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109-474: The Sukhothai Kingdom was a post-classical Siamese kingdom ( maṇḍala ) in Mainland Southeast Asia surrounding the ancient capital city of Sukhothai in present-day north-central Thailand . It evolved from a trading hub to a city-state in 1127 and emerged into the kingdom by Si Inthrathit in 1238. Sukhothai existed as an independent polity until 1438 when it fell under the influence of

218-784: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . The English term Sukhothai ( Thai : สุโขทัย ) is the romanization of the Thai word per the Royal Thai General System of Transcription . The Thai word for the historical country was a transliteration of the Khmer spelling, rendered in English as Sukhodaya ( Khmer : សុខោទ័យ ). The Khmer term is itself derived from the Sanskrit sukha ( Sanskrit : सुख , 'lasting happiness') and udaya ( Sanskrit : उदय , 'rise' or 'emergence'). Together,

327-527: A world history approach to history, specifically the school developed during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Outside of world history, the term is also sometimes used to avoid erroneous pre-conceptions around the terms Middle Ages , Medieval Period , and the Dark Ages (see medievalism ), though the application of the term post-classical on a global scale is also problematic, and may likewise be Eurocentric . Academic publications sometimes use

436-542: A kingdom at Martaban , the predecessor to Hanthawaddy (present-day Bago , Myanmar ). Martaban is traditionally considered a tributary state of Sukhothai, but such Sukhothai domination may not have extended that far. With regard to religion and culture, Ram Khamhaeng requested monks from Sri Thamnakorn to propagate Theravada Buddhism in Sukhothai. In 1283, the Sukhothai script was likely invented by Ram Khamhaeng;

545-454: A local mueang chief, Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao, rebelled against the governor at Sukhodaya and established Sukhothai as an independent Thai state. Bang Klang Hao was assisted by a local ally, Pho Khun Pha Mueang . This event was a turning point in the history of the Tai peoples, as Sukhothai would remain the center of Tai power until the end of the 14th century. Bang Klang Hao ruled Sukhothai under

654-471: A position similar to both that of a viceroy and an heir presumptive , establishing a form of personal union and creating the Siamese Front Palace system. Prince Ramesuan was presumably accompanied by Ayutthayan administrative staff and a military garrison, thus affirming the end of Sukhothai as an independent kingdom. Under tributary status, the former territories of Sukhothai, known to

763-496: A possible fifth category but was influenced heavily from both South and East Asia literal cultures. All four cultures in post-classical times used poetry , drama , and prose . Throughout the period and until the 19th century poetry was the dominant form of literary expression. In West Asia, South Asia, Europe, and China, great poetic works often used figurative language. Examples include, the Sanskrit Shakuntala ,

872-690: A power vacuum for the Mediterranean and Europe, but forced certain areas to build what some historians might call new civilizations entirely. An entirely different political system was applied in Western Europe (i.e. feudalism ), as well as a different society (i.e. manorialism ). However, the once Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) retained many features of old Rome, as well as Greek and Persian similarities. Kievan Rus' and subsequently Russia began development in Eastern Europe as well. In

981-607: A relative (but not a direct descendant) of Yersinia Pestis rose to afflict Eurasia: the Black Death . The first instance of the second plague pandemic was between 1347 and 1351. It killed variously between 25% and 50% of populations. Traditionally many historians believed the Black Death started in China and was then spread westward by invading Mongols who inadvertently carried infected fleas and rats with them. Although there

1090-646: A result of the Black Death is most discussed, Islamic countries including the Ottoman Empire also partook in land-based expansionism and used their own slave trade. The term post-classical science is often used in academic circles and in college courses to combine the study of medieval European science and medieval Islamic science due to their interactions with one another. However scientific knowledge also spread westward by trade and war from Eastern Eurasia, particularly from China by Arabs. The Islamic world also took medical knowledge from South Asia . In

1199-559: A rich regional historiography, ranging from the 14th-century Ibn Khaldun to the 20th-century Marshall Hodgson and beyond. Correspondingly, research into the network of commercial hubs which enabled goods and ideas to move between China in the East and the Atlantic islands in the West—which can be called the early history of globalization —is fairly advanced; one key historian in this field

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1308-553: A routine occurrence. Historians consider the hypothesis of a Chinese origin of a westward-moving plague unlikely given the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire and the 5,000-mile journey between China proper and Crimea through sparsely populated Central Asia. The aftershocks of the plague continued to affect populations well into the early modern period. In Western Europe, the devastating loss of people created lasting changes. Wage labor began to rise in Western Europe and there

1417-530: A useful approach to World History in the Middle Ages, noting that certain climate events had effects on all human populations. The post-classical era saw several common developments or themes. There was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas; the rise and/or spread of the three major world, or missionary, religions; and a period of rapidly expanding trade and trade networks. While scholastic emphasis has remained on Eurasia there

1526-459: A vassal state. He was succeeded by Sai Lue Thai (Maha Thammaracha III) in 1399. In 1424, after the death of Sai Lue Thai, his sons Phaya Ram and Phaya Ban Mueang fought for the throne. Intharacha of Ayutthaya intervened and installed Ban Mueang as Borommapan (Maha Thammaracha IV). When Borommapan died in 1438, Borommarachathirat II of Ayutthaya installed his son Ramesuan (the future Borommatrailokkanat of Ayutthaya) as Upparat in Sukhothai,

1635-514: Is Janet Abu-Lughod . Understanding of communication within sub-Saharan Africa or the Americas is, by contrast, far more limited. Around the 2010s, therefore, researchers began to explore the possibilities of writing history covering the Old World, where human activities were fairly interconnected, and establish its relationship with other cultural spheres, such as the Americas and Oceania. In

1744-493: Is a growing effort to examine the effects of these global trends on other places. In describing geographic zones historians have identified three large self contained world regions, Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, and Oceania. First was the expansion and growth of civilization into new geographic areas across Asia , Africa , Europe , Mesoamerica , and western South America . However, as noted by world historian Peter N. Stearns , there were no common global political trends during

1853-462: Is connectedness, including transnational relationships. [...] The third approach is the study of globalization [...]. Globalization is a term that needs to be rescued from the present, and salvaged for the past. To define it as always encompassing the whole planet is to mistake the current outcome for a very ancient process. A number of commentators have pointed to the history of the Earth's climate as

1962-692: Is even claimed by some historians – such as Andre Gunder Frank , William Hardy McNeill , Jerry H. Bentley , and Marshall Hodgson – that the Afro-Eurasian world was loosely united culturally, and that the Silk Road was fundamental to this unity. This major trade route began with the Han dynasty of China, connecting it to the Roman Empire and any regions in between or nearby. At this time, Central Asia exported horses, wool , and jade into China for

2071-620: Is no concrete historical evidence for this theory, the plague is considered endemic on the steppe. Currently there is extensive historiography of the Black Death's effects in Europe and the Islamic world, but beyond Western Eurasia direct evidence for Black Death's presence is lacking. The Bulletin of the History of Medicine explored the potential linking of known 14th century epidemics in Asia with

2180-490: Is now lost, but it influenced Chinese and Korean geographical knowledge centuries later. It is apparent that within Eurasia transfer of information between world cultures did occur, usually through translations of written documents. Within Eurasia, there were four major civilization groups that had literate cultures and created literature and arts, including Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Southeast Asia could be

2289-550: Is said to have adopted Theravada Buddhism as the state religion of Sukhothai; the accuracy of these claims by traditional historians is disputed. To the north, Ram Khamhaeng placed Phrae and Muang Sua (present-day Luang Prabang , Laos ), among other mandala city-states, under tribute . To the west, Ram Khamhaeng helped assist the Mon people under Wareru (who is said to have eloped with Ram Khamhaeng's daughter) in their rebellion against Pagan control, and Wareru would establish

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2398-563: The Camadevivamsa and " Jinakalamali " chronicles, the city was founded by a hermit named Suthep in 629 AD, and the Mon ruler of Lavo Kingdom (present-day Lopburi ) sent his daughter Jamadevi to become its first queen. However, this date is now considered too early, and the actual beginning is placed at around 750 AD. At that time, most of what is now central Thailand was under the rule of various Mon city-states , known collectively as

2507-596: The Arabic Thousand and one nights , Old English Beowulf and works by the Chinese Du Fu and the Persian Rumi . In Japan, prose uniquely thrived more than in other geographic areas. The Tale of Genji is considered the world's first realistic novel written in the 9th century. Haripu%C3%B1jaya The kingdom is referred to as K'un-lun in ancient Chinese records. According to

2616-579: The British diplomatic mission. From then on, as a part of modern nation-building process, modern national Siamese history included the history of the Sukhothai Kingdom. Sukhothai was said to be the "first national capital", followed by Ayutthaya and Thonburi , until Rattanakosin , or today Bangkok . Sukhothai history was crucial among Siam's "modernists", both "conservative" and "revolutionary". Sukhothai history became even more important after

2725-797: The Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. The Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 marked the high-water point of the Mongol conquests and was the first time a Mongol advance had ever been beaten back in direct combat on the battlefield. Though the Mongols launched many more invasions into the Levant, briefly occupying it and raiding as far as Gaza after a decisive victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, they withdrew due to various geopolitical factors. By

2834-638: The Columbian exchange . Thus researchers around the year 2020 emphasized that "a global history of the period between 500 and 1500 is still wanting" and that "historians have only just begun to embark on a global history of the Middle Ages". For many regions of the world, there are well established histories. Although medieval studies in Europe tended in the 19th century to focus on creating histories for individual nation-states, much 20th-century research focused, successfully, on creating an integrated history of medieval Europe. The Islamic World likewise has

2943-525: The Dvaravati kingdom. Queen Jamadevi gave birth to twins, the older succeeding her as the ruler of Lamphun, and the younger becoming ruler of neighboring Lampang . The local legend said that at the beginning of her reign, Haripuñjaya's Jamadevi was defeated by the Lawa dynasty's Vilanga  [ th ] , the 13th king of Raming Nakhon ( ระมิงค์นคร, present Chiang Mai ), but her 2 princes married

3052-586: The European Middle Ages . The period is characterized by the expansion of civilizations geographically and the development of trade networks between civilizations. This period is also called the medieval era , post-antiquity era , post-ancient era , pre-modernity era , or pre-modern era . In Asia , the spread of Islam created a series of caliphates and inaugurated the Islamic Golden Age , leading to advances in science in

3161-597: The Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean , replacing Byzantium in the latter region. The Christian Crusades into the Middle East (as well as Muslim Spain and Sicily ) brought Islamic science, technology, and goods to Western Europe . Western trade into East Asia was pioneered by Marco Polo . Importantly, China began to influence regions like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam through trade and conquest. Finally,

3270-461: The Sengoku period did there come to be fully decentralized power dominated by private military leaders. Still other historians reject the term feudalism outright, challenging its ability to usefully describe societies either within or outside of medieval Europe. The Mongol Empire, which existed during the 13th and 14th centuries, was the largest continuous land empire in history. Originating in

3379-669: The Siamese Revolution of 1932 . Research and writing on Sukhothai history were abundant. Ideas derived from the inscription were studied and "theorised". One of the most well-known topics was Sukhothai's "democracy" rule. Stories of the close relationship between the king and his people, vividly described as a "father-son" relationship, were considered the "seed" of ancient Thai democracy; however, changes in government took place when later society embraced "foreign" traditions, like those of Angkor , influenced by Hinduism and "mystic" Mahayana Buddhism . The story of Sukhothai became

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3488-566: The Sukhothai dynasty . Sukhothai is traditionally known as "the first Thai kingdom" in Thai historiography, but current historical consensus agrees that the history of the Thai people began much earlier . The ruins of the kingdom's capital, now 12 km (7.5 mi) outside the modern town of Sukhothai Thani in Sukhothai Province , are preserved as the Sukhothai Historical Park and have been designated

3597-823: The Western Roman Empire (in 476 CE), the Gupta Empire (in 543 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (in 651 CE). The post-classical period is one of the five or six major periods world historians use: Although post-classical is synonymous with the Middle Ages of Western Europe, the term post-classical is not necessarily a member of the traditional tripartite periodization of Western European history into classical , middle , and modern . The historical field of world history , which looks at common themes occurring across multiple cultures and regions, has enjoyed extensive development since

3706-707: The steppes of Central Asia, the Mongol Empire eventually stretched from Central Europe to the Sea of Japan , extending northwards into Siberia , eastwards and southwards into the Indian subcontinent , Indochina , and the Iranian Plateau , and westwards as far as the Levant and Arabia. The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of nomadic tribes in the Mongolia homeland under the leadership of Genghis Khan , who

3815-425: The "first evidence" of the history of Sukhothai. Mongkut said that he found a "first stone inscription" in Sukhothai which told of heroic kings such as Ram Khamhaeng , the administrative system, and other developments in what was considered the "prosperous time" of the kingdom. The story of Sukhothai was incorporated into Thailand's "national history" in the late 19th century by Mongkut as a historical work presented to

3924-569: The "foreign ideology" of Cambodian communism . Other aspects of Sukhothai were also explored under the new curriculum, such as the commoner and slave status as well as economics. These topics became the subject of ideological controversy during the Cold War and the communist insurgency in Thailand . Post-classical In world history , post-classical history refers to the period from about 500 CE to 1500 CE, roughly corresponding to

4033-549: The 11th century, but colder by the early 17th century. The degree of climate change which occurred in all regions across the world is uncertain, as is whether such changes were all part of a global trend. Climate trends appear to be more recognizable in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere however, there are instances where climate in areas without written records have been estimated, historians now believe

4142-532: The 13th century during the reign of the Mongol Empire, which through conquest had brought stability in Central Asia comparable to the Pax Romana . It was claimed by a Muslim historian that Central Asia was peaceful and safe to transverse. "(Central Asia) enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering

4251-564: The 13th century, complex states were established, most notably the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which collected tribute from many island chains in the greater region. Religion that envisaged the possibility that all humans could be included in a universal order had emerged already in the first millennium BCE, particularly with Buddhism . In the following millennium, Buddhism was joined by two other major, universalizing, missionary religions, both developing from Judaism : Christianity and Islam . By

4360-444: The 1980s. However, World History research has tended to focus on early modern globalization (beginning around 1500) and subsequent developments, and views post-classical history as mainly pertaining to Afro-Eurasia . Historians recognize the difficulties of creating a periodization and identifying common themes that include not only this region but also, for example, the Americas, since they had little contact with Afro-Eurasia before

4469-457: The 2 princesses of King Vilanga and both dynasties became allies. The kingdom under King Adityaraja, came into conflict with the Khmers in the twelfth century. Lamphun inscriptions from 1213, 1218, and 1219, mention King Sabbadhisiddhi endowing Buddhist monuments. The chronicles say that the Khmer unsuccessfully besieged Haripuñjaya several times during the 11th century. It is not clear if

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4578-711: The Ayutthayan elite through marriage alliances, and often played the role of kingmaker in Ayutthayan succession conflicts. Sukhothai military leaders served prominently in Ayutthaya's army as the military tradition of Sukhothai was considered to be tougher. From 1456 to 1474, former Sukhothai territory became a battleground during the Ayutthaya-Lan Na War (1441–1474). In 1462, Sukhothai briefly rebelled against Ayutthaya and allied itself with their enemy, Lan Na . In 1463, Borommatrailokkanat temporarily moved

4687-765: The Burmese, and Bayinnaung installed Maha Thammaracha (Sanphet I) as the vassal king in Ayutthaya and the first king of the Sukhothai dynasty . In 1584, Maha Thammaracha and his son, the Upparat and future Naresuan the Great (Sanphet II), would free Ayutthaya from Burmese overlordship in the Burmese-Siamese War of 1584–1593 . After the Battle of the Sittaung River, Naresuan forcibly relocated people from

4796-471: The Deccan event, surviving accounts do not describe symptoms; so historians are left to speculate. Perhaps these outbreaks were not the Black Death but instead some other disease already common to East Asia at the time, such as typhus , smallpox , or dysentery . Compared to Western reactions to the Black Death, Chinese records that do mention the epidemics are relatively muted, indicating that epidemics were

4905-510: The Earth , volcanic activity , ocean circulation , and man-made population decline . This timetable gives a basic overview of states, cultures and events which transpired roughly between the years 200 and 1500. Sections are broken by political and geographic location. This section explains events and trends which affected the geographic area of Eurasia . The civilizations within this area were distinct from one another but still endured shared experiences and some development patterns. In

5014-609: The Islamic Delhi Sultanate conquered large portions of India, it imposed higher taxes but otherwise left local feudal structures in place. Though most of Eurasia adopted feudalism and similar systems during this era, China employed a centralized bureaucracy throughout much of the post classical period, particularly after 1000. A major factor that distinguished China from other regions was that local leaders were reluctant to self-identify by their current location; instead, they typically displayed an ambition to unite

5123-483: The Islamic iqta' system, Indian feudalism, and Heian Japan . Some world historians generalize that societies can be called feudal if authority was fragmented, with a set of obligations between vassal and lord. After the 8th century, feudalism became more common across Europe. Even Byzantium, which had inherited the government of the Roman Empire , chose to devolve its military obligations into themes to increase

5232-624: The Islamic Empires, and the Far Eastern civilizations. In Africa, the earlier introduction of the camel allowed for a new and eventually large trans-Saharan trade , which connected Sub-Saharan West Africa to Eurasia. The Islamic Empires adopted many Greek, Roman, and Indian advances and spread them through the Islamic sphere of influence, allowing these developments to reach Europe , North and West Africa, and Central Asia. Islamic sea trade helped connect these areas, including those in

5341-682: The Mau Shan Prince, Sam Lung-pha of Mogaung , before he established the Tai kingdom of the Ahom in Assam in 1229, raided the Menam valley and the Malay peninsula as far as Tawi ( Dawei ) and Yansaleng ( Junk Ceylon ?). This purported influx of armed Tai may have had something to do with establishing the Tai kingdom of Sukhothai. According to legend, in 1238, a group of Central Thai peoples led by

5450-470: The Mongols introduced Chinese gunpowder weapons to Europe or whether gunpowder weapons were independently invented in Europe. In the Mongol Empire, information from diverse cultures was brought together for large projects: for instance in 1303 the Mongol Yuan dynasty combined Chinese and Islamic cartography to make a map that likely included all of Eurasia including western Europe. This "Eurasia map"

5559-570: The Silk Road trade played a role in spreading the infamous Black Death . The disease, spread by rats, was carried by merchant ships sailing across the Mediterranean that brought the plague back to Sicily, causing an epidemic in 1347. In the Eurasian world, disease was an inescapable part of daily life. Europe in particular suffered minor outbreaks of disease every decade during the period. Using both land and sea routes, devastating pandemics could spread far beyond their initial focal point. Tracking

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5668-565: The Silk Road, because Muslim rulers generally closed the Silk Road to Christian Europe to an extent that Europe would be cut off from Asia for centuries. Specifically, the political developments that affected the Silk Road included the emergence of the Turks, the political movements of the Byzatine and Sasanian Empires , and the rise of the Arabs, among others. The Silk Road flourished again in

5777-445: The Southern Hemisphere became colder between 950 and 1250. There are shorter climate periods that could be said roughly to account for large scale climate trends in the post-classical period. These include the Late Antique Little Ice Age , the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age . The extreme weather events of 536–537 were likely initiated by the eruption of the Lake Ilopango caldera in El Salvador . Sulfate emitted into

5886-424: The Western world and in Islamic realms, much emphasis was placed on preserving the rationalist Greek tradition of figures such as Aristotle . In the context of science within Islam there are questions as to whether Islamic scientists simply preserved accomplishments from classical antiquity or built upon earlier Greek advances. Regardless, classical European science was brought back to the Christian kingdoms due to

5995-446: The Yuan dynasty, but it was later overthrown by the Han Chinese Ming dynasty in 1368. The Genghisid rulers returned to Mongolia homeland and continued rule in the Northern Yuan dynasty . All of the original Mongol Khanates collapsed by 1500, but smaller successor states remained independent until the 1700s. Descendants of Chagatai Khan created the Mughal Empire that ruled much of India in early modern times. The conquests and

6104-403: The air initiated global cooling, migrations and crop failures worldwide, possibly intensifying an already cooler time period. Records show that the world's average temperature remained colder for at least a century afterwards. The Medieval Warm Period from 950 to 1250 occurred mostly in the Northern Hemisphere, causing warmer summers in many areas; the high temperatures would only be surpassed by

6213-487: The assessment of James Belich , John Darwin , Margret Frenz, and Chris Wickham , Global history may be boundless, but global historians are not. Global history cannot usefully mean the history of everything, everywhere, all the time. [...] Three approaches [...] seem to us to have real promise. One is global history as the pursuit of significant historical problems across time, space, and specialism. This can sometimes be characterized as 'comparative' history . [...] Another

6322-434: The capital. Under Lavo control, various monuments was built in the city, several of which still stand in the Sukhothai Historical Park . They include the Ta Pha Daeng Shrine, Wat Phra Phai Luang, and Wat Si Sawai. It was then shifted to Tai 's Lan Na since the early 14th century and steadily influenced by Mon and Sri Lanka through Theravada Buddhism since the reign of Ram Khamhaeng . In 1270, Si Inthrathit died and

6431-641: The chronicles describe actual or legendary events, but the other Dvaravati Mon kingdoms did in fact fall to the Khmers at this time. The early 13th century was a golden time for Haripuñjaya, as the chronicles talk only about religious activities or constructing buildings, not about wars. Nevertheless, Haripuñjaya was besieged in 1292 by the Tai Yuan king Mangrai , who incorporated it into his Lan Na ("One Million Rice Fields") kingdom. The plan set up by Mangrai to overpower Haripuñjaya began by dispatching Ai Fa ( Thai : อ้ายฟ้า ) on an espionage mission to create chaos in Haripuñjaya. Ai Fa managed to spread discontent among

6540-462: The context of global history, the label of feudalism has been used to describe any agricultural society where central authority broke down to be replaced by a warrior aristocracy . Feudal societies are characterized by reliance on personal relationships with military elites, rather than a bureaucracy with a state-supported professional standing army. The label of feudalism has thus been used to describe many areas of Eurasia including medieval Europe ,

6649-633: The country in times of disunity. Beyond a broad generalization, the usefulness of the term "feudalism" is debated by contemporary historians, as the daily functions of feudalism sometimes differed greatly between world regions. Comparisons between feudal Europe and post-classical Japan have been particularly controversial. Throughout the 20th century, historians often compared medieval Europe to post-classical Japan. More recently, it has been argued that, until roughly 1400, Japan balanced its decentralized military power with more centralized forms of imperial (governmental) and monastic (religious) authority. Only in

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6758-434: The death of Ram Khamhaeng. To the north, Uttaradit and the Lao kingdoms of Muang Sua and Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (present-day Vientiane ) liberated themselves from their Sukhothai overlords. In 1319, Martaban in the west broke away. In 1321, Lan Na (the successor state to Ngoenyang ) annexed Tak , one of the oldest towns in Sukhothai. To the south, Suphannaphum Kingdom and Nakhon Si Thammarat also broke free early in

6867-409: The earliest evidence of this ancient Thai writing is seen in the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription , discovered by Mongkut (Rama IV) nearly six centuries later. The script later evolved into the modern Thai script of today. It was also during this time that the first relations with Yuan China were established and Sukhothai began sending trade missions to China. The well-known exported good of Sukhothai

6976-671: The economies and social fabric of established empires were severely destabilized. Rural societies, while still facing horrific death tolls, saw fewer socioeconomic effects. In addition, no evidence has been found of bubonic plague in India before 1600. Nevertheless, it is likely that the trauma of disease (and other natural disasters) was a major cause of profound religious and political changes in Eurasia. Different authorities reacted to disease outbreaks with strategies that they believed would best protect their power. The Catholic Church in France spoke of healing miracles; Confucian bureaucrats asserted that sudden deaths of Chinese emperors represented

7085-664: The end of the period, these three religions were between them widespread, and often politically dominant, across the Old World. Outside of Eurasia, religion or otherwise a veneration of the supernatural was also used to reinforce power structures, articulate world views and create foundational myths for society. Mesoamerican cosmological narratives are an example of this. Finally, communication and trade across Afro-Eurasia increased rapidly. The Silk Road continued to spread cultures and ideas through trade. Communication spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade networks were established between western Europe, Byzantium, early Russia,

7194-434: The entire North Atlantic. In the 14th century, the growing season in Europe became unreliable; meanwhile in China the cultivation of oranges was driven southward by colder temperatures. Especially in Europe, the Little Ice Age had great cultural ramifications. It persisted until the Industrial Revolution , long after the post-classical period. Its causes are unclear: possible explanations include sunspots , orbital cycles of

7303-411: The esteem of pilgrimage that existed across all of Afro-Eurasia, in the words of world historian R. I. Moore "if any single institution 'made' the Eurasian Middle Ages it was pilgrimage." Nevertheless, after the 15th century, the Silk Road disappeared from regular use. This was primarily a result from the growing sea travel pioneered by Europeans, which allowed the trade of goods by sailing around

7412-446: The experience of the Crusades . As a result of Persian trade in China, and the battle of the Talas River , Chinese innovations entered the Islamic intellectual world. These include advances in astronomy and in papermaking . Paper-making spread through the Islamic world as far west as Islamic Spain , before paper-making was acquired for Europe by the Reconquista . There is debate about transmission of gunpowder regarding whether

7521-466: The first era, Sukhothai strongly shared a connection with western Mon neighbor, Hanthawaddy Kingdom , in present-day lower Myanmar . From the 13th to 14th centuries, Sukhothai was strongly influenced by the Khmer culture as Lavo the regional center. About some fifty kilometers north of Sukhodaya stood another sister town, Sri Sajanalaya , that would later become Si Satchanalai ( Thai : ศรีสัชนาลัย ), an important center of Sukhothai politics alongside

7630-449: The global warming of the 20th/21st centuries. It has been hypothesized that the warmer temperatures allowed the Norse to colonize Greenland, due to ice-free waters. Outside of Europe there is evidence of warming conditions, including higher temperatures in China and major North American droughts which adversely affected numerous cultures. After 1250, glaciers began to expand in Greenland, affecting its thermohaline circulation , and cooling

7739-572: The grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei , or one of his other sons such as Tolui , Chagatai , or Jochi . After Möngke Khan died, rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan , who then not only fought each other in the Toluid Civil War , but also dealt with challenges from descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued as Kublai sought unsuccessfully to regain control of

7848-526: The growth of the Mongol Empire in Central Asia established safe trade which allowed goods, cultures, ideas, and disease to spread between Asia, Europe, and Africa. The Americas had their own trade network, but here trade was restricted by range and scope. The Mayan network spread across Mesoamerica but lacked direct connections to the complex societies of South and North America, and these zones remained separate from one another. In Oceania , some of

7957-537: The historical kings of Sukhothai, and married one of Maha Chakkraphat's daughters, strengthening his claim to both a historical and present monarchy. Despite this, the title of Upparat went to Maha Chakkraphat's son Ramesuan (who died in 1564) and later his brother Mahinthrathirat . After a series of wars with the Burmese Toungoo Empire , Maha Thammaracha allied himself with the Burmese against Ayutthaya. In 1569, Ayutthaya under Mahinthrathirat fell to

8066-467: The interactions the Mongol Empire had with western Eurasia are one of the more comprehensively researched areas for historians looking to define a globalized Middle Ages. The Silk Road was a Eurasian trade route that played a large role in global communication and interaction. It stimulated cultural exchange; encouraged the learning of new languages; resulted in the trade of many goods, such as silk, gold, and spices; and also spread religion and disease. It

8175-588: The island chains of Polynesia engaged in trade with one another. For instance, with outrigger canoes long-distance communication of over 2,300 miles between Hawaii and Tahiti was maintained for centuries before its disruption and separation. Meanwhile, in Melanesia there is evidence of exchanges between mainland Papua New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands off its coast, most likely for obsidian . Populations moved westward until 1200, after which

8284-766: The isolated Americas, the Mississippian culture spread in North America and Mesoamerica saw the building of the Aztec Empire , while the Andean region of South America saw the establishment of the Wari Empire first and the Inca Empire later. In Oceania, ancestors of modern Polynesians were established in village communities by the 6th century, a gradual intensification of complexity took place. In

8393-585: The latter's silk; the Romans would trade for the Chinese commodity as well, offering wine in return. The Silk Road would often decline and rise again in trade from the Iron Age to the post-classical era. Following one such decline, it was reopened in Central Asia by Han dynasty general Ban Chao during the 1st century. There were vulnerabilities as well to changing political situations. The rise of Islam changed

8502-470: The least violence from anyone." As such, trade and communication between Europe, East Asia, South Asia, and West Asia required little effort. Handicraft production, art, and scholarship prospered, and wealthy merchants enjoyed cosmopolitan cities. Notable Travelers including Ibn Battuta , Rabban Bar Sauma , and Marco Polo traveled across North Africa and Eurasia freely, those that left accounts of their experiences inspired future adventurers. The Silk Road

8611-572: The loss of a dynasty's Mandate of Heaven , shifting blame away from themselves. The severe loss of manpower in the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires contributed to early Muslim conquests in the region. In the long term, overland trade in Eurasia diminished, as coastal Indian Ocean trade became more frequent. There were recurrent aftershocks of the Plague of Justinian until around 750, after which many nations saw an economic recovery. Six centuries later,

8720-527: The medieval Islamic world and trade among the Asian, African , and European continents. East Asia experienced the full establishment of the power of Imperial China , which established several dynasties influencing Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Religions such as Buddhism and neo-Confucianism spread in the region. Gunpowder was developed in China during the post-classical era. The Mongol Empire connected Europe and Asia, creating safe trade and stability between

8829-568: The migration of Tai peoples into Mainland Southeast Asia was somewhat gradual, and likely took place between the 8th and 10th centuries. Prior to the rise of Sukhothai, various other Tai kingdoms existed in the neighboring northern highlands. These include Ngoenyang of the Northern Thai people (present-day Chiang Saen ) and Chiang Hung of the Tai Lue people (present-day Jinghong , China ). According to semi-legendary Shan documents,

8938-466: The model of "freedom". Chit Phumisak , a "revolutionary" scholar, saw the Sukhothai period as the beginning of the Thai people's liberation from their foreign ruler in Angkor. During military rule beginning in the 1950s, Sukhothai was increasingly featured in the Thai national history curriculum. Sukhothai's "father-son" model for Thai democracy in contrast to Angkorian tradition became one of freedom from

9047-478: The monarch's residence to Song Khwae, presumably to be closer to the frontline, and the city was permanently renamed to Phitsanulok. Contemporary Portuguese traders described Ayutthaya and Phitsanulok as "twin states". In 1548, Maha Chakkraphat named Khun Phirenthorathep, a noble from the Sukhothai clan, as the leader in Phitsanulok. Phirenthorathep was conferred with the name Maha Thammaracha in line with

9156-592: The neighboring Ayutthaya after the death of Borommapan (Maha Thammaracha IV). Sukhothai was originally a trade center in Lavo —itself under the suzerainty of the Khmer Empire —when Central Thai people led by Pho Khun Bang Klang Hao, a local leader, revolted and gained their independence. Bang Klang Hao took the regnal name of Si Inthrathit and became the first monarch of the Phra Ruang dynasty . The kingdom

9265-509: The network dissolved into much smaller economies. During post-classical times, there is evidence that many regions of the world were affected similarly by global climate conditions; however, direct effects in temperature and precipitation varied by region. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , changes did not all occur at once. Generally however, studies found that temperatures were relatively warmer in

9374-409: The northern cities of Phitsanulok , Sukhothai , Phichai , Sawankhalok , Kamphaeng Phet , Phichit , and Phra Bang closer to Ayutthaya. Since then, the ruins of the capital city of the former Sukhothai Kingdom have been preserved as the Sukhothai Historical Park and designated a World Heritage Site . The Silajaruek of Sukhothai are hundreds of stone inscriptions that form a historical record of

9483-407: The number of soldiers and ships available for military service during times of crisis. There were similarities between European feudalism and the Islamic iqta' , as both featured landed classes of mounted warriors whose titles were granted by a monarch or sultan. Because of these similarities, it was common for societal structures to be preserved in the face of religious upheaval; for instance, after

9592-546: The origin of massive bubonic plagues and their potential spread between Eastern and Western Eurasia has been academically contentious. Besides bubonic plague, other diseases including smallpox also spread across cultural regions. The first plague pandemic caused by Yersinia pestis began with the 541–549 Plague of Justinian. The origin of the plague appears to have been the Tian Shan mountains in Kyrgyzstan . But

9701-478: The origin of the 541–549 epidemic remains uncertain: some historians postulate East Africa as a possible geographical origin. There is no record of a disease with the characteristics of Yersinia pestis breaking out in China before its appearance in Pelusium Egypt . The plague spread to Europe and West Asia, with a possible spread into East Asia. Established urban civilizations were massively depopulated;

9810-538: The people of Ayutthaya as the Northern Cities ( Thai : เมืองเหนือ , RTGS :  Mueang Nua ), continued to be ruled by local aristocrats under Ayutthaya's overlordship per the mandala systems of both dominions. The mandalas would politically and culturally merge during the 15th and 16th centuries, and Sukhothai's warfare, administration, architecture, religious practice, and language influenced those of Ayutthaya. Sukhothai nobles linked themselves with

9919-485: The period. Among the most important inscriptions are the Ram Khamhaeng Inscription (also known as Inscription No. 1), Silajaruek Wat Srichum (an account on the history of the region itself and of Sri Lanka ), and Silajaruek Wat Pamamuang (a politico-religious record of Loe Thai). Mongkut (Rama IV) is considered the champion of Sukhothai narrative history due to his discovery of Inscription No. 1,

10028-530: The phrase can be interpreted as meaning "dawn of happiness". According to the legend, the city of Sukhothai was founded in 494 BCE followed by its twin city of Chaliang ( เชลียง ) after Tai-speaking people migrated southward from the upper Mekong basin. Later in 500 CE, after the establishment of the Lavo Kingdom , a nobel from Lavo named Phalirat ( Thai : พาลีราช ) became the first Sukhothai governor. The following rulers after Phalirat remain unclear. It

10137-607: The plague. One example is the Deccan Plateau , where much of the Delhi Sultanate 's army suddenly died of a sickness in 1334. As this was 15 years before Europe's Black Death but little detail about the symptoms, it is unlikely that this was an instance of bubonic plague. Meanwhile, Yuan China suffered from major epidemics in the mid-14th century, including a recorded 90% death rate in Hebei Province. As with

10246-599: The post-classical period, rather it was a period of loosely organized states and other developments, but no common political patterns emerged. In Asia, China continued its historic dynastic cycle and became more complex, improving its bureaucracy. The creation of the Islamic empires established a new power in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The Mali and Songhai Empires were formed in West Africa. The fall of Roman civilization not only left

10355-481: The regnal name Si Inthrathit and established the Phra Ruang dynasty . Under the rule of Si Inthrathit, the primordial kingdom expanded its influence to the bordering cities surrounding the capital. By the end of his reign in 1270, Sukhothai covered the entire upper valley of the Chao Phraya River , then known simply as Mae Nam ( Thai : แม่น้ำ , 'mother of waters'), the generic Thai name for all rivers. In

10464-421: The reign of Arun Kuman ( อรุณกุมาร ). Controlling trade routes between Mon city-states in the west and Tai kingdoms in the north, as well as other polities in the lower Chao Phraya River basin, made Sukhothai emerge as the logistics hub in the region and evolved into a city-state no later than 1127, which continued until the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238. In contrast, some historians suggest

10573-529: The reign of Loe Thai. Thus, the kingdom was quickly reduced to its former status as merely a local power. In 1323, Loe Thai was succeeded by his cousin, Ngua Nam Thum . In 1347, he was succeeded by Li Thai (Maha Thammaracha I), the son of Loe Thai. In 1349, armies from Ayutthaya invaded the kingdom and forced Sukhothai to become its tributary. The center of power in the tributary state shifted to Song Khwae (present-day Phitsanulok ). In 1378, Lue Thai (Maha Thammaracha II) had to submit to this new Thai power as

10682-490: The reign of Ram Khamhaeng, the kingdom fell into decline. In 1349, during the reign of Li Thai (Maha Thammaracha I), Sukhothai was invaded by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, a neighboring Thai polity. It remained a tributary state of Ayutthaya until it was annexed by the kingdom in 1438 after the death of Borommapan. Despite this, the Sukhothai nobility continued to influence the Ayutthaya monarchy in centuries after through

10791-524: The southern tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean. The route was vulnerable to spreading plague. The Plague of Justinian originated in East Africa and had a major outbreak in Europe in 542 causing the deaths of a quarter of the Mediterranean's population. Trade between Europe, Africa, and Asia along the route was at least partially responsible for spreading the plague. Eight centuries later,

10900-404: The terms post-classical and late antiquity synonymously to describe the history of Western Eurasia between 250 and 800 CE. The post-classical period corresponds roughly to the period from 500 CE to 1450 CE. Beginning and ending dates might vary depending on the region, with the period beginning at the end of the previous classical period: Han China (ending in 220 CE),

11009-645: The time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest; the Chagatai Khanate in the west; the Ilkhanate in the southwest; and the Yuan dynasty based in modern-day Beijing . In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of

11118-489: The two regions. In total, the population of the world doubled in the time period, from approximately 210 million in 500 CE to 461 million in 1500 CE. The population generally grew steadily throughout the period but endured some incidental declines due to events including the Plague of Justinian , the Mongol invasions , and the Black Death . Post-classical history is a periodization used by historians employing

11227-518: Was also a major factor in spreading religion across Afro-Eurasia. Muslim teachings from Arabia and Persia reached East Asia. Buddhism spread from India, to China, to Central Asia. One significant development in the spread of Buddhism was the carving of the Gandhara School in the cities of ancient Taxila and the Peshwar , allegedly in the mid 1st century. In addition to commercial travel was

11336-399: Was centralized and expanded to its greatest extent during the reign of Ram Khamhaeng the Great (1279–1298), who some historians considered to have introduced Theravada Buddhism and the initial Thai script to the kingdom. Ram Khamhaeng also initiated relations with Yuan China , through which the kingdom developed the techniques to produce and export ceramics like sangkhalok ware . After

11445-427: Was expected that the city would be abandoned in the late 6th century due to the invasion of another Austroasiatic -speaking people from Umongasela ( อุโมงคเสลา ) in the present-day Fang and was then re-established in 957 by Aphai Kamini ( อภัยคามินี ) who evacuated from Haripuñjaya after the capital Haripuñjaya was sacked by Kuy people from Umongasela. Sukhothai declared independence from Umongasela in 1017 during

11554-466: Was more emphasis on labor-saving machines and mechanisms. Slavery, which had almost vanished from medieval Europe, returned and was one of the reasons for early Portuguese exploration after 1400. The adoption of Arabic numerals may have been partially caused by the plague. Importantly, many economies became specialist, producing only certain goods, seeking expansion elsewhere for exotic resources and slave labor. While typically Western European expansion as

11663-429: Was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected east and west with an enforced Pax Mongolica allowing trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia . The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as

11772-427: Was succeeded by his son Ban Mueang . At the end of Ban Mueang's reign, he was succeeded by his brother Ram Khamhaeng the Great ; both expanded Sukhothai beyond the borders established by their father. To the south, Ram Khamhaeng subjugated the mandala kingdoms of Suvarnabhumi (likely present-day Suphan Buri ) and Tambralinga (present-day Nakhon Si Thammarat ). Through the acquisition of Tambralinga, Ram Khamhaeng

11881-689: Was the sangkhalok ware . This was the only period in Thai history that Siam produced Chinese-style ceramics, and they fell out of use by the 14th century. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, Sukhothai controlled the Chao Phraya plain, with spurs West to the Hanthawaddy Kingdom and South to the Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom . After the death of Ram Khamhaeng, he was succeeded by his son Loe Thai . Tributary states of Sukhothai began to break away rapidly after

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