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90-630: The land of Subartu (Akkadian Šubartum/Subartum/ina Šú-ba-ri , Assyrian mât Šubarri ) or Subar (Sumerian Su-bir 4 /Subar/Šubur, Ugaritic 𐎘𐎁𐎗 ṯbr) is mentioned in Bronze Age literature . The name also appears as Subari in the Amarna letters , and, in the form Šbr , in Ugarit . Subartu was apparently a kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia , at the upper Tigris and later it referred to

180-474: A clay sealing of Tar'am-Agade (Akkad loves <her>), a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin , who was possibly married to an unidentified local endan (ruler). So great was the Akkadian Empire, especially Sargon and Narim-Sin, that its history was passed down for millennia. This ranged on one end to purported copies of still existing Sargonic period inscriptions to literary tales made up from

270-572: A coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals. Also shortly after, another revolt took place: the Subartu the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously. The Bible refers to the city of Akkad in the Book of Genesis , which states: " Cush [grandson of Noah ] became

360-399: A highly placed family could achieve such a position. Originally a cupbearer ( Rabshakeh ) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa , Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. The royal cupbearer at this time was in fact a prominent political position, close to the king and with various high level responsibilities not suggested by

450-461: A minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the great galla of Girsu ". Demons had no cult in Mesopotamian religious practice since demons "know no food, know no drink, eat no flour offering and drink no libation." Lamashtu was a demonic goddess with the "head of a lion, the teeth of a donkey, naked breasts, a hairy body, hands stained (with blood?), long fingers and fingernails, and

540-520: A phrase meaning "Lord of the Good Tree". In the Sumerian poem, The Death of Gilgamesh , the hero Gilgamesh dies and meets Ningishzida, along with Dumuzid , in the underworld. Gudea , the Sumerian king of the city-state of Lagash , revered Ningishzida as his personal protector. In the myth of Adapa , Dumuzid and Ningishzida are described as guarding the gates of the highest Heaven. Ningishzida

630-405: A proper burial, such as those who had died in fires and whose bodies had been burned or those who died alone in the desert, would have no existence in the underworld at all, but would simply cease to exist. The Sumerians believed that, for the highly privileged, music could alleviate the bleak conditions of the underworld. A staircase led down to the gates of the underworld. The underworld itself

720-615: A region of Mesopotamia. Most scholars suggest that Subartu is an early name for people of upper Mesopotamia proper on the Tigris and westward, although there are various other theories placing it sometimes a little farther to the east and/or north. Its precise location has not been identified. From the point of view of the Akkadian Empire , Subartu marked the northern geographical horizon, just as Amurru , Elam and Sumer marked "west", "east" and "south", respectively, functioning as

810-456: A rural agricultural goddess sometimes associated with dream interpretation . She is the sister of Dumuzid, the god of shepherds. In one story, she protects her brother when the galla demons come to drag him down to the underworld by hiding him successively in four different places. In another version of the story, she refuses to tell the galla where he is hiding, even after they torture her. The galla eventually take Dumuzid away after he

900-484: A set of twins guarding the gates of the underworld, who chopped the dead into pieces as they passed through the gates. During the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 BC–609 BC), small depictions of them would be buried at entrances, with Lugal-irra always on the left and Meslamta-ea always on the right. They are identical and are shown wearing horned caps and each holding an axe and a mace. They are identified with

990-572: A term to mean 'north'. The Sumerian mythological epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta lists the countries where the "languages are confused" as Subartu, Hamazi , Sumer , Uri-ki ( Akkad ), and the Martu land (the Amorites ). Similarly, the earliest references to the "four-quarters" by the kings of Akkad name Subartu as one of these quarters around Akkad, along with Martu, Elam , and Sumer. Subartu in

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1080-555: Is betrayed by an unnamed "friend", but Inanna decrees that he and Geshtinanna will alternate places every six months, each spending half the year in the underworld while the other stays in Heaven. While she is in the underworld, Geshtinanna serves as Ereshkigal's scribe. Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea are a set of twin gods who were worshipped in the village of Kisiga, located in northern Babylonia . They were regarded as guardians of doorways and they may have originally been envisioned as

1170-670: Is clear, while noting that the Ur III version of the Sumerian King List inverts the order of Rimush and Manishtushu. The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the Late Bronze Age collapse c. 1200 BC). The Akkadian Empire takes its name from the region and the city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although

1260-535: Is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants. Epigraphic sources from the Sargonic (Akkadian Empire) period are in relatively short supply, partly because the capital Akkad , like the capitals of the later Mitanni and Sealand , has not yet been located, though there has been much speculation. Some cuneiform tablets have been excavated at cities under Akkadian Empire control such as Eshnunna and Tell Agrab . Other tablets have become available on

1350-536: Is taken by his sister, the scribal goddess Geshtinanna , who records the names of the deceased. The underworld was also the abode of various demons, including the hideous child-devourer Lamashtu , the fearsome wind demon and protector god Pazuzu , and galla , who dragged mortals to the underworld. The Sumerians had a large number of different names which they applied to the underworld, including Arali , Irkalla , Kukku , Kur , Kigal , and Ganzir . All of these terms were later borrowed into Akkadian. The rest of

1440-472: Is the deity most often identified as Ereshkigal's husband. He was also associated with forest fires (and identified with the fire-god, Gibil ), fevers, plagues, and war. In myths, he causes destruction and devastation. Ninazu is the son of Ereshkigal and the father of Ningishzida . He is closely associated with the underworld. He was mostly worshipped in Eshnunna during the third millennium BC, but he

1530-485: Is the god Namtar . In the poem Inanna's Descent into the Underworld , Ereshkigal is described as Inanna's "older sister". Gugalanna is the first husband of Ereshkigal, the queen of the underworld. His name probably originally meant "canal inspector of An" and he may be merely an alternative name for Ennugi . The son of Ereshkigal and Gugalanna is Ninazu . In Inanna's Descent into the Underworld , Inanna tells

1620-441: Is the great city." Nimrod 's historical inspiration remains uncertain, but he has been identified with Sargon of Akkad by some scholars who also propose that the name of Sargon's grandson and successor Naram-Sin is the root of Nimrod's, while others have noted similarities between Nimrod and the legendary Gilgamesh , king of Uruk ( Erech ). Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in

1710-478: Is the son of Enlil or Enmesarra and his wife is the goddess Nanibgal . He is associated with the underworld and he may be Gugalanna, the first husband of Ereshkigal, under a different name. The ancient Mesopotamians also believed that the underworld was home to many demons, which are sometimes referred to as "offspring of arali ". These demons could sometimes leave the underworld and terrorize mortals on earth. One class of demons that were believed to reside in

1800-460: Is thought to be Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period . There is a similar issue with cuneiform tablets. In the early Akkadian Empire tablets and the signs on them are much like those from earlier periods, before developing into the much different Classical Sargonic style. With the capital, Akkad, still unlocated, archaeological remains of the empire are still to be found, mainly at

1890-461: Is usually located even deeper below ground than the Abzu , the body of freshwater which the ancient Mesopotamians believed lay deep beneath the earth. In other, conflicting traditions, however, it seems to be located at a remote and inaccessible location on Earth, possibly somewhere in the far west. This alternate tradition is hinted at by the fact that the underworld is sometimes called "desert" and by

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1980-466: The Amarna Period ) and Anatolia , to Persia ( Behistun ). The submission of some Sumerian rulers to the Akkadian Empire, is recorded in the seal inscriptions of Sumerian rulers such as Lugal-ushumgal , governor ( ensi ) of Lagash ("Shirpula"), circa 2230–2210 BC. Several inscriptions of Lugal-ushumgal are known, particularly seal impressions, which refer to him as governor of Lagash and at

2070-517: The Anunnaki , so that the deceased would receive special favors in the underworld. During the Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 – c. 2004 BC), it was believed that a person's treatment in the afterlife depended on how they were buried; those that had been given sumptuous burials would be treated well, but those who had been given poor burials would fare poorly. Those who did not receive

2160-524: The Arabian Peninsula . The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad . Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium . Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term

2250-654: The Sumerian king Lugal-zage-si at the Battle of Uruk and conquered his former territory, establishing the Akkadian Empire. Sargon was claimed to be the son of a gardener in the Sumerian King List . Later legends named his father as La'ibum or Itti-Bel and his birth mother as a priestess (or possibly even a hierodule ) of Ishtar , the Akkadian equivalent of the Sumerian goddess Inanna . One legend of Sargon from Neo-Assyrian times quotes him as saying My mother

2340-594: The Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform . Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in

2430-498: The Akkadian rulers have also been found. Most of the original examples are short, or very fragmentary like the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and the Sargonic victory stele from Telloh. A few longer ones are known because of later copies made, often from the much later Old Babylonian period. While these are assumed to be mostly accurate, it is difficult to know if they had been edited to reflect current political conditions. One of

2520-637: The Babylonian Collection of the Yale University and Baghdad Museum with a few others scattered about. The tablets date to the period of late in the reign of Naram-Sin to early in the reign of Shar-kali-shari. They are believed to be from a town between Umma and Lagash and Me-sag to be the governor of Umma. An archive of 47 tablets was found at the excavation of Tell el-Suleimah in the Hamrin Basin. Various royal inscriptions by

2610-450: The Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destructions. Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous: Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre- Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman . Despite

2700-720: The Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna ( Ishtar ), his patroness, and Zababa , the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of Anu " and "the great ensi of Enlil " and his daughter, Enheduanna , was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur . Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states: In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city) [but] he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army. It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated

2790-556: The antiquities market and are held in museums and private collections such as those from the Akkadian governor in Adab . Internal evidence allows their dating to the Sargonic period and sometimes to the original location. Archives are especially important to historians and only a few have become available. The Me-sag Archive, which commenced publication in 1958, is considered one of the most significant collections. The tablets, about 500 in number with about half published, are held primarily at

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2880-544: The cities where they established regional governors. An example is Adab where Naram-Sin established direct imperial control after Adab joined the "great revolt". After destroying the city of Mari the Akkadian Empire rebuilt it as an administrative center with an imperial governor. The city of Nuzi was established by the Akkadians and a number of economic and administrative texts were found there. Similarly, there are Marad , Nippur , Tutub and Ebla . Excavation at

2970-529: The city of Irqata , also alludes to having transferred captured goods to Subari. There is also a mention of "Subartu" in the 8th century BC Poem of Erra (IV, 132), along with other lands that have harassed Babylonia in Neo-Babylonian times (under Nabopolassar , Nebuchadnezzar II and Nabonidus ). Subartu may have been in the general sphere of influence of the Hurrians . Subartu ( Subaru of

3060-429: The city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non- Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times. The earliest records in the Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon of Akkad, who defeated

3150-518: The confiscation of the wealth of other peoples. In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name Akkad , together with Sumer , appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi , translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur , the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia. During

3240-417: The constellation Gemini , which is named after them. Neti is the gatekeeper of the underworld. In the story of Inanna's Descent into the Underworld , he leads Inanna through the seven gates of the underworld, removing one of her garments at each gate so that when she comes before Ereshkigal she is naked and symbolically powerless. Belet-Seri is a chthonic underworld goddess who was thought to record

3330-601: The cuneiform sign 𒆳, a pictograph of a mountain. Sometimes the underworld is called the "land of no return", the "desert", or the "lower world". The most common name for the earth and the underworld in Akkadian is erṣetu , but other names for the underworld include: ammatu , arali / arallû , bīt dumuzi ("House of Dumuzi "), danninu , erṣetu la târi ("Earth of No Return"), ganzer / kanisurra , ḫaštu , irkalla , kiūru , kukkû ("Darkness"), kurnugû ("Earth of No Return"), lammu , mātu šaplītu , and qaqqaru . In

3420-418: The dead person to drink for many years. Those who had died without descendants would suffer the most in the underworld, because they would have nothing to drink at all, and were believed to haunt the living. Sometimes the dead are described as naked or clothed in feathers like birds. Nonetheless, there are assumptions according to which treasures in wealthy graves had been intended as offerings for Utu and

3510-426: The drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship. Later claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an " entu " priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a pedigree of nobility, since only

3600-416: The earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty was thus ensured. Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan , the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan . This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket

3690-400: The earliest texts seem to have been farming mountain dwellers, frequently raided for slaves. Eannatum of Lagash was said to have smitten Subartu or Shubur, and it was listed as a province of the empire of Lugal-Anne-Mundu ; in a later era Sargon of Akkad campaigned against Subar, and his grandson Naram-Sin listed Subar along with Armani , which has been identified with Aleppo , among

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3780-406: The fact that actual rivers located far away from Sumer are sometimes referred to as the "river of the underworld". The underworld was believed to have seven gates, through which a soul needed to pass. All seven gates were protected by bolts . The god Neti was the gatekeeper. Ereshkigal's sukkal , or messenger, was the god Namtar . The palace of Ereshkigal was known as Ganzir. At night,

3870-879: The fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. As for

3960-415: The father of Nimrod ; he was the first on earth to become a mighty warrior. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord; therefore it is said, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the Lord.” The beginning of his kingdom was Babel , Erech , and Accad , all of them in the land of Shinar . From that land he went into Assyria , and built Nineveh , Rehoboth-ir , Calah , and Resen between Nineveh and Calah; that

4050-453: The feet of Anzû ." She was believed to feed on the blood of human infants and was widely blamed as the cause of miscarriages and cot deaths . Although Lamashtu has traditionally been identified as a demoness, the fact that she could cause evil on her own without the permission of other deities strongly indicates that she was seen as a goddess in her own right. Mesopotamian peoples protected against her using amulets and talismans . She

4140-408: The fruit and becomes knowledgeable of sex. A number of deities were believed by the ancient Mesopotamians to reside in the underworld. The queen of the underworld was the goddess Ereshkigal. She was believed to live in a palace known as Ganzir. In earlier stories, her husband is Gugalanna , but, in later myths, her husband is the god Nergal . Her gatekeeper was the god Neti and her sukkal

4230-479: The gatekeeper Neti that she is descending to the underworld to attend the funeral of "Gugalanna, the husband of my elder sister Ereshkigal". During the Akkadian Period ( c.  2334 – 2154 BC), Ereshkigal's role as the ruler of the underworld was assigned to Nergal, the god of death. The Akkadians attempted to harmonize this dual rulership of the underworld by making Nergal Ereshkigal's husband. Nergal

4320-401: The god of war. After the Akkadian Period ( c.  2334–2154 BC), Nergal sometimes took over the role as ruler of the underworld. The seven gates of the underworld are guarded by a gatekeeper, who is named Neti in Sumerian. The god Namtar acts as Ereshkigal's sukkal , or divine attendant. The dying god Dumuzid spends half the year in the underworld, while, during the other half, his place

4410-487: The highways, the courier's boat no longer passed along the rivers. The Gutians drove the trusty (?) goats of Enlil out of their folds and compelled their herdsmen to follow them, they drove the cows out of their pens and compelled their cowherds to follow them. Prisoners manned the watch. Brigands occupied the highways. The doors of the city gates of the Land lay dislodged in mud, and all the foreign lands uttered bitter cries from

4500-684: The history of the Akkadian Empire. As an example, from one year-name, we know that the empire was in conflict with the Gutians long before its end. It attests the name of a Gutian ruler and marks the construction of two temples in Babylon as recognition of Akkadian victory. "In the year in which Szarkaliszarri laid the foundations of the temples of the goddess Annunitum and of the god Aba in Babylon and when he defeated Szarlak, king of Gutium" The final contemporary source are seals and their sealing dates. These are especially important here, as markers, with

4590-483: The lands under his control. Ishbi-Erra of Isin and Hammurabi also claimed victories over Subar. Three of the 14th-century BC Amarna letters – Akkadian cuneiform correspondence found in Egypt – mention Subari as a toponym. All are addressed to Akhenaten ; in two (EA 108 and 109), Rib-Hadda , king of Byblos , complains that Abdi-Ashirta , ruler of Amurru, had sold captives to Subari, while another (EA 100), from

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4680-420: The letters is only referenced in three Amarna letters, and with no links to any rulers of Subaru. The following are the letters referencing Subartu: Kur The ruler of the underworld was the goddess Ereshkigal , who lived in the palace Ganzir , sometimes used as a name for the underworld itself. Her husband was either Gugalanna , the "canal-inspector of Anu", or, especially in later stories, Nergal ,

4770-522: The letters) is a toponym mentioned in the Amarna letters (14th century BC); the letters were written in the short period approximately from 1350 – 1335 BC . It is commonly accepted that the region referenced was Subartu. Subartu is only referenced in three of the Amarna letters: EA 100, 108, and EA 109. All three letters state that people, or 'items' are needed to be sold in Subaru, for money. Subaru of

4860-598: The longer surviving examples is the Bassetki Statue , the copper base of a Narim-Sin statue: "Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, through the love which the goddess Astar showed him, he was victorious in nine battles in one in 1 year, and the kings whom they (the rebels[?]) had raised (against him), he captured. In view of

4950-628: The main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre . Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia , battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti , Zipani of Kanesh , and 15 others. The economy

5040-436: The modern site of Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians rebuilt a city ("Brak" or "Nagar") on this site, for use as an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens. The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2334–2154 BC (according to the middle chronology ). The short-chronology dates of 2270–2083 BC are now considered less likely. It

5130-434: The mountains those who do not resemble other people, who are not reckoned as part of the Land, the Gutians, an unbridled people, with human intelligence but canine instincts and monkeys' features. Like small birds they swooped on the ground in great flocks. Because of Enlil, they stretched their arms out across the plain like a net for animals. Nothing escaped their clutches, no one left their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled

5220-443: The myth " Nergal and Ereshkigal " it is also referred to as Kurnugi . All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person's actions during life had no effect on how the person would be treated in the world to come. Unlike in the ancient Egyptian afterlife , there was no process of judgement or evaluation for the deceased; they merely appeared before Ereshkigal, who would pronounce them dead, and their names would be recorded by

5310-407: The names of the deceased as they entered the underworld. Enmesarra is a minor deity of the underworld. Seven or eight other minor deities were said to be his offspring. His symbol was the suššuru (a kind of pigeon ). In one incantation, Enmesarra and Ninmesharra, his female counterpart, are invoked as ancestors of Enki and as primeval deities. Ennugi is "the canal inspector of the gods". He

5400-433: The one who removes this inscription, may the gods Samas, Astar, Nergal, the bailiff of the king, namely all those gods (mentioned above) tear out his foundations and destroy his progeny." A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu all bearing portions of a "standard inscription". Aside from a few minor short inscriptions this is the only known contemporary source for this ruler. An excerpt: "Man-istusu, king of

5490-426: The presumed 40 Sargon year-names are known, 1 (presumed 9) of Rimush, 20 (presumed 56) of Naram-Sin, and 18 (presumed 18) of Shar-kali-shari. Recently, a single year-name had been found "In the year that Dūr-Maništusu was established.” There are also, perhaps, a dozen more known, which cannot be firmly linked to a ruler. Especially with the paucity of other inscriptions, year-names are extremely important in determining

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5580-696: The previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods. He also faced revolts at the start of his reign, but quickly crushed them. Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king. To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah . Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he instated garrisons to protect

5670-474: The quay of Agade" Before the Akkadian Empire, calendar years were marked by Regnal Numbers. During Sargonic times, a system of year-names was used. This practice continued until the end of the Old Babylonian period, for example, "Year in which the divine Hammu[rabi] the king Esznunna destroyed by a flood.” Afterwards, Regnal Numbers were used by all succeeding kingdoms. During the Akkadian Empire 3 of

5760-454: The reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. According to his inscriptions, he faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur , Umma , Adab , Lagash , Der , and Kazallu from rebellious ensis : Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of

5850-449: The scribal goddess Geshtinanna . The souls in Kur were believed to eat nothing but dry dust and family members of the deceased would ritually pour libations into the dead person's grave through a clay pipe, thereby allowing the dead to drink. For this reason, it was considered essential to have as many offspring as possible so that one's descendants could continue to provide libations for

5940-517: The shortage of other Akkadian Empire epigraphics and very useful to historians. As an example, two seals and one sealing were found in the Royal Cemetery at Ur which contained the name of Sargons's daughter En-hedu-ana. This provided confirmation of her existence. The seals read "En-hedu-ana, daughter of Sargon: Ilum-pal[il] (is) her coiffeur" and "Adda, estate supervisor/majordomo of En-hedu-ana". At Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light

6030-458: The springtime, when the land was fertile and abundant, but, during the summer months, when the land was dry and barren, it was thought that Dumuzid had "died". During the month of Dumuzid , which fell in the middle of summer, people all across Sumer would mourn over his death. An enormous number of popular stories circulated throughout the Near East surrounding his death. Geshtinanna is

6120-501: The success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy. Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four-quarters " ( Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim ), the four-quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian = ilu ) of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to

6210-412: The sun-god Utu was believed to travel through the underworld as he journeyed to the east in preparation for the sunrise. One Sumerian literary work refers to Utu illuminating the underworld and dispensing judgement there and Shamash Hymn 31 (BWL 126) states that Utu serves as a judge of the dead in the underworld alongside the malku , kusu , and the Anunnaki . On his way through the underworld, Utu

6300-626: The surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus ( Kaptara ); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda , well into Anatolia ); eastward over Elam ; and as far south as Magan ( Oman ) — a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing

6390-444: The time a vassal ( 𒀵 , arad , "servant" or "slave") of Naram-Sin, as well as his successor Shar-kali-sharri . One of these seals proclaims: “Naram-Sin, the mighty God of Agade, king of the four corners of the world, Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, ensi of Lagash , is thy servant.” It can be considered that Lugal-ushumgal was a collaborator of the Akkadian Empire, as was Meskigal , ruler of Adab . Later however, Lugal-ushumgal

6480-410: The time, the underworld was simply known by words meaning "earth" or "sand", including the terms Kur and Ki in Sumerian and the word erṣetu in Akkadian. When used in reference to the underworld, the word Kur usually means "ground", but sometimes this meaning is conflated with another possible meaning of the word Kur as "mountain". The cuneiform sign for Kur was written ideographically with

6570-472: The title of the position itself. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest. Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan , and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire". However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of

6660-452: The underworld were known as galla ; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. Like other demons, however, galla could also be benevolent and, in a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash ( c. 2144 – 2124 BC),

6750-556: The walls of their cities ..." There were a number of these, passed down as part of scribel tradition including The Birth Legend of Sargon (Neo-Assyrian), Weidner Chronicle, and the Geographical Treatise on Sargon of Akkad's Empire. Identifying architectural remains is hindered by the fact that there are sometimes no clear distinctions between features thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period , and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that

6840-474: The whole cloth at the other. A few examples: "... By the verdict of the goddess Astar-Annunltum, Naram-Sin, the mighty, [was vic]torious over the Kisite in battle at TiWA. [Further], Ili-resi, the general; Ilum-muda, Ibbi-Zababa, Imtalik, (and) Puzur-Asar, captains of Kis; and Puzur-Ningal, governor of TiWA; Ili-re'a, his captain; Kullizum, captain of Eres; Edam'u, captain of Kutha ..." "...Enlil brought out of

6930-618: The world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, thirty-two (in number), assembled for battle, but he was victorious (over them). Further, he conquered their cities, [st]ru[c]k down their rulers and aft[er] he [roused them (his troops)], plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at

7020-455: The years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak , king of Gutium . He also boasted of having subjugated the "four-quarters" — the lands surrounding Akkad to the north, the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west ( Martu ). Some of the earliest historiographic texts ( ABC 19, 20 ) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon ( Bab-ilu ) in its new location near Akkad. Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to

7110-462: Was a changeling , my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki,

7200-412: Was associated with the constellation Hydra . Dumuzid, later known by the corrupted form Tammuz, is the ancient Mesopotamian god of shepherds and the primary consort of the goddess Inanna. His sister is the goddess Geshtinanna. In addition to being the god of shepherds, Dumuzid was also an agricultural deity associated with the growth of plants. Ancient Near Eastern peoples associated Dumuzid with

7290-488: Was believed to be the son of the god Hanbi . He was usually regarded as evil, but he could also sometimes be a beneficent entity who protected against winds bearing pestilence and he was thought to be able to force Lamashtu back to the underworld. Amulets bearing his image were positioned in dwellings to protect infants from Lamashtu and pregnant women frequently wore amulets with his head on them as protection from her. Šul-pa-e 's name means "youthful brilliance", but he

7380-401: Was believed to pass through the garden of the sun-god, which contained trees that bore precious gems as fruit. The Sumerian hymn Inanna and Utu contains an etiological myth in which Utu's sister Inanna begs her brother Utu to take her to Kur, so that she may taste the fruit of a tree that grows there, which will reveal to her all the secrets of sex. Utu complies and, in Kur, Inanna tastes

7470-475: Was believed to ride in her boat on the river of the underworld and she was associated with donkeys. She was believed to be the daughter of An . Pazuzu is a demonic god who was well known to the Babylonians and Assyrians throughout the first millennium BC. He is shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings." He

7560-410: Was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses. This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and

7650-485: Was later supplanted by the Hurrian storm god Tishpak . A god named "Ninazu" was also worshipped at Enegi in southern Sumer, but this may be a different local god by the same name. His divine beast was the mušḫuššu , a kind of dragon, which was later given to Tishpak and then Marduk. Ningishzida is a god who normally lives in the underworld. He is the son of Ninazu and his name may be etymologically derived from

7740-411: Was not envisioned as a youthful god. According to one tradition, he was the consort of Ninhursag, a tradition which contradicts the usual portrayal of Enki as Ninhursag's consort. In one Sumerian poem, offerings are made to Šhul-pa-e in the underworld and, in later mythology, he was one of the demons of the underworld. Akkadian Empire The Akkadian Empire ( / ə ˈ k eɪ d i ən / )

7830-879: Was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period , although both transitions are blurry. For example, it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both Uruk and Lagash . The Akkadian Period is contemporary with EB IV (in Israel ), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey ). The relative order of Akkadian kings

7920-445: Was succeeded by Puzer-Mama who, as Akkadian power waned, achieved independence from Shar-Kali-Sharri , assuming the title of "King of Lagash" and starting the illustrious Second Dynasty of Lagash. The empire of Akkad likely fell in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a " Dark Age " with no prominent imperial authority until the Third Dynasty of Ur . The region's political structure may have reverted to

8010-546: Was the first known ancient empire of Mesopotamia , succeeding the long-lived civilization of Sumer . Centered on the city of Akkad ( / ˈ æ k æ d / ) and its surrounding region, the empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule and exercised significant influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant , and Anatolia , sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun and Magan (modern United Arab Emirates , Saudi Arabia , Bahrain , Qatar and Oman ) in

8100-552: Was the rain-fed agricultural system and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production. Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in

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