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129-449: Sulechów is situated in the historic Lower Silesia region, north of the Oder river. The town centre is located about 22 km (14 mi) northeast of the regional capital Zielona Góra , where the national road 32 to Poznań crosses the expressway S3 to Gorzów Wielkopolski . The regional Zielona Góra Airport is about 14 km (8.7 mi) away. The settlement of the region on

258-690: A binding agreement between the former GDR and the Federal Republic now recognising each another as separate sovereign states in international law. This treaty was then voted into effect by both the Volkskammer and the Bundestag by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities; effecting on the one hand, the extinction of the GDR, and on the other, the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of

387-479: A camp for kidnapped Polish children up to 5 years of age, who were deemed " racially worthless " in Wąsosz , where many died. Kamieniec Ząbkowicki was the place of Aktion T4 murders of mentally ill children by involuntary euthanasia . The Project Riese construction project, which cost the lives of many forced laborers of various nationalities, was conducted by Germany in the region. The Polish resistance movement

516-773: A claim to extended monarchical authority over non-Prussian German kingdoms. On 14 April 1871, the Reichstag parliament passed the Constitution of the German Empire ( Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches ), which was published two days later. However, originating from the North German Confederation , the Empire never comprised all "German" lands; as it excluded Luxembourg , and those Cisleithanian crown lands of Austria-Hungary which had been part of

645-548: A federal republic in 1918. At the 1871 Unification of Germany (aside from Austria), the Reich was established constitutionally as a federation of monarchies, each having entered the federation with a defined territory; and consequently the unitary nationalism of the 'German Reich' was initially specified (at Article 1 of the 1871 constitution) in territorial terms, as the lands within the former boundaries of this particular subset of German monarchies. This geographical understanding of

774-848: A result of deforestation and cultivation. The largest forest complexes are Bory Dolnośląskie (3,150 km or 1,220 sq mi), Bory Stobrawskie in Stobrawa and Widawa areas, and smaller fragments of forests in Barycz and Oder River valleys. These forests are kind of multi-species deciduous forests, occurring in fertile grounds. The Oder River valley is reach in groups of mixed forests ( beech , oak , hornbeam , sycamore maple , and pine ). These forests, with protected status, are: Zwierzyniec , Kanigóra near Oława , Dublany, Kępa Opatowicka near Wrocław , Zabór near Przedmoście , and Lubiąż . The other forest areas are The Natural Park in Orsk,

903-572: A result of the Local Government Reorganisation Act of 1998, these four provinces were joined into the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (effective 1 January 1999), whose capital is Wrocław. German Reich German Reich ( lit.   ' German Empire, German Realm ' from German : Deutsches Reich , pronounced [ˌdɔʏtʃəs ˈʁaɪç] ) was the constitutional name for

1032-497: A small Polish-speaking area in the northeastern part of the district of Namslau (Namysłów) , Groß Wartenberg (Syców) and Militsch (Milicz) and a Czech-speaking minority in the rural area around Strehlen (Strzelin) . There were also Polish communities in large cities such as Breslau (Wrocław) and Grünberg (Zielona Góra) . During World War I , the Germans operated at least 24 forced labour camps for Allied prisoners of war in

1161-630: A successor state. Nevertheless, the Federal Republic did not maintain the specific title German Reich , and so consistently replaced the prefix Reichs- in all official titles and designations with Bundes- ("Federal"). Hence, for instance, the office of the Reichskanzler became the Bundeskanzler . Following German reunification on 3 October 1990, the expanded Federal Republic describes itself as "United Germany ", emphasizing that it does not now recognize any territories once included in

1290-695: A whole" in the English version of the text. Instead the states of the Federal Republic of Germany ( West Germany , FRG) and the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany , GDR) agreed to be bound by certain conditions which they had to ratify, one of which was the recognising the reunification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin as constituting the full achievement of a united Germany. On meeting these conditions under Article 7.2 "The United Germany [has] accordingly full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs." Under Article 1 of

1419-571: A whole", as applied to denote the state as a totality of the German national people; and the term "Germany as a whole", as applied to denote the state as a totality of German national territory. The 1918–1933 republic , which was also called the German Reich, was ignored and denounced by the Nazis as a historical aberration. The name "Weimar Republic" was first used in 1929 after Hitler referred to

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1548-725: A whole"; and was divided into British , French , American and Soviet occupation zones; while the Allied Powers exercised the state authority assumed by the Berlin Declaration in transferring the former eastern territories of the German Reich east of the Oder–Neisse line to the Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union . In 1973, in a review of the previous year's Basic Treaty between East and West Germany ,

1677-463: Is honey mushroom , with edible specimen , which grows in pulp, between the bark and timber , causing the death of tree. The other damaging fungus is bracket fungus , which destroys roots and trunks from the inside. The honey mushroom devastates the tree within a few months, and the bracket fungus, within a few years, as a result of mechanic changes in wood structure. At the close of the Ice Age ,

1806-688: Is Jezioro Kunickie (95 hectares or 230 acres), Jezioro Koskowickie (50 ha or 120 acres), Jezioro Jaśkowickie (24 ha or 59 acres) and Tatarak (19.5 ha or 48 acres). In contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in the Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages. Their total area amounts around 80 square kilometres (31 square miles), and the largest ponds (Stary Staw, Łosiowy Staw, Staw Niezgoda, Staw Mewi Duży, and Grabownica) come to 200–300 ha (490–740 acres). The primeval flora has been transformed significantly as

1935-585: Is a historical and geographical region mostly located in Poland with small portions in the Czech Republic and Germany . It is the western part of the region of Silesia . Its largest city is Wrocław . The first state to have a stable hold over the territory of what will be considered Lower Silesia was the short-lived Great Moravia in the 9th century. Afterwards, in the Middle Ages , Lower Silesia

2064-472: Is formed by species deriving from various geographic regions. Particular regions are represented by: Lower subalpine forest ( Polish : Regiel Dolny ), 450–1,000 m (1,480–3,280 ft), is characterized by deciduous or mixed forest. The fragments of forests similar to natural complexes of pine - fir - beech with admixture of larch , sycamore maple and lime occur near the Szklarski waterfall, in

2193-408: Is located in the northern part, within the hills. The region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements ( sand , gravel , clay ) that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements. Slopes of the hills over 180–200 m (590–660 ft) are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with,

2322-576: Is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław . The southern border of Lower Silesia is mapped by the mountain ridge of the Western and Central Sudetes , which since the High Middle Ages formed the border between Polish Silesia and the historic Bohemian region of the present-day Czech Republic. The Bóbr and Kwisa rivers are considered being

2451-617: Is reserved to denote the German state between 1871 and 1918. The history of the nation state known as the German Reich is commonly divided into three periods: However the term Deutsches Reich dates back earlier than all of this. It was occasionally applied in contemporary maps to the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), also called the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" from 1512. The Holy Roman Empire however

2580-489: Is shared between Lower Silesian Voivodeship (except for the Upper Lusatian counties of Lubań and Zgorzelec , and former Bohemian Kłodzko ), the southern part of Lubusz Voivodeship (i.e. the counties of Krosno Odrzańskie , Nowa Sól , Świebodzin , Żagań and Zielona Góra with the city of Zielona Góra , as well as western Opole Voivodeship (the counties of Brzeg , Namysłów and Nysa ). The tiny part of

2709-420: Is specific and different for each zone. From the bottoms to the top, plants form groups that are arranged in wide or narrow belts, called floral zones. Subsequently, these zones are divided into narrower belts, called vegetation belts. The zone of mountain forest is divided into two belts: subalpine and lower subalpine forest. Above, there is a forestless zone divided into the subalpine belt with dwarf pine, and

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2838-642: The Anschluss annexation of Austria in 1938, Nazi Germany informally named itself the Greater German Reich ( German : Großdeutsches Reich ). This name was made the official state name only during the last two years (1943–1945) of Nazi rule under Adolf Hitler , although the change was never proclaimed. After World War II , the denotation "German Reich " quickly fell into disuse in Allied-occupied Germany , however, and

2967-673: The Bronze Age (1700–1500 BC), the evolution of different cultures developed to the existence of Unetice culture that affected the existence of Trzciniec culture . In the next periods since c.  750 BC , it encompasses all of Europe. In the La Tène culture period, Lower Silesia was inhabited by the Celts , who had their main place of cult on the Mount Ślęża . Their stony statues situated on and around this hill were later worshipped by

3096-748: The Brzeg Castle , as the last male member of the Piast dynasty , which founded the Polish state in the 10th century. He was buried in Legnica . Two main routes connecting Warsaw and Dresden ran through the region in the 18th century and Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route. Most of Lower Silesia, except for the southern part of the Duchy of Nysa, became part of

3225-724: The Diocese of Wrocław , which, together with the Bishoprics of Kraków and Kołobrzeg , was placed under the Archbishopric of Gniezno in Greater Poland , founded by Emperor Otto III at the Congress of Gniezno in the same year. The ecclesial suzerainty of Gniezno over Wrocław lasted until 1821. After a temporary shift to Bohemia in the first half of the 11th century, Lower Silesia continued to be an integral part of

3354-691: The German Federal Constitutional Court ( Bundesverfassungsgericht ) ruled that according to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany the German Reich had outlasted the collapse in 1945, and hence had continued to exist as an “overall state”, albeit one not itself capable of action. The court ruled that since 1949 the Federal Republic (FRG) had been partially identical with the German Reich and not merely its successor . The court further elaborated that

3483-756: The Gross-Rosen concentration camp in Sława passed through the town. The territory was conquered by Red Army forces during the Vistula-Oder Offensive in the final stage of World War II. In accordance with the Potsdam Agreement , the town was incorporated into the Republic of Poland by the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line in 1945, while the remaining German population was expelled . The remaining Polish inhabitants were joined by Poles displaced from former eastern Poland annexed by

3612-683: The Hohenzollern elector Albrecht Achilles . The Brandenburg influence met with fierce opposition by Henry's Piast cousin, Duke Jan II the Mad of Żagań , who nevertheless after several years of fighting had to sign an agreement, whereby the Silesian towns of Crossen (Krosno) and the town passed to the Margraviate of Brandenburg as a fief of the Bohemian (Czech) Kingdom , an integral part of

3741-535: The Hohenzollern dynasty . On 18 January 1871, Wilhelm I was proclaimed "German Emperor" at the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles , the German Reich was officially declared Deutsches Reich , or "German Empire", explicitly harking back to the extinct Holy Roman Empire . The title "German Emperor" was a compromise; Wilhelm I had wanted the title of "Emperor of Germany", but Bismarck refused this, so as to avoid implying

3870-767: The Holy Roman Empire . Along with Crossen, Sulechów, under the Germanized name Züllichau , was incorporated into the Brandenburg Neumark district by 1535, ruled by Margrave John of Brandenburg-Küstrin who implemented the Protestant Reformation . Two years later, the Piast duke Joachim of Münsterberg-Oels and his younger brothers officially waived any rights to the Crossen and Züllichau territories. Part of Brandenburg-Prussia from 1618,

3999-699: The January Uprising of 1863–1864 in the Russian Partition of Poland. Local Poles took part in Polish national mourning after the Russian massacre of Polish protesters in Warsaw in February 1861, and also organized several patriotic Polish church services throughout 1861. Secret Polish correspondence, weapons, gunpowder and insurgents were transported through the region. In June 1863 Wrocław

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4128-596: The Kaczawskie Mountains ( Skopiec , 724 m or 2,375 ft) with Ostrzyca , 501 m or 1,644 ft - they surround the Jelenia Góra valley , 420–450 m or 1,380–1,480 ft; Ślęża Massif ( Mount Ślęża 718 m or 2,356 ft), massive of Orlické hory , Králický Sněžník south of Kłodzko , Rychlebské hory and Jeseníky (English: Ashes mountains ; Praděd , 1,492 m or 4,895 ft). The adjacent Silesian Lowland includes

4257-615: The Kellogg–Briand Pact and the Geneva Conventions . Apart from official documents, post-World War I Germany was referred to as the "German Reich"—never as the "German Empire"—for example, by British politicians —and in the aftermath of World War II the word "Reich" was used untranslated by Allied prosecutors throughout the Nuremberg Trials , with "German Empire" only used to describe Germany before it became

4386-909: The Kingdom of Prussia after the First Silesian War by the 1742 Treaty of Breslau . In 1813, several battles of the War of the Sixth Coalition were fought in the region, including the Battle of the Katzbach . In 1815, it became part of the Prussian Silesia Province , which was divided into the three Lower Silesian administrative regions ( Regierungsbezirke ) of Liegnitz , Breslau and Reichenbach  [ de ] , and Upper Silesian Oppeln (including

4515-784: The Kingdom of Prussia in the Treaty of Berlin , except for the southern part of the Duchy of Neisse . Within the Prussian kingdom, the region became part of the Province of Silesia . In 1871, the Prussian-controlled portion of Lower Silesia was integrated into the German Empire . After World War I , Lower Silesia was divided, as small parts were reintegrated with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which both regained independence. In

4644-406: The Kingdom of Saxony after the Napoleonic Wars , as well as some small areas transferred from Crossen ( Rothenburg an der Oder , Polnisch Nettkow , Drehnow ); the exclave of Schwiebus in the north, as well as few other small exclaves in the west, were transferred to Brandenburg Province . The formerly Bohemian County of Kladsko , which had been annexed along with Silesia in 1742, was attached to

4773-408: The Late Middle Ages the region fell under the overlordship of the Bohemian Crown , but large parts remained under the rule of local Polish dukes of the Piast, Jagiellonian and Sobieski dynasties, some up to the 17th and 18th century. Briefly under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Hungary , it fell to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy in 1526. In 1742, Austria ceded nearly all of Lower Silesia to

4902-440: The Migration Period , a number of new peoples arrived in Silesia from Sarmatia , Asia Minor , and the Asian steppes from the beginning of the sixth century. The Bavarian Geographer ( c.  845 ) referred to the West Slavic Ślężanie (the other possible source of the region's Śląsk and later Silesia name), centered on Niemcza , and Dziadoszanie tribes, while a 1086 document issued by Bishop Jaromir of Prague listed

5031-406: The Oder–Neisse line was reinforced. Insofar as the German Reich may be claimed to continue in existence as 'Germany as a whole', the former eastern territories of Germany in Poland or Russia, and the western territories, such as the East Cantons or Alsace-Lorraine , are now definitively and permanently excluded from ever again being united within this Reich under the Basic Law. Hence, although

5160-411: The Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. The later form of the economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes. Not only fertile grounds, but also the mild climate is conductive to the development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5  °C (49.1  °F ). The average temperature of

5289-402: The Potsdam Agreement , in which the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland, Lower Silesia went to the Republic of Poland . These border shifts were agreed on pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place. Germany retained the small portion of the former Prussian Province of Lower Silesia to the west of the Oder-Neisse line . The remaining German population

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5418-407: The Reichenbach region in 1818, becoming part of the central Breslau region upon Reichenbach 's dissolution in 1820. The Polish secret resistance movement was active in the region in the 19th century. On 5 May 1848, a convention of Polish activists from the Prussian and Austrian partitions of Poland was held in Wrocław. Wrocław was the seat of a Polish uprising committee before and during

5547-735: The Silesian Lowlands and the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands . These two lowlands are separated with each other by Dolina Kaczawy , and from the Sudetes by a steep morphological edge located along the Sudeten Marginal Fault, extended from Bolesławiec (the Northwest) to Złoty Stok (the Southeast). The southern part of the Lowland includes The Sudeten Foreland , consisting of quite low Wzgórze Strzegomskie , 232 m or 761 ft, Grupa Ślęży ( Mount Ślęża , 718 m or 2,356 ft), and Wzgórza Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie ( Gromnik Mountain , 392 m or 1,286 ft). Lower hills occur also in areas of Obniżenie Sudeckie, Świdnik , and Kotlina Dzierżoniowska . The eastern part of Silesian Lowland consists of

5676-418: The Slavic tribes that came here around the sixth century AD. Magna Germania (second century) records that between the Celtic and the Slavic period, Lower Silesia was inhabited by a number of Germanic tribes . Among them, are the Vandals , the Lugii , and the Silingi , who might have given the Silesia region its name, though it is unclear and thus disputed. With the Germanic tribes leaving westward during

5805-438: The War of the Polish Succession stopped in the town. The Polish population resisted Germanisation attempts, carried out by the Prussian authorities. From 1815 it belonged to the Province of Brandenburg and became the administrative seat of the Züllichau-Schwiebus rural district within the Frankfurt Region . In 1828, 18-year-old Frédéric Chopin visited the town and gave an improvised concert. Between 1871 and 1945 Züllichau

5934-432: The Wehrmacht was handed over to the Allies . The Allies refused to recognise Karl Dönitz as Reichspräsident or to recognise the legitimacy of his Flensburg Government (so-called because it was based at Flensburg and controlled only a small area around the town) and, on 5 June 1945, the four powers signed the Berlin Declaration and assumed de jure supreme authority with respect to Germany. The declaration confirmed

6063-459: The Zlasane , Trebovane , Poborane , and Dedositze . At the same time, Upper Silesia was inhabited by the Opolanie , Lupiglaa , and Golenshitse tribes. In the late 9th century, the territory was subject to the Great Moravian realm of Prince Svatopluk I and from about 906 came under the rule of the Přemyslid duke Spytihnev I of Bohemia and his successors Vratislaus I , the alleged founder of Wrocław ( Czech : Vratislav ), and Boleslaus

6192-420: The 'partial identity' of the FRG was limited to apply only within its current de facto territory; and hence the Federal Republic could not claim an exclusive mandate for the territory of the Reich then under the de facto government of the German Democratic Republic; "identity does not require exclusivity". This was explained as being because the German Democratic Republic was beyond FRG authority and because

6321-543: The 14th century, Sulechów was encompassed by defensive walls . The settlement itself was first mentioned in a 1319 deed, at the time when the warlike Ascanian margrave Waldemar of Brandenburg campaigned the area, occupying Sulechów and neighbouring Świebodzin . Margrave Waldemar, however, died in the same year, and the localities fell back to the Piast dukes of Głogów. When the last Piast duke Henry XI of Głogów died without issue in 1476, inheritance claims were raised by his widow Barbara of Brandenburg and her father,

6450-434: The 17th and 18th century. In 1469, Lower Silesia passed to Hungary , and in 1490 it fell back to Bohemia, then ruled by the Jagiellonian dynasty . In 1476, the Duchy of Krosno (Crossen) became part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg , when the widow of the Piast ruler, Barbara von Brandenburg, daughter of Elector Albert Achilles , inherited Crossen. This made the area around Schwiebus (Świebodzin) an exclave separated from

6579-409: The Allied powers still had jurisdiction where "Germany as a whole" was concerned. Nevertheless, the Court insisted that within the territory of the Federal Republic, the GDR could only be considered as one de jure German state amongst others, on the analogy of the pre-existing de jure German states that in 1949 had come together as the Federal Republic; and hence, like them, could never be accorded by

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6708-431: The Allies signed the Berlin Declaration concerning the defeat of Germany and the assumption of supreme authority over Germany, by which they established the Allied Control Council and assumed supreme authority over German territory. The Federal Republic of Germany asserted, following its establishment on 23 May 1949, that within its boundaries it was the sole legal continuation of the German Reich, and consequently not

6837-452: The Constitutional Court maintained that the Basic Treaty was consistent with the GDR declaring its accession at some time in the future in accordance with its own constitution; and hence the Court determined that in recognising the GDR as a de jure German State, the Basic Treaty could be interpreted as facilitating the reunification of the German Reich (as indeed it eventually did). So long as any de jure German state remained separated from

6966-421: The Cruel . Meanwhile, the West Slavic Polans had established the first duchy under the Piast dynasty in the adjacent Greater Polish lands in the north. About 990 Silesia was conquered and incorporated into the first Polish state by the Piast duke Mieszko I , who had gained the support of Emperor Otto II against the Bohemian duke Boleslaus II . In 1000 his son and successor Bolesław I Chrobry founded

7095-445: The English term "empire" or the Dutch term "rijk" in the context of German colonial expansion during the New Imperialism period. Following in the example of other European colonial empires , Imperial Germany (against Bismarck's intentions) started to rapidly acquire overseas colonies, including possessions in Africa, Oceania and China; the Imperial German Navy underwent a rapid expansion concurrently to protect these new colonies. At

7224-443: The English word "empire"; it also translates to such words as "realm" or "domain." However, this translation was not used throughout the full existence of the German Reich. Historically, only Germany from 1871 to 1918—when Germany was under the rule of an emperor ( Kaiser )—is known in English as the "German Empire" ( Deutsches Kaiserreich in German historiography), while the term "German Reich" describes Germany from 1871 to 1945. As

7353-405: The Federal Republic. Hence, although the GDR had nominally declared its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, this did not imply its acceptance of the Basic Law as it then stood; but rather of the Basic Law as subsequently amended in line with the Unification Treaty and the Treaty of Final Settlement. These amendments had the effect of removing all those clauses by which

7482-402: The GDR had by the Volkskammer 's declaration of accession to the Federal Republic, initiated the process of reunification; the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms and conditions; including the fundamental amendments to the Basic Law required by the Treaty of Final Settlement) was achieved constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990; that is through

7611-480: The German nation state that existed from 1871 to 1945. The Reich became understood as deriving its authority and sovereignty entirely from a continuing unitary German Volk ("national people"), with that authority and sovereignty being exercised at any one time over a unitary German "state territory" with variable boundaries and extent. Although commonly translated as "German Empire", the word Reich here better translates as "realm" or territorial "reach", in that

7740-407: The German Reich. Subsequently the term "German Reich" continued to be applied both as identifying with the national people, and also with the state territory; but increasingly, the application of the term to the German national people came to be seen as primary. Following the Second World War, the term "German Reich" fell out of use in constitutional formulations, being replaced by the term "nation as

7869-413: The German part, and already in 1920 a Polish consulate in Wrocław was attacked and demolished by German nationalists. In the 1930s Poles and Jews were increasingly persecuted in the German-controlled part of the region. Many place names were Germanized in order to erase traces of Polish origin, even streets, squares, buildings and enterprises with the name Piast were forced to change their names (including

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7998-408: The Jagniątkowski complex, and Chojnik Mountain. Particular species of trees have different climatic requirements. The lowest parts are covered with oak and ash, up to 500 m (1,600 ft). On the level of 500–600 m (2,000 ft) occurs pine; in the higher parts, up to 800 m (2,600 ft), there occurs European larch ; and above 800 m, fir and beech. Despite transformation of

8127-596: The Lower Silesian districts of Neisse and Grottkau ). Reichenbach , which covered the southern part of Lower Silesia, was dissolved and its territories split between Liegnitz and Breslau in 1820; Breslau , which thereafter covered the central part of Silesia is sometimes also referred to as Middle Silesia . The western Liegnitz region was enlarged by the incorporation of the Upper Lusatian Landkreise (districts) of Lauban  [ de ] ( Lubań ), Görlitz  [ de ] , Rothenburg and, after 1825, Hoyerswerda  [ de ] , all seized from

8256-415: The Middle Oder dates back to the 4th century AD. In the late 10th century, the area was included in the emerging Polish state by its first historic ruler Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty . It became part of the Duchy of Silesia , a province of fragmented Poland , in 1138, and, later belonged to the Silesian Duchy of Głogów , established in 1249–1251 under the rule of Duke Konrad I . In the beginning of

8385-399: The Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, which is conductive to the proper water economy. The characteristic feature of the landscape of the lowland is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica is the only place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived, but the majority of them is already disappearing. The largest one

8514-433: The Piast castles in Brzeg and Wołów ). In September 1939, at the start of World War II , Germany invaded and occupied the Polish part of the region. Already in 1939, the Germans carried out the first expulsions of Poles , and some died during their deportation to the more-eastern part of German-occupied Poland. During the war, the Germans established the Gross-Rosen concentration camp with around 100 subcamps in

8643-398: The Polish state until the end of its fragmentation period when all Polish claims on this land were finally renounced in favor of the Bohemian kingdom in 1348. Various Polish defensive battles against the invading Germans took place in the region in the Middle Ages, including the victorious battles of Niemcza in 1017 and Głogów and Psie Pole in 1109. In the early 12th century, Wrocław

8772-418: The Reich as the lands which, at the time of the constitution's adoption, were within the authority of the German state. The identity of Reich and people ran both ways—not only did the institutions of the German state derive their legitimacy from the German people, so, too, the German people derived their inherent identity and patriotic duties from their being collectively constituted as an organ and institution of

8901-432: The Reich became steadily superseded in the period up to the first World War by an understanding of the German Reich as a unitary nation state identified with the German national people according to the principle of jus sanguinis , and drawing on the rhetoric of "the sovereignty of the nation" in the Frankfurt Constitution —albeit that many ethnic " Germans " (as with the German-speaking peoples of Austria) remained outside

9030-406: The Silesian duchies were ruled by the Silesian Piast dukes under the feudal overlordship of the Bohemian kings , and thus became part of the Crown of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire , though in 1341–1356 Poland regained control of the towns of Byczyna , Kluczbork , Namysłów and Wołczyn . Many duchies remained Polish-ruled under the houses of Piast, Jagiellon and Sobieski , some up to

9159-811: The Soviet Union . The historic Polish name Sulechów was restored. From 1975 to 1998 Sulechów was part of Zielona Góra Voivodeship . The town's most notable sports clubs are football team Lech Sulechów  [ pl ] and volleyball team Orion Sulechów  [ pl ] . Both teams compete in the lower leagues. See twin towns of Gmina Sulechów . Lower Silesia Lower Silesia ( Polish : Dolny Śląsk [ˈdɔlnɨ ˈɕlɔ̃sk] ; Czech : Dolní Slezsko ; German : Niederschlesien [ˈniːdɐˌʃleːzi̯ən] ; Silesian : Dolny Ślōnsk ; Upper Sorbian : Delnja Šleska [ˈdɛlnʲa ˈʃlɛska] ; Lower Sorbian : Dolna Šlazyńska [ˈdɔlna ˈʃlazɨnʲska] ; Lower Silesian : Niederschläsing ; Latin : Silesia Inferior )

9288-770: The Sudetes comprises the Jizera Mountains (highest peak: Wysoka Kopa , 1,126 metres or 3,694 feet), where the tripoint with Upper Lusatia and Bohemia is located near the Smrk summit, along with the adjacent Giant Mountains (highest: border peak of Sněžka Śnieżka – highest mountain of Czech Republic, 1,602 m or 5,256 ft); Rudawy Janowickie ( Skalnik , 945 m or 3,100 ft); Owl Mountains ( Wielka Sowa , 1,015 m or 3,330 ft); Stone Mountains ( Waligóra 936 m or 3,071 ft); Wałbrzych Mountains ( Borowa 853 m or 2,799 ft) and

9417-513: The Treaty on Final Settlement, the new united Germany committed itself to renouncing any further territorial claims beyond the boundaries of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin; "The united Germany has no territorial claims whatsoever against other states and shall not assert any in the future." Furthermore the Basic Law of the Federal Republic was required to be amended to state explicitly that full German unification had now been achieved, such that

9546-571: The War and the abolition of the monarchy during the German Revolution of 1918–1919 , however, when Wilhelm was forced to abdicate, the official English name for Germany was the "German Reich": Reich was left untranslated and no longer referred to an "empire" but, instead, took on the connotation of "Realm" or "State", its original (1871) definition. "German Reich" was used in legal documents and English-language international treaties—for example,

9675-509: The alpine belt without shrubs. This vegetation is glacial ; the former vegetation—from the Tertiary —was destroyed by the climate of the Ice Age . Along with glaciation from the North, some tundra plants appeared, for example downy willow ( Salix lapponum ) and cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus). The flora of Lower Silesia is strongly influenced by geological and climatic history. The vegetation

9804-449: The area. The greatest rivers are Nysa Kłodzka , which is the source of drinking water for Wrocław (the water is drawn by special channel); Stobrawa , Oława , Ślęza , Bystrzyca with its tributaries— Strzegomka and Piława ; Widawa , Średzka Woda , Kaczawa with Nysa Szalona and Czarna Woda . There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz . The other quite large rivers, Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse, flow into

9933-554: The areas of Jodłowice, Wzgórze Joanny near Milicz, and Gola near Twardogóra. Such types of forest like those which are the mainstay for wild game or nurseries, are inaccessible because of permanent fire hazard. Territories partly accessible (marked specially) are located in areas of Góra Śląska, Oborniki Śląskie, Wołowa, in the Oder River valley, and in Wzgórza Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie. The flora of Lower Silesia

10062-835: The basic tree vegetation, the same form of undergrowth survived. There occurs: daphne mezereum , red elderberry , hazel , platanthera bifolia , sweet woodruff , Herb Paris , cranberry , wood sorrel , chickweed wintergreen , Common Cow-wheat and lily of the valley . The parts over 800 m are mainly covered with grasses, purple small-reeds, cranberries, and willow gentian . In highlighted places, on meadows, and along roads, there occurs: spotted orchid , bugleweed , yellow archangel , arnica montana , sword-leaved helleborine , rosebay willowherb , groundsel , and foxglove . Along riversides, there occurs white butterbur . Pine forests are rich in spruces, which are permanently weakened by atmospheric factors. Frayed roots are easily infected by harmful fungus and insects . The most damaging

10191-548: The complete legal extinction of the Third Reich with the death of Adolf Hitler on 30 April 1945, but asserted the continued subsequent existence of a German people and a German national territory; although subject to the four signatory powers also asserting their authority to determine the future boundaries of Germany. At the Potsdam Conference , Allied-occupied Germany was defined as comprising "Germany as

10320-744: The decree of the Chief of the Reich Chancellery Hans Lammers of 26 June 1943, the name "Greater German Reich " became mandatory in official documents. The German Reich collapsed de facto with the death of Adolf Hitler on 30 April 1945, when the Allies decided not to recognise Karl Dönitz as the Reich President and to grant no legitimacy to the Flensburg Government he had formed. On 5 June 1945,

10449-732: The entire pre-war German population was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement . Poles displaced from the former Polish lands incorporated into the USSR settled in Lower Silesia after the war, as well as Polish settlers from other parts of Poland. The region is known for an abundance of historic architecture of various styles, including many castles and palaces, well preserved or reconstructed old towns , numerous spa towns , and historic burial sites of Polish monarchs and consorts (in Wrocław, Legnica and Trzebnica ). Lower Silesia

10578-663: The first man appeared at the Silesian Lowland . In the Mesolithic (7,000 years ago), the first nomadic people settled in Lower Silesia, living in caves and primitive chalets. They were collectors, hunters, and fishers, and used weapons and other tools made of stone and wood. In the Upper Paleolithic , the oldest human remains of the nomadic people, which were 40,000 years old, were found in a tomb in Tyniec on

10707-514: The first-ever text printed in the Polish language . In 1526 Silesia became part of the Habsburg monarchy when Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria succeeded King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia . Brandenburg contested the inheritance, citing a treaty made with Frederick II of Legnica , but Silesia largely remained under Habsburg control until 1742. In 1675 Duke George William of Legnica died at

10836-525: The former German Confederation until 1865. Moreover, it included the whole of the Kingdom of Prussia , the eastern parts of which had never been included in historic German lands. The unification under Prussian leadership manifested Bismarck's "Lesser German" solution of the German question after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, realised with the support of his national liberal allies. On

10965-640: The former Duchy of Żagań on the western shore of the Neisse is today part of the Krauschwitz municipality in the Görlitz district of Saxony , the larger Upper Lusatian parts of Prussian Silesia ("Silesian Upper Lusatia") west of the Neisse comprised the town of Görlitz and the former district of Hoyerswerda , which today forms the northern part of the Saxon Görlitz and Bautzen districts as well as

11094-408: The former German Reich outside its boundaries as having a valid claim to be a part of Germany as a whole. In referring to the entire period between 1871 and 1945, the partially translated English phrase " German Reich " ( /- ˈ r aɪ k / ) is applied by historians in formal contexts; although in common English usage this state was and is known simply as Germany , the English term "German Empire"

11223-596: The hottest month (July) is 19 °C (66 °F), and −0.5 °C (31.1 °F) of the coldest month (January). The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres (20–24 inches ), with its maximum in July and minimum in February. The snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest. Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of

11352-425: The independence and autonomy of each of the two States in domestic and foreign affairs. This agreement too is compatible with the Basic Law only if interpreted to the effect that for the Federal Republic of Germany the basis of this Treaty is the continued existence of Germany, which has according to the Basic Law to be recognized as a State (albeit not organized and therefore not capable of action), and that accordingly

11481-597: The interbellum, the Polish population of the region was persecuted in the German-controlled part of the region. After Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, most of the region became once again part of Poland, while a smaller part west of the Oder-Neisse line became part of East Germany and Czech Lower Silesia (Jesenicko and Opavsko regions) remained as a part of Czechoslovakia . By 1949, almost

11610-413: The literal translation "German Empire" denotes a monarchy, the term is used only in reference to Germany before the fall of the monarchy at the end of World War I in 1918. After the unification of Germany , under the reign of the Prussian king Wilhelm I and his Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the historic German states ( e.g. Bavaria and Saxony ) were united with Prussia under imperial rule, by

11739-456: The mutual restriction of sovereign power to the territory of the State and respect for the independence and autonomy of each of the two States in domestic and foreign affairs has its reference to the special situation in which both States find themselves vis-à-vis each other as sub-States of Germany as a whole." After 1973, however, the claimed identity of the Federal Republic with the German Reich

11868-478: The national people constituting the German Empire of 1871 and also that the Empire of 1871 included extensive territories (such as Posen ) with predominantly non-German populations. This transition became formalised in the constitution of the Weimar Republic , where Article 1 identifies the Reich as deriving its authority from the German national people, while Article 2 identifies the state territory under

11997-422: The new German state comprised the entirety of Germany, and that all constitutional mechanisms should be removed by which any territories outside those boundaries could otherwise subsequently be admitted; these amendments being bound by treaty not to be revoked. Article 23 of the Basic Law was repealed, closing off the possibility for any further states to apply for membership of the Federal Republic; while Article 146

12126-541: The north from the Bolesławiec-Zgorzelec road. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km (120 mi) long and over 150 m (490 ft) high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, Kobyla Mountain, 284 m (932 ft). The range of hills includes Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka,

12255-570: The north, Upper Silesia in the east, Moravia in the south-east, Bohemia and Kłodzko Land in the south, and Lusatia in the west. The Sudetes are a geologically diverse mountain range that stretches for 280 kilometres (170 miles) from the Lusatian Highlands in the west and to the Moravian Gate in the east. They are topographically divided into Western , Central and Eastern Sudetes . The Lower Silesian section of

12384-551: The organs of the Federal Republic full recognition as a state in international law; even though the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that, within international law, the GDR was indeed an independent sovereign state. The constitutional status of the GDR under the Basic Law still differed from that of the Länder of the Federal Republic, in that the GDR had not declared its accession to the Basic Law; but

12513-686: The original western border with the Lusatias , however, the Silesian Duchy of Żagań reached up to the Neisse river, including two villages ( Pechern and Neudorf) on the western shore, which became Silesian in 1413. The later Silesian Province of Prussia further comprised the adjacent lands of historic Upper Lusatia ceded by the Kingdom of Saxony after the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, its westernmost point could be found as far west as

12642-422: The other hand, the German Reich of 1871 comprised extended Prussian territories with large non-German sections of the population, like Posen , West Prussia or Schleswig , and also territories with predominantly German populations which had never been constitutionally "German" (Holy Roman), such as East Prussia . Bismarck was otherwise unable, however, to avoid the term German Reich acquiring connotations from

12771-505: The period as the " Republik von Weimar " (Republic of Weimar, after the city ( Weimar ) which held its constitutional assembly) at a rally in Munich with the term later becoming mainstream during the 1930s both within and outside Germany. The Nazis also contemptuously referred to it as " the System ". On 8 May 1945, with the capitulation of the German armed forces, the supreme command of

12900-497: The region, as well as various subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 POW camp. POWs of various nationalities were held in those camps, including Poles, Frenchmen , Belgians , Britons , Italians , Canadians , Americans , Greeks , Yugoslavians , Russians , Australians , New Zealanders , South Africans , Norwegians , Lithuanians , Slovaks , etc. There were also several Nazi prisons, other forced labour camps and

13029-419: The region, in which around 125,000 people of various nationalities, among them mostly Jews , Poles and citizens of the Soviet Union , were imprisoned, and around 40,000 died. Also several German prisoner-of-war camps , including Stalag VIII-A , Stalag VIII-C , Stalag VIII-E , Stalag Luft III , Oflag VIII-A, Oflag VIII-B, Oflag VIII-C, Oflag VIII-F , with numerous forced labour subcamps were located in

13158-759: The region. After the war, the bulk of Lower Silesia remained within Germany, the Bohemian part was included within Czechoslovakia , and a small part with Rychtal was reintegrated with Poland , which just regained independence. The German part was re-organized into the Province of Lower Silesia of the Free State of Prussia consisting of the Breslau and Liegnitz regions. In the interwar period , there were multiple instances of anti-Polish violence in

13287-516: The rest of Silesia. Crossen remained an important center of Polish culture. In 1475 Głogów -born Polish printer Kasper Elyan  [ pl ] founded the Drukarnia Świętokrzyska  [ pl ] ( Holy Cross Printing House ) in Wrocław, which published the Statuta synodalia episcoporum Wratislaviensium  [ pl ] , the first incunable in Lower Silesia, which also contains

13416-537: The rest, the German Reich could continue to exist only in suspension; but should the GDR be reunited with the Federal Republic, the Reich would once more be fully capable of action as a sovereign state. "In Article 6 the Contracting Parties agree that they shall base themselves on the principle that the sovereign power of each of the two States be confined to its State territory and that they will respect

13545-493: The river Ślęża . In the Neolithic (4000–1700 BC), began the process of transformation into a settled way of life. The first rural settlements were made, as people began to farm and breed animals. Mining, pottery, and weaving are dated to this period. Serpentinite quarries came into existence, of which Silesian hatchets were made, and near Jordanów Śląski , people extracted nephrite that was transformed into diverse tools. In

13674-488: The same time strong Pan-Germanic political forces emerged, pressing for the borders of the Reich to be extended into a multiethnic German-led Central European empire, emulating and rivalling Imperial Russia to the east. Before and during the events of World War I , the German state was called an "empire" in English and Wilhelm II was titled "His Imperial and Royal Majesty the German Emperor." After

13803-532: The small village of Lindenau (now belonging to the German state of Brandenburg ). To the north, Lower Silesia originally stretched up to Świebodzin and Krosno Odrzańskie , which was acquired by the Margraves of Brandenburg in 1482. The Barycz river forms the border with historic Greater Poland in the northeast, the Upper Silesian lands lie to the southeast. Administratively Polish Lower Silesia

13932-670: The southern part of the Oberspreewald-Lausitz district in Brandenburg. The southern part of the former Duchy of Nysa, which fell to Austrian Silesia in 1742, namely the Jeseník District and Heřmanovice , Mnichov and Železná, as well as parts of Vrbno pod Pradědem in the Bruntál District , today belongs to the Czech Republic . Lower Silesia is bordered by Greater Poland and Lubusz Land in

14061-466: The state's continued existence remained a matter of debate; the post-war Bonn Republic maintained the continued existence of the German Reich as an 'overall state", but dormant while East and West Germany continued to be divided. Nevertheless, when Germany was reunited in 1990 the term "German Reich " was not revived as a title for the Berlin Republic . The German word Reich translates to

14190-488: The term does not in itself have monarchical connotations. The name "German Reich " was officially proclaimed on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles by Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I of Prussia . After the annexation of Austria to Germany on 12–13 March 1938, the name "Greater German Reich " ( German : Großdeutsches Reich ) began to be used alongside with the he official name "German Reich ". According to

14319-527: The town was devastated during the Thirty Years' War but again flourished under the rule of the "Great Elector" Frederick William . From the 17th century, clothmaking developed. Züllichau was part of the newly established Kingdom of Prussia since 1701. It became a garrison town of the Prussian Army . In March 1735, officials of the confederation of King Stanisław Leszczyński 's supporters in

14448-577: The unity and freedom of Germany in free self-determination . This Basic Law thus applies to the entire German people." In place of the former Article 23 under which the former GDR had declared its accession to the Federal Republic, a new Article 23 embedded the accession of the Federal Republic to the European Union within the Basic Law; hence with the subsequent accession of Poland to the EU, the constitutional bar on pursuing any claim to territories beyond

14577-657: The wide Silesian Lowlands , located along banks of the Oder River . The eastern part includes also Równina Wrocławska with its surrounding lands: Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. Dolina Dolnej Kaczawy (Kotlina Legnicka) separates the Silesian Lowlands from the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands, which includes Wysoczyzna Lubińsko-Chocianowska, Dolina Szprotawy, and wide areas of Bory Dolnośląskie, located to

14706-660: Was active in the region, including the Home Army and Olimp organization. In the final stages of the war it was the site of several death marches perpetrated by Nazi Germany. In view of Polish claims to the area, a memorandum prepared by the United States Department of State in May 1945 recommended that the area stay with Germany because there was "no historic or ethnic justification" for granting this land to Poland. However, according to Soviet insistence at

14835-432: Was amended to state explicitly that the territory of the newly unified republic comprised the entirety of the German people; "This Basic Law, which since the achievement of the unity and freedom of Germany applies to the entire German people, shall cease to apply on the day on which a constitution freely adopted by the German people takes effect". This was confirmed in the 1990 rewording of the preamble; "Germans..have achieved

14964-528: Was associated with the idea of popular sovereignty . A 1923 book entitled Das Dritte Reich by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck counted the medieval Holy Roman Empire as the first, and the 1871–1918 monarchy as the second, which was then to be followed by a "reinvigorated" third one. Subsequently the Nazi regime was (unofficially) called the " Third Reich "; this usage was sometimes contemporaneous, but mostly retrospective and applied by non-Germans. Following

15093-478: Was created in the region. In the Middle Ages , gold (Polish: złoto ) and silver (Polish: srebro ) were mined in the region, which is reflected in the names of the former mining towns of Złotoryja , Złoty Stok and Srebrna Góra . The city of Bolesławiec is a major center of pottery production since the Middle Ages, which the tradition of production of Bolesławiec pottery , also referred to as Polish pottery, cultivated to this day. The Duchy of Silesia

15222-424: Was divided into as many as 17 duchies . Main duchies of Lower Silesia: In 1319, Duchy of Jawor , the southwesternmost duchy of Lower Silesia and fragmented Poland, under Duke Henry I of Jawor , expanded westward, reaching the towns of Zgorzelec , Zły Komorów (Senftenberg), Żytawa (Zittau) and Ostrowiec (Ostritz). With the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin ( Trenčín ) and the 1348 Treaty of Namysłów , most of

15351-801: Was expelled from the bulk of Lower Silesia east of the Neisse in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement. Poles from Central Poland and the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union came to the region. From 1945 to 1975 Lower Silesia was administered within the Wrocław Voivodeship . As a result of the Local Government Reorganisation Act (1975), Poland's administration was reorganized into 49 voivodeships , four of them in Lower Silesia: Jelenia Góra , Legnica , Wałbrzych , and Wrocław Voivodeships (1975–1998). As

15480-559: Was first split into lower and upper parts in 1172 during the period of Poland's feudal fragmentation , when the land was divided between two sons of former High Duke Władysław II . The elder Bolesław the Tall ruled over Lower Silesia with his capital in Wrocław, and younger Mieszko Tanglefoot ruled over Upper Silesia with his capital at first in Racibórz , from 1202 in Opole . Later Silesia

15609-581: Was granted such rights in 1211 by Henry the Bearded . Medieval municipal rights modeled after Lwówek Śląski and Środa Śląska , both established by Henry the Bearded, became the basis of municipal form of government for several cities and towns in Poland, and two of five local Polish variants of medieval town rights. In the 13th century the Book of Henryków , a chronicle containing the oldest known text in Polish,

15738-512: Was named one of the three major cities of the Polish Kingdom alongside Kraków and Sandomierz in the oldest Polish chronicle, Gesta principum Polonorum . One of the largest battles of medieval Poland, the Battle of Legnica , during the first Mongol invasion of Poland was fought in the region 1241. Also a leading region of medieval Poland. The first-ever granting of town privileges in Polish history happened there, when Złotoryja

15867-664: Was not exclusively German-speaking but constituted a supranational entity extending beyond the frontiers of the German language area ( Sprachraum ). The first attempt to re-establish a "German Empire" during the 1848 March Revolution by the Frankfurt Constitution ultimately failed: it was aborted by the monarchs of the German Confederation , especially by the Prussian aristocracy and the King of Prussia himself, which opposed German nationalism , as then

15996-516: Was not recognised by most other countries of the world. The Soviet Union, the three Western allies, and most other Western countries regarded the German Reich as still being one nation—not synonymous with either the West or East German state but rather the two states in collective. Other countries tended to regard the German Reich as having been divided into two distinct states in international law, and accordingly accorded both states full diplomatic recognition. As of 1974, East Germany's official stance

16125-408: Was officially confirmed as the seat of secret Polish insurgent authorities. The Prussian police arrested a number of members of the Polish insurgent movement. From 1871, Lower Silesia was part of the German Empire . As a result of long lasting German colonization and Germanisation , by the beginning of the 20th century Lower Silesia had a majority German-speaking population, with the exception of

16254-528: Was part of Piast-ruled Poland . It was one of the leading regions of Poland, and its capital Wrocław was one of the main cities of the Polish Kingdom. Lower Silesia emerged as a distinctive region during the fragmentation of Poland in 1172, when the Duchies of Opole and Racibórz , considered Upper Silesia since, were formed of the eastern part of the Duchy of Silesia, and the remaining, western part

16383-526: Was part of the German Reich . In the late 19th century, the medieval town walls were partly dismantled. Four Polish insurgents of the Greater Poland uprising died in German captivity in the town in 1919. During World War II the Germans established two forced labour camps in the town, mainly for the Soviets. In 1945, a German-perpetrated death march of Jewish women from a just dissolved subcamp of

16512-482: Was since considered Lower Silesia. During the Ostsiedlung , German settlers were invited to settle in the region, which until then had a Polish majority. As a result, the region became largely Germanised in the following centuries. Nonetheless, it remained a pioneering center of Polish culture, where the oldest Polish writing and first Polish print were created, and the first town rights were granted. In

16641-452: Was that the GDR was a new state that is German in nature, a successor of the German Reich, and that there were then two German states that were different nations. When the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany between Germany and the wartime Allies was signed on 12 September 1990, there was no mention of the term Deutsches Reich , however the Allies paraphrased the international legal personality of Germany as "Germany as

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