' chiefs of defence ,

2808-469: The 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of Cleisthenes in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognizable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten strategoi who were elected annually, one from each tribe ( phyle ). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the polemarchos , who had hitherto been the senior military commander. At the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC (according to Herodotus ) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held

2886-657: The Arabs . Greece remained part of and became the center of the remaining relatively cohesive and robust eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (now historiographically referred to as the Byzantine Empire ), for nearly a thousand more years after the Fall of Rome , the city which once conquered it. Contrary to outdated visions of late antiquity , the Greek peninsula was most likely one of

2964-463: The Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek , which largely kept its position as lingua franca and even spread to new areas. Latin became prominent in certain areas around new veteran colonies like Berytus . The local customary laws were supplanted in part by Roman law , with its institutions regarding property and inheritance. Typically-Roman institutions, such as public baths , the imperial cult and gladiator fights, were adopted. Gradually,

3042-528: The Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order. The very existence of Romanization is a source of contention among modern archaeologists . One of

3120-450: The Greek military colonists ( klerouchoi ) established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the nomarches , the governor of each of the country's nomes , and the oikonomos , in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( r.  283–246 BC), the strategos was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as

3198-533: The Greek peninsula, although Epirus would remain an independent splinter state until the early 14th century when Roman control was re-established. As a civil war raged within the empire, the Serbian Empire took the opportunity to conquer most of mainland Greece, while a resurgent Bulgarian Empire invaded from the north. In the century that followed, the Ottoman Empire would establish its dominance in

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3276-470: The Roman Empire) are known to have possessed the rank of colonia. During the empire, colonies were showcases of Roman culture and examples of the Roman way of life. The native population of the provinces could see how they were expected to live. Because of this function, the promotion of a town to the status of "Colonia civium Romanorum" implied that all citizens received full citizen rights and dedicated

3354-502: The Roman civil wars, Greece was physically and economically devastated until Augustus organised the peninsula as the province of Achaea , in 27 BC. Initially, Rome's conquest of Greece damaged the economy , but it readily recovered under Roman administration in the postwar period. Moreover, the Greek cities in Asia Minor recovered from the Roman conquest more rapidly than the cities of peninsular Greece, which had been much damaged in

3432-441: The Roman conquest of ancient Greece (roughly, the territory of the modern nation-state of Greece ) as well as that of the Greek people and the areas they inhabited and ruled historically. It covers the periods when Greece was dominated first by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire . In the history of Greece , the Roman era began with the Corinthian defeat in the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC. However, before

3510-405: The Romanization and the Hellenization of the native Semitic peoples . Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe also contributed to the de-Romanization of the Balkans, and the rapid demographic spread of the Slavs was followed by a population exchange, mixing and language shift to and from Slavic . Roman Greece Greece in the Roman era ( Greek : Έλλάς, Latin : Graecia) describes

3588-404: The achievements of his long reign, Res Gestae Divi Augusti ( The Deeds of the Divine Augustus ), Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE. Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited", which would thus be

3666-405: The civil kritai ("judges"). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled doukes or katepano , who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term strategos had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning. The Byzantines also used a number of variations of

3744-422: The civil governance of the theme. The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial strategoi were in constant antagonism with the emperor at Constantinople , rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of strategoi increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw

3822-419: The conquered would see themselves as Romans. The process was supported by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire . The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and

3900-427: The detriment of the Latin language and other Romanizing influences, but its citizens continued to regard themselves as Romans. While Britain certainly was Romanized, its approximation to the Roman culture seems to have been smaller than that of Gaul. The most Romanized regions, as demonstrated by Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas of the computing center of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, were Italy,

3978-465: The different processes involved with a "civilization of barbarians". Modern historians take a more nuanced view: by making their peace with Rome, local elites could make their position more secure and reinforce their prestige. New themes include the study of personal and group values and the construction of identity, which is the personal aspect of ethnogenesis . The transitions operated differently in different provinces; as Blagg and Millett point out even

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4056-426: The end of the first century BC. The Athenian people kept a close eye on their strategoi . Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to euthyna and in addition there was a vote in the ekklesia during every prytany on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430

4134-453: The establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in c. 842 the Taktikon Uspensky lists 18 strategoi , the Escorial Taktikon , written c. 971–975, lists almost 90. Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the strategos of the Anatolic theme enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which eunuchs were specifically barred. At

4212-465: The extinction of all aspects of native cultures even when there was extensive acculturation. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period while sustaining considerable Latin influence, including the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian , Basque and Berber . Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin after

4290-416: The fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century ( c.  560 –575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in

4368-525: The first approaches, which now can be regarded as the "traditional" approach, was taken by Francis Haverfield . He saw this process beginning in primarily post-conquest societies (such as Britain and Gaul ), where direct Roman policy from the top promoted an increase in the Roman population of the province through the establishment of veteran colonies. The coloniae would have spoken Latin and been citizens of Rome following their army tenure (See Roman citizenship ). Haverfield thus assumes this would have

4446-413: The late 4th century. Arcadius' chief advisor Eutropius allowed Alaric to enter Greece, and he looted Athens, Corinth and the Peloponnese . Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 AD and Alaric was made magister militum in Illyricum . Eventually, Alaric and the Goths migrated to Italy, sacked Rome in 410, and built the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia , which lasted until 711 with the advent of

4524-416: The loosest resemblance to what they originally meant. The position of 'Strategos' was also featured in the English version of the Sunrise anime The Vision of Escaflowne ; the character Folken occupied the position when he served the Zaibach empire. It is also used in the webcomic Ava's Demon for Strategos Six. The term is also used in the 2018 Ubisoft video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey . There

4602-432: The most highly Christianized areas of the empire. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Greece was divided into provinces including Achaea , Macedonia , Epirus and Thrace . During the reign of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, Moesia was organized as a diocese , and was ruled by Galerius . Under Constantine (who professed Christianity) Greece was part of the prefectures of Macedonia and Thrace. Theodosius divided

4680-484: The most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire. Older scenarios of poverty, depopulation, barbarian destruction, and civil decay have been revised in light of recent archaeological discoveries. In fact, the polis , as an institution, appears to have remained prosperous until at least the 6th century. Contemporary texts such as Hierocles' Syndekmos affirm that late antique Greece was highly urbanised and contained approximately eighty cities. This view of extreme prosperity

4758-418: The newly created International Fleet. The first Strategos was Lieutenant Colonel Yulian Robinov of the Russian Ministry of Defense, who served as the chair of the Strategoi during the First Invasion. The dystopian slave-empire of the Draka , in the series of books by S. M. Stirling , also uses "Strategos" together with many other military ranks and terms drawn from Classical Antiquity , though often with only

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4836-425: The prefecture of Macedonia into the provinces of Creta , Achaea , Thessalia , Epirus Vetus , Epirus Nova , and Macedonia. The Aegean islands formed the province of Insulae in the Diocese of Asia . Greece faced invasions from the Heruli , Goths , and Vandals during the reign of Romulus Augustulus . Stilicho , who pretended he was a regent for Arcadius , evacuated Thessaly when the Visigoths invaded in

4914-415: The presidency in daily rotation. At this date the polemarchos had a casting vote , and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the polemarchos , like the other archontes , was appointed by lot. The annual election of the strategoi was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If

4992-441: The rank is held in active service by the Chief of the General Staff of National Defence , when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the Hellenic Army General Staff . All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: antistrátigos (Antistrategos) and ypostrátigos (Hypostrategos), for Lieutenant General and Major General , respectively. A Brigadier General however

5070-411: The romanization process was the "Spread of Catholicism ". Christianity actually is centered in Rome, and believes that a Roman Bishop is the supreme head of Christianity: the spread of Roman Catholicism corresponds with the spread of a Latinized "Western" cultural mindset and generally of the spread of the Romance languages, all based on Latin. Roman names were adopted by some, and the Latin language

5148-528: The same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding strategoi : while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces. During the 11th century, the strategoi were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by

5226-440: The term strategos when referring to the Roman political/military office of praetor . Such a use can be found in the New Testament : Acts of the Apostles 16:20 refers to the magistrates of Philippi as strategoi . Correspondingly, antistrategos ( ἀντιστράτηγος , 'vice-general') was used to refer to the office of propraetor . The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire . Initially,

5304-461: The term hypostrategos ( ὐποστράτηγος , "under-general") denoted a second-in-command, effectively a lieutenant general . The city of Messina in Sicily also had a Strategos. In 1345 Orlando d'Aragona , illegitimate son of Frederick II of Sicily , held that position. In the modern Hellenic Army , a stratigós (the spelling remains στρατηγός ) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of stratárchis ( Field Marshal ) existed under

5382-494: The term was used along with stratelates and, less often, stratopedarches , to render the supreme military office of magister militum (the general in command of a field army ), but could also be employed for the regional duces . In the 7th century, with the creation of the Theme system , their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with

5460-399: The time Aristotle wrote his Constitution of the Athenians in c.  330 BC , the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the Hellenistic period , although the number of the tribes was increased, the number of strategoi remained constant at ten. In the early part of the 5th century, several strategoi combined their military office with

5538-481: The title strategos : strategetes (στρατηγέτης, "army leader") was an infrequently used alternative term; the term monostrategos (μονοστράτηγος, "single-general") designated a general placed in command over other strategoi or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms strategos autokrator , archistrategos ( ἀρχιστράτηγος , "chief-general") and protostrategos (πρωτοστράτηγος, "first-general") designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and

5616-520: The veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus. The Lex Calpurnia, however, also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery. For example, the 1,000 socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) and the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana ) after Zela , got Roman citizenship. By the time of Augustus, the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls. However, Romanization did not always result in

5694-540: The war harbour of Piraeus ; and the strategos epi tas symmorias ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συμμορίας ), responsible for the equipment of the warships. This was generalized in Hellenistic times, when each strategos was given specific duties. In the Roman Imperial period , the strategos epi ta hopla ( στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα ) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens. The other generals had disappeared by

5772-530: The war with Sulla. As an empire, Rome invested resources and rebuilt the cities of Roman Greece, and established Corinth as the capital city of the province of Achaea, and Athens prospered as a cultural hub of philosophy, education and learned knowledge. Life in Greece continued under the Roman Empire much the same as it had previously. Roman culture was highly influenced by the Greeks; as Horace said, Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror"). The epics of Homer inspired

5850-670: Was more complete in those areas that developed a "neolatin language" (like Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian). The same process later developed in the recent centuries' colonial empires. The regions of Levant and Mesopotamia were re-Semiticized by the Arab conquests of the Rashidun and the Umayyad Caliphates and into the Abbasid Caliphate after centuries of Roman rule. The conquests reversed

5928-494: Was removed from office as strategos and fined, and in 406 six of the eight strategoi who commanded the fleet at the Battle of Arginusae were all removed from office and condemned to death. The title of strategos appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander. The strategos as an office

6006-461: Was spread, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that many cultures were mostly oral (particularly for the Gauls and Iberians ). Anyone who wanted to deal (through writing) with the bureaucracy and/or with the Roman market had to write in Latin. The extent of the adoption is subject to ongoing debate, as the native languages were certainly spoken after the conquests. Moreover, in the eastern half of

6084-490: Was the Eastern Roman Empire, including Greek and Roman culture. The Greek peninsula fell to the Roman Republic during the Battle of Corinth (146 BC) , when Macedonia became a Roman province . Meanwhile, southern Greece also came under Roman hegemony , but some key Greek poleis remained partly autonomous and avoided direct Roman taxation. In 88 BC, Athens and other Greek city-states revolted against Rome and were suppressed by General Lucius Cornelius Sulla . During

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