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165-594: Suleiman I ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان اول , romanized :  Süleyman-ı Evvel ; Turkish : I. Süleyman , pronounced [syleiˈman] ; 6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in Western Europe and Suleiman the Lawgiver (Ottoman Turkish: قانونى سلطان سليمان , romanized:  Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) in his Ottoman realm,

330-537: A harbor at the port. When the Russians occupied Trabzon, a mole was built. They built a breakwater and were responsible for creating an extended pier, making loading and unloading easier. In 1920, Trabzon produced linen cloth, silver filagree , tanning and small amounts of cotton , silk and wool . Tobacco and hazelnuts were exported. The tobacco produced in Trabzon was called Trebizond-Platana . It

495-409: A Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into a [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This

660-676: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

825-540: A former concubine, became the legal wife of the Sultan, much to the astonishment of the observers in the palace and the city. He also allowed Hurrem Sultan to remain with him at court for the rest of her life, breaking another tradition—that when imperial heirs came of age, they would be sent along with the imperial concubine who bore them to govern remote provinces of the Empire, never to return unless their progeny succeeded to

990-546: A group of rare coins he believes was minted by Gabras and his successors. Although he was killed by the Turks in 1098, other members of his family continued his de facto independent rule into the next century. The Empire of Trebizond was formed after Georgian expedition in Chaldia , commanded by Alexios Komnenos a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Located at the far northeastern corner of Anatolia , it

1155-519: A harem girl from Ruthenia , then part of Poland . Western diplomats, taking notice of the palace gossip about her, called her "Russelazie" or "Roxelana", referring to her Ruthenian origins. The daughter of an Orthodox priest, she was captured by Tatars from Crimea , sold as a slave in Constantinople, and eventually rose through the ranks of the Harem to become Suleiman's favorite . Hurrem,

1320-564: A high priority. At first, Suleiman shifted attention to Europe and was content to contain Persia , which was preoccupied by its own enemies to its east. After Suleiman stabilized his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to Persia, the base for the rival Shia Muslim faction. The Safavid dynasty became the main enemy after two episodes. First, Shah Tahmasp killed the Baghdad governor loyal to Suleiman, and put his own man in. Second,

1485-546: A legitimate sultan. Suleiman was born in Trabzon on the southern coast of the Black Sea to Şehzade Selim (later Selim I ), probably on 6 November 1494, although this date is not known with absolute certainty or evidence. His mother was Hafsa Sultan , a concubine convert to Islam of unknown origins, who died in 1534. At the age of seven, Suleiman began studies of science, history, literature, theology and military tactics in

1650-541: A negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish), is compound verbs. This consists of adding

1815-700: A phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire . Suleiman the Magnificent ( محتشم سليمان Muḥteşem Süleymān ), as he was known in the West , was also called Suleiman the First ( سلطان سليمان أول Sulṭān Süleymān-ı Evvel ), and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( قانونی سلطان سليمان Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) for his reform of the Ottoman legal system. It is unclear when exactly

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1980-477: A possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

2145-417: A result of the general development of the country, Trabzon has developed its economic and commercial life. The coastal highway and a new harbour have increased commercial relations with central Anatolia, which has led to some growth. However, progress has been slow in comparison to the western and the southwestern parts of Turkey. Trabzon is famous throughout Turkey for its anchovies called hamsi , which are

2310-596: A result, an Ottoman expedition to Aceh was launched, which was able to provide extensive military support to the Acehnese. The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Ocean throughout the 16th century. The Ajuran Sultanate allied with

2475-561: A series of projects, including bridges, mosques, palaces and various charitable and social establishments. The greatest of these were built by the Sultan's chief architect, Mimar Sinan , under whom Ottoman architecture reached its zenith. Sinan became responsible for over three hundred monuments throughout the empire, including his two masterpieces, the Süleymaniye and Selimiye mosques—the latter built in Adrianople (now Edirne ) in

2640-425: A set of fines for specific offenses, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation. In the area of taxation, taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. Higher medreses provided education of university status, whose graduates became imams ( امام ) or teachers. Educational centers were often one of many buildings surrounding

2805-464: A single legal code, all the while being careful not to violate the basic laws of Islam. It was within this framework that Suleiman, supported by his Grand Mufti Ebussuud , sought to reform the legislation to adapt to a rapidly changing empire. When the Kanun laws attained their final form, the code of laws became known as the kanun‐i Osmani ( قانون عثمانی ), or the "Ottoman laws". Suleiman's legal code

2970-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

3135-500: A trade gateway to Persia in the southeast and the Caucasus to the northeast. The Venetian and Genoese merchants paid visits to Trabzon during the medieval period and sold silk , linen and woolen fabric. Both republics had merchant colonies within the city – Leonkastron and the former "Venetian castle" – that played a role to Trabzon similar to the one Galata played to Constantinople (modern Istanbul ). Trabzon formed

3300-531: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Trabzon Trabzon , historically known as Trebizond , is a city on the Black Sea coast of northeastern Turkey and the capital of Trabzon Province . Trabzon, located on the historical Silk Road , became a melting pot of religions , languages and culture for centuries and

3465-430: A vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding the additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows

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3630-448: A woman from his harem, an Orthodox Christian of Ruthenian origin who converted to Sunni Islam , and who became famous in Western Europe of his time by the name Roxelana, due to her red hair. Their son, Selim II , succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleiman's other potential heirs, Mehmed and Mustafa , had died; Mehmed had died in 1543 from smallpox, and Mustafa had been strangled to death in 1553 at

3795-627: Is also recorded that some Bosniaks were appointed by the Sublime Porte as the regional beylerbeys in Trabzon. The Eyalet of Trabzon had always sent troops for the Ottoman campaigns in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Trebizond had a wealthy merchant class during the late Ottoman period, and the local Christian minority had a substantial influence in terms of culture, economy and politics. A number of European consulates were opened in

3960-569: Is aptly named, enjoys reading, is knowledgeable and shows good judgment." Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, eventually leading to a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of Damascus in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the conquest of Belgrade from the Kingdom of Hungary —something his great-grandfather Mehmed II had failed to achieve because of John Hunyadi 's strong defense in

4125-475: Is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with a variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with

4290-424: Is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as a standalone for 3rd person. Generally,

4455-620: Is spoken mostly by the older generations. Trabzon Province has a total area of 4,685 square kilometres (1,809 sq mi) and is bordered by the provinces of Rize , Giresun , and Gümüşhane . The total area is 22.4% plateau and 77.6% hills. The Pontic Mountains pass through the Trabzon Province. Trabzon used to be an important reference point for navigators in the Black Sea during harsh weather conditions. The popular expression "perdere la Trebisonda" (losing Trebizond)

4620-453: Is still commonly used in the Italian language to describe situations in which the sense of direction is lost. The Italian maritime republics such as Venice and in particular Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries. Trabzon has four lakes: Uzungöl , Çakırgöl, Sera, and Haldizen Lakes. There are several streams, but no rivers in Trabzon. Trabzon has a climate typical of

4785-469: Is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example, the Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny")

4950-503: Is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use

5115-519: Is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools, a decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish

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5280-553: Is written as طربزون . During Ottoman times, Tara Bozan was also used. In Laz it is known as ტამტრა ( T'amt'ra ) or T'rap'uzani , in Georgian it is ტრაპიზონი ( T'rap'izoni ) and in Armenian it is Տրապիզոն ( Trapizon ). The 19th-century Armenian travelling priest Byjiskian called the city by other, native names, including Hurşidabat and Ozinis . Western geographers and writers used many spelling variations of

5445-662: The Aq Qoyunlu , raided Trebizond. In 1348, he besieged Trebizond, however he failed and lifted the siege. Later on, Alexios III of Trebizond gave his sister to Kutlu Beg son of Tur Ali Beg, and established a kinship with them. Constantinople remained the Byzantine capital until it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1453, who also conquered Trebizond eight years later, in 1461. Its demographic legacy endured for several centuries after

5610-657: The Barbary pirates of North Africa can be seen in the context of the wars against Spain. In 1541, the Spaniards led an unsuccessful expedition to Algiers . In 1542, facing a common Habsburg enemy during the Italian Wars , Francis I sought to renew the Franco-Ottoman alliance . In early 1542, Polin successfully negotiated the details of the alliance, with the Ottoman Empire promising to send 60,000 troops against

5775-754: The British Museum , London. Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire , and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (a satrapy ). Trebizond's trade partners included the Mossynoeci . When Xenophon and the Ten Thousand mercenaries were fighting their way out of Persia , the first Greek city they reached was Trebizond (Xenophon, Anabasis , 5.5.10). The city and

5940-544: The Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Trebizond came under Seljuk rule. This rule proved transient when an expert soldier and local aristocrat, Theodore Gabras took control of the city from the Turkish invaders, and regarded Trebizond, in the words of Anna Comnena , "as a prize which had fallen to his own lot" and ruled it as his own kingdom. Supporting Comnena's assertion, Simon Bendall has identified

6105-473: The Dardanelles , and nearby Kerasous . Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony, Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested to have occurred in the city already in the 4th century BC, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in

6270-645: The Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace . Despite his following marriage and his new sumptuous residence, Ibrahim sometimes spent the night with Suleiman I at Topkapı Palace. In turn, the sultan occasionally slept at Ibrahim's lodgings. Ibrahim Pasha rose to Grand Vizier in 1523 and commander-in-chief of all the armies. Suleiman also conferred upon Ibrahim Pasha the honor of beylerbey of Rumelia (first-ranking military governor-general), granting Ibrahim authority over all Ottoman territories in Europe, as well as command of troops residing within them in times of war. At

6435-535: The Islamic calendar of 1543 AD. In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including Fuzûlî and Bâkî . The literary historian Elias John Wilkinson Gibb observed that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan". Suleiman's most famous verse is: The people think of wealth and power as

6600-736: The Mughal imperial ports of Thatta , Surat and Janjira . The Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great himself is known to have exchanged six documents with Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman led several naval campaigns against the Portuguese in an attempt to remove them and reestablish trade with the Mughal Empire . Aden in Yemen was captured by the Ottomans in 1538, in order to provide an Ottoman base for raids against Portuguese possessions on

6765-661: The Persian Gulf , while the Persians retained their former capital Tabriz and all their other northwestern territories in the Caucasus and as they were prior to the wars, such as Dagestan and all of what is now Azerbaijan . Ottoman ships had been sailing in the Indian Ocean since the year 1518. Ottoman admirals such as Hadim Suleiman Pasha , Seydi Ali Reis and Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis are known to have voyaged to

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6930-676: The Russian Revolution of 1917 Russian soldiers in the city turned to rioting and looting, with officers commandeering Trebizonian ships to flee the scene. Governor Chrysantos was able to calm the Russian soldiers down, and the Russian Army ultimately retreated from the city and the rest of eastern and northeastern Anatolia . In March and April of 1918 the city hosted the Trebizond Peace Conference , where

7095-612: The Silk Road caravans carrying goods from Asia stopped at the port of Trebizond, where the European merchants purchased these goods and carried them to the port cities of Europe with ships. This trade provided a source of revenue to the state in the form of custom duties, or kommerkiaroi , levied on the goods sold in Trebizond. The Greeks protected the coastal and inland trade routes with a vast network of garrison forts. Following

7260-538: The extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state . See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish

7425-430: The 19th century. The city got a post office in 1845. New churches and mosques were built in the second half of the 19th century, as well as the first theater, public and private printing houses, multiple photo studios and banks. The oldest known photographs of the city center date from the 1860s and depict one of the last camel trains from Persia. Between one and two thousand Armenians are believed to have been killed in

7590-409: The Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making the switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until the 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish

7755-596: The Armenian community, while the vast majority of Christians were Greeks. However, a significant portion of the local Christians were Islamized by the end of the 17th century - especially those outside the city - according to a research by Prof. Halil İnalcık on the Ottoman tax books ( tahrir defterleri ). Between 1461 and 1598 Trabzon remained the administrative center of the wider region; first as 'sanjac center' of Rum Eyalet , later of Erzincan-Bayburt eyalet , Anadolu Eyalet , and Erzurum Eyalet . In 1598 it became

7920-468: The Black Sea trade, the Genoese bought the coastal fortification "Leonkastron", just west of the winter harbour, in the year 1306. The Venetians likewise built a trading outpost in the city, a few hundred meters to the west of the Genoese. In between these two Italian colonies settled many other European traders, and it thus became known as the "European Quarter". Small groups of Italians continued to live in

8085-720: The Caucasus arrived in the city, especially after 1864, in what is known as the Circassian genocide . Next to Constantinople, Smyrna (now İzmir ) and Salonika (now Thessaloniki ), Trebizond was one of the cities where western cultural and technological innovations were first introduced to the Ottoman Empire. In 1835, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions opened the Trebizond Mission station that it occupied from 1835 to 1859 and from 1882 to at least 1892. Hundreds of schools were constructed in

8250-776: The Eastern Mediterranean island of Rhodes , the home base of the Knights Hospitaller . Suleiman built a large fortification, Marmaris Castle , that served as a base for the Ottoman Navy . Following a five-month siege , Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the Knights of Rhodes to depart. The conquest of the island cost the Ottomans 50,000 to 60,000 dead from battle and sickness (Christian claims went as high as 64,000 Ottoman battle deaths and 50,000 disease deaths). As relations between Hungary and

8415-550: The Empire of Trebizond consisted of little more than a narrow strip along the southern coast of the Black Sea , and not much further inland than the Pontic Mountains . However, the city gained great wealth from the taxes it levied on the goods traded between Persia and Europe via the Black Sea. The Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258 diverted more trade caravans towards the city. Genoese and to a lesser extent Venetian traders regularly came to Trebizond. To secure their part of

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8580-825: The Karadere river valley in modern-day Araklı , 25 kilometers east of the city - the local Muslim population tried to protect the Christian Armenians. The coastal region between the city and the Russian frontier became the site of key battles between the Ottoman and Russian armies during the Trebizond Campaign , as part of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I. The Russian army landed at Atina , east of Rize on March 4, 1916. Lazistan Sanjak fell within two days. However, due to heavy guerrilla resistance around Of and Çaykara some 50 km to

8745-563: The Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from Spain entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 10,000 Ottoman troops and the victory of the local Maltese citizenry. While Sultan Suleiman was known as "the Magnificent" in the West, he was always Kanuni Suleiman or "The Lawgiver" ( قانونی ) to his Ottoman subjects. The overriding law of the empire was the Shari'ah , or Sacred Law, which as

8910-662: The Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf . At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major judicial changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with

9075-426: The Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Central Europe, and on 29 August 1526 he defeated Louis II of Hungary (1506–1526) at the Battle of Mohács . Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented: "I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty." While Suleiman

9240-437: The Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, using scorched earth tactics in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the Caucasus . Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and the Urmia region, a lasting presence in the province of Van , control of the western half of Azerbaijan and some forts in Georgia . In 1553, Suleiman began his third and final campaign against

9405-429: The Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior. In 1535 Suleiman made a grand entrance into Baghdad. He enhanced his local support by restoring the tomb of Abu Hanifa , the founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic law to which the Ottomans adhered. Attempting to defeat the Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. As in the previous attempt, Tahmasp avoided confrontation with

9570-422: The Ottoman conquest in 1461, as a substantial number of Greek Orthodox inhabitants, usually referred to as Pontic Greeks , continued to live in the area during Ottoman rule, up until 1923, when they were deported to Greece. A few thousand Greek Muslims still live in the area, mostly in the Çaykara - Of dialectical region to the southeast of Trabzon. Most are Sunni Muslim, while there are some recent converts in

9735-453: The Ottoman fleet. In 1535, Charles V led a Holy League of 26,700 soldiers (10,000 Spaniards, 8,000 Italians, 8,000 Germans, and 700 Knights of St. John) to victory against the Ottomans at Tunis , which together with the war against Venice the following year, led Suleiman to accept proposals from Francis I of France to form an alliance against Charles . Huge Muslim territories in North Africa were annexed. The piracy carried on thereafter by

9900-446: The Ottomans agreed to give up their military gains in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the eastern borders of the empire in Anatolia by the Transcaucasian Seim (a short-lived transcaucasian government). In December 1918 Trabzon deputy governor Hafız Mehmet gave a speech at the Ottoman parliament in which he blamed the former governor of Trebizond province Cemal Azmi – a non-native appointee who had fled to Germany after

10065-457: The Ottomans defied the Portuguese economic monopoly in the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese. Having consolidated his conquests on land, Suleiman was greeted with the news that the fortress of Koroni in Morea (the modern Peloponnese , peninsular Greece) had been lost to Charles V 's admiral, Andrea Doria . The presence of

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10230-474: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

10395-409: The Pontic Alps. Furthermore, during the time the Köppen climate classification was created, the city center had a borderline oceanic-humid subtropical climate, falling just under the 22 °C (72 °F) threshold for the hottest month of the year, yet climate change and the city's urban heat island contributed to its reclassification as humid subtropical in recent decades. This and the fact that

10560-403: The Pontic Mountains south of the city, where they established Vazelon Monastery in 270 AD and Sumela Monastery in 386 AD. As early as the First Council of Nicea , Trebizond had its own bishop. Subsequently, the Bishop of Trebizond was subordinated to the Metropolitan Bishop of Poti . Then during the 9th century, Trebizond itself became the seat of the Metropolitan Bishop of Lazica . By

10725-426: The Russian invasion – for orchestrating the Armenian Genocide in the city in 1915, by means of drowning. Subsequently, a series of war crimes trials were held in Trebizond in early 1919 (see Trebizond during the Armenian Genocide ). Among others, Cemal Azmi was sentenced to death in absentia. During the Turkish War of Independence several Christian Pontic Greek communities in the Trebizond province rebelled against

10890-403: The Shah. Having initially lost territories in Erzurum to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper Euphrates and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shah's army continued its strategy of avoiding the Ottomans, leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any significant gain. In 1555, a settlement known as the Peace of Amasya was signed, which defined

11055-423: The Spanish in the Eastern Mediterranean concerned Suleiman, who saw it as an early indication of Charles V's intention to rival Ottoman dominance in the region. Recognizing the need to reassert naval preeminence in the Mediterranean, Suleiman appointed an exceptional naval commander in the form of Khair ad Din , known to Europeans as Barbarossa . Once appointed admiral-in-chief, Barbarossa was charged with rebuilding

11220-461: The Sultan for the Hungarian lands he continued to control. Of more symbolic importance, the treaty referred to Charles V not as "Emperor" but as the "King of Spain", leading Suleiman to identify as the true "Caesar". In 1552, Suleiman's forces laid siege to Eger , located in the northern part of the Kingdom of Hungary, but the defenders led by István Dobó repelled the attacks and defended the Eger Castle . Suleiman's father had made war with Persia

11385-403: The Trebizond vilayet during the Hamidian massacres of 1895. While this number was low in comparison to other Ottoman provinces, its impact on the Armenian community in the city was large. Many prominent Armenian residents, among them scholars, musicians, photographers and painters, decided to migrate towards the Russian Empire or France. The large Greek population of the city was not affected by

11550-400: The Turkish parliament. Ali Şükrü Bey, who had studied in Deniz Harp Okulu (Turkish Naval Academy) and worked as a journalist in the United Kingdom, is seen as a hero by the people of Trabzon, while in neighboring Giresun there is a statue of his murderer Topal Osman. Three years later Trabzon deputy Hafız Mehmet - who had testified to his knowledge of, and opposition to, the Armenian Genocide -

11715-455: The West. With a reinforced garrison of 16,000 men, the Austrians inflicted the first defeat on Suleiman, sowing the seeds of a bitter Ottoman–Habsburg rivalry that lasted until the 20th century. His second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, as Ottoman forces were delayed by the siege of Güns and failed to reach Vienna. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plagued by bad weather, forcing them to leave behind essential siege equipment, and

11880-420: The area, but the old ethnic Greek , Laz and Armenian communities remained. According to the Ottoman tax books ( tahrir defterleri ), the total population of taxable adult males (only those with a household) in the city was 1,473 in the year 1523. The total population of the city was much higher. Approximately 85% of the population was Christian, and 15% Muslim. Thirteen percent of the adult males belonged to

12045-519: The basis of several states in its long history and was the capital city of the Empire of Trebizond between 1204 and 1461 . During the early modern period , Trabzon, because of the importance of its port, again became a focal point of trade to Persia and the Caucasus . The Turkish name of the city is Trabzon. The first recorded name of the city is the Greek Tραπεζοῦς ( Trapezous ), referencing

12210-480: The borders of the two empires. By this treaty, Armenia and Georgia were divided equally between the two, with Western Armenia , western Kurdistan , and western Georgia (incl. western Samtskhe ) falling in Ottoman hands while Eastern Armenia , eastern Kurdistan, and eastern Georgia (incl. eastern Samtskhe) stayed in Safavid hands. The Ottoman Empire obtained most of Iraq , including Baghdad, which gave them access to

12375-402: The breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts, the earliest of the documents dating from 1526 list 40 societies with over 600 members. The Ehl-i Hiref attracted the empire's most talented artisans to the Sultan's court, both from the Islamic world and from the recently conquered territories in Europe, resulting in a blend of Arabic, Turkish and European cultures. Artisans in service of

12540-580: The capital of its own province - the Eyalet of Trebizond - which in 1867 became the Vilayet of Trebizond . During the reign of Sultan Bayezid II , his son Prince Selim (later Sultan Selim I ) was the Sanjak-bey of Trabzon, and Selim I's son Suleiman the Magnificent was born in Trabzon in 1494. The Ottoman government often appointed local Chepni Turks and Laz beys as the regional beylerbey . It

12705-541: The city and possibly a few Crypto-Christians in the Tonya / Gümüşhane area to the southwest of the city. Compared to most previously Greek cities in Turkey, a large amount of its Greek Byzantine architectural heritage survives as well. The last Emperor of Trebizond, David , surrendered the city to Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1461. Following this takeover, Mehmed II sent many Turkish settlers into

12870-643: The city by armed Turkish port-workers. Governor Chrysantos travelled to the Paris Peace Conference , where he proposed the establishment of the Republic of Pontus , which would protect its different ethnic groups. For this he was condemned to death by the Turkish Nationalist forces, and he could not return to his post in Trebizond. Instead, the city was to be handed to ' Wilsonian Armenia ', which likewise never materialized. Following

13035-473: The city due to its importance in regional trade and commerce. In the first half of the 19th century, Trebizond even became the main port for Persian exports. The opening of the Suez Canal greatly diminished the international trading position of the city, but did not halt the economic development of the region. In the last decades of the 19th century, the city saw some demographic changes. As the population of

13200-539: The city to Western Europe. Trebizond played a mythical role in European literature of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Miguel de Cervantes and François Rabelais gave their protagonists the desire to possess the city. Next to literature, the legendary history of the city – and that of the Pontus in general – also influenced the creation of paintings , theatre plays and operas in Western Europe throughout

13365-482: The city until the early decades of the 20th century. One of the most famous persons to have visited the city in this period was Marco Polo , who ended his overland return journey at the port of Trebizond, and sailed to his hometown Venice with a ship; passing by Constantinople ( Istanbul ) on the way, which was retaken by the Byzantines in 1261. Together with Persian goods, Italian traders brought stories about

13530-589: The city was first handed to the Galatians , but it was soon returned to the grandson of Mithradates, and subsequently became part of the new client Kingdom of Pontus. When the kingdom was finally annexed to the Roman province of Galatia two centuries later, the fleet passed to new commanders, becoming the Classis Pontica . The city received the status of civitas libera , extending its judicial autonomy and

13695-484: The city was reestablished with a quadrivium curriculum. The university drew students not just from the Byzantine Empire , but from Armenia as well. The city regained importance when it became the seat of the theme of Chaldia . Trebizond also benefited when the trade route regained importance in the 8th to 10th centuries; 10th-century Muslim authors note that Trebizond was frequented by Muslim merchants, as

13860-536: The city was taken without a fight by the Russian Caucasus Army under command of Grand Duke Nicholas and Nikolai Yudenich . There was also a massacre of Armenians and Greeks in Trabzon just before the Russian takeover of the city. Many adult Turkish males left the city out of fear for reprisals, even though governor Chrysantos included them in his administration. According to some sources the Russians banned Muslim mosques , and forced Turks , who were

14025-585: The city; the holy springs of Mt. Minthrion to the east of the old town were devoted to the Persian-Anatolian Greek god Mithra . In the 2nd century BC, the city with its natural harbours was added to the Kingdom of Pontus by Pharnaces I . Mithridates VI Eupator made it the home port of the Pontic fleet, in his quest to remove the Romans from Anatolia. After the defeat of Mithridates in 66 BC,

14190-548: The court included painters, book binders, furriers, jewellers and goldsmiths. Whereas previous rulers had been influenced by Persian culture (Suleiman's father, Selim I, wrote poetry in Persian), Suleiman's patronage of the arts saw the Ottoman Empire assert its own artistic legacy. Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the takhallus (nom de plume) Muhibbi ( محبی , "Lover"). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as

14355-770: The courtyards of mosques, others included libraries, baths, soup kitchens, residences and hospitals for the benefit of the public. Under Suleiman's patronage, the Ottoman Empire entered the golden age of its cultural development . Hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the اهل حرف Ehl-i Hiref , "Community of the Craftsmen") were administered at the Imperial seat, the Topkapı Palace . After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to

14520-525: The defeat suffered at Vienna. In 1541, the Habsburgs attempted to lay siege to Buda but were repulsed, and more Habsburg fortresses were captured by the Ottomans in two consecutive campaigns in 1541 and 1544 as a result, Ferdinand and Charles were forced to conclude a humiliating five-year treaty with Suleiman. Ferdinand renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary and was forced to pay a fixed yearly sum to

14685-496: The divine law of Islam was outside of the Sultan's powers to change. Yet an area of distinct law known as the Kanuns ( قانون , canonical legislation) was dependent on Suleiman's will alone, covering areas such as criminal law, land tenure and taxation. He collected all the judgments that had been issued by the nine Ottoman Sultans who preceded him. After eliminating duplications and choosing between contradictory statements, he issued

14850-538: The dominant Caucasian groups to the east were the Laz , who were part of the monarchy of the Colchis , together with other related Georgian peoples. The city was founded in classical antiquity in 756 BC as Tραπεζούς ( Trapezous ), by Milesian traders from Sinope . It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian emporia or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in

15015-471: The east of Trabzon, it took a further 40 days for the Russian army to advance west. The Ottoman administration of Trabzon foresaw the fall of the city and called for a meeting with community leaders, where they handed control of the city to Greek metropolitan bishop Chrysantos Philippidis . Chrysantos promised to protect the Muslim population of the city. Ottoman forces retreated from Trabzon, and on April 15

15180-411: The eastern Black Sea region, a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cfa, Trewartha : Cf ) near the coast. A very small percentage of the province can be classified as subtropical, however, as slightly elevated rural areas near the coast are oceanic ( Cfb/Do ), the mountainous offshores are humid continental ( Dfb/Dc ) and subarctic ( Dfc/Eo ); and tundra ( ET/Ft ) can be found in the peaks of

15345-542: The election of Mustafa Kemal as the leader of the Turkish revolution at the Erzurum Congress . The governor and mayor of Trebizond were appalled by the violence against Ottoman Greek subjects, and the government of Trabzon thus refused arms to Mustafa Kemal's henchman Topal Osman , who was responsible for mass murders in the western Pontus which were part of the Greek Genocide . Osman was forced out of

15510-435: The empire's chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi , harmonized the relationship between the two forms of Ottoman law: sultanic ( Kanun ) and religious ( Sharia ). He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the " Golden Age " of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic , literary and architectural development. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hurrem Sultan ,

15675-417: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

15840-488: The establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of the reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with

16005-400: The following centuries. The city also played a role in the early Renaissance ; the western takeover of Constantinople, which formalized Trebizond's political independence, also led Byzantine intellectuals to seek refuge in the city. Especially Alexios II of Trebizond and his grandson Alexios III were patrons of the arts and sciences. After the great city fire of 1310, the ruined university

16170-525: The governor of Bitlis had defected and sworn allegiance to the Safavids. As a result, in 1533, Suleiman ordered his Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha to lead an army into eastern Asia Minor where he retook Bitlis and occupied Tabriz without resistance. Suleiman joined Ibrahim in 1534. They made a push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territory instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to harassment of

16335-422: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

16500-502: The grandfather of Ahmet Ertegün . These migrants were active in a wide range of trades including baking, confection, tailoring, carpentry, education, advocacy, politics and administration. The influence of this diaspora has since continued, and can still be seen in the many restaurants and shops in cities around the Black Sea in the 21st century such as in Istanbul, Odesa and Mariupol . At the same time, thousands of Muslim refugees from

16665-412: The greatest fate, But in this world a spell of health is the best state. What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. Suleiman also became renowned for sponsoring a series of monumental architectural developments within his empire. The Sultan sought to turn Constantinople into the center of Islamic civilization by

16830-574: The ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded Malta in 1565, undertaking the Great Siege of Malta , which began on 18 May and lasted until 8 September, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of Matteo Perez d'Aleccio in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first, it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on Rhodes, with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half

16995-417: The largest ethnic group living in the city, to leave Trabzon. However, already during the Russian occupation many Turks who had fled to surrounding villages started to return to the city, and governor Chrysantos helped them to re-establish their facilities such as schools, to the dismay of the Russians. In early 1917 Chrysantos tried to broker a peace between the Russians and the Ottomans, to no avail. During

17160-433: The letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows the suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in

17325-634: The local Mossynoeci had become estranged from the Mossynoecian capital, to the point of civil war. Xenophon's force resolved this in the rebels' favor, and so in Trebizond's interest. Up until the conquests of Alexander the Great the city remained under the dominion of the Achaemenids. While the Pontus was not directly affected by the war, its cities gained independence as a result of it. Local ruling families continued to claim partial Persian heritage, and Persian culture had some lasting influence on

17490-483: The lowest average minimum temperature is almost 5 °C (41 °F) in February. Precipitation is heaviest in autumn and winter, with a marked reduction in the summer months, a microclimatic condition of the city center compared to the rest of the region. Snowfall is somewhat common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two, and it can be heavy once it snows. The water temperature, like in

17655-517: The main meal in many restaurants in the city. Major exports from Trabzon include hazelnuts and tea . The city still has a sizable community of Greek-speaking Muslims , most of whom are originally from the vicinities of Tonya , Sürmene and Çaykara . However, the variety of the Pontic Greek language - known as " Romeika " in the local vernacular, Pontiaka in Greek, and Rumca in Turkish -

17820-437: The main source transshipping Byzantine silks into eastern Muslim countries. According to the 10th century Arab geographer Abul Feda it was regarded as being largely a Lazian port. The Italian maritime republics such as the Republic of Venice and in particular the Republic of Genoa were active in the Black Sea trade for centuries, using Trebizond as an important seaport for trading goods between Europe and Asia. Some of

17985-467: The massacre. Ivan Aivazovsky made the painting Massacre of the Armenians in Trebizond 1895 based on the events. Due to the high number of Western Europeans in the city, news from the region was being reported on in many European newspapers. These western newspapers were in turn also very popular among the residents of the city. Ottoman era paintings and drawings of Trebizond In 1901 the harbour

18150-612: The meaning "hullabaloo, imbroglio". Before the city was founded as a Greek colony the area was dominated by Colchians (west Georgian) and Chaldian (Anatolian) tribes. The Hayasa , who had been in conflict with the Central-Anatolian Hittites in the 14th century BC, are believed to have lived in the area south of Trabzon. Later Greek authors mentioned the Macrones and the Chalybes as native peoples. One of

18315-456: The military strength of Hungary. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of

18480-607: The name throughout the Middle Ages. These versions of the name, which have incidentally been used in English literature as well, include: Trebizonde ( Fr. ), Trapezunt ( German ), Trebisonda ( Sp. ), Trapesunta ( It. ), Trapisonda , Tribisonde , Terabesoun , Trabesun , Trabuzan , Trabizond and Tarabossan . In Spanish the name was known from chivalric romances and Don Quixote . Because of its similarity to trápala and trapaza , trapisonda acquired

18645-471: The new army of Mustafa Kemal (notably in Bafra and Santa ), but when nationalist Greeks came to Trabzon to proclaim revolution, they were not received with open arms by the local Pontic Greek population of the city. At the same time the Muslim population of the city, remembering their protection under Greek governor Chrysantos, protested the arrest of prominent Christians. Liberal delegates of Trebizond opposed

18810-466: The nobleman John Zápolya , whom Suleiman supported. Under Charles V and his brother Ferdinand I, the Habsburgs reoccupied Buda and took possession of Hungary. Reacting in 1529, Suleiman marched through the valley of the Danube and regained control of Buda; in the following autumn, his forces laid siege to Vienna . This was to be the Ottoman Empire's most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive to

18975-415: The one only who does not distress me in this room ... My Istanbul, my karaman, the earth of my Anatolia My Badakhshan, my Baghdad and Khorasan My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of misery ... I'll sing your praises always I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy. Before his downfall, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha

19140-477: The population exchange. Şükrü argued that recognition of ethnic diversity was not a threat to the Turkish nation. Topal Osman's men would eventually murder parliamentarian Şükrü for his criticism of the nationalist government of Mustafa Kemal in March 1923. Topal Osman was later sentenced to death and killed while resisting arrest. After pressure from the opposition, his headless body was hanged by his foot in front of

19305-399: The positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels, the second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of

19470-407: The province during the first half of the 19th century, giving the region one of the highest literacy rates of the empire. First, the Greek community set up their schools, but soon the Muslim and Armenian communities followed. International schools were also established in the city; An American school, five French schools, a Persian school and a number of Italian schools were opened in the second half of

19635-615: The province greatly expanded due to increased living standards, many families and young men - mostly Christians , but also some Jews and Greek or Turkish speaking Muslims - chose to migrate to the Crimea and southern Ukraine, in search for farmland or employment in one of the cities which had been newly established there. Among these migrants were the grandparents of Bob Dylan and Greek politicians and artists. Many Christian and Muslim families from Trabzon also moved to Constantinople, where they established businesses or sought employment - such as

19800-820: The region. Its capture was vital in removing the Hungarians and Croats who, following the defeats of the Albanians , Bosniaks , Bulgarians , Byzantines and the Serbs , remained the only formidable force who could block further Ottoman gains in Europe. Suleiman encircled Belgrade and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the Danube . Belgrade, with a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, fell in August 1521. The road to Hungary and Austria lay open, but Suleiman turned his attention instead to

19965-874: The reign of Suleiman's son Selim II . Suleiman also restored the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Walls of Jerusalem (which are the current walls of the Old City of Jerusalem ), renovated the Kaaba in Mecca , and constructed a complex in Damascus . Suleiman loved gardens and his shaykh grew a white tulip in one of the gardens. Some of the nobles in the court had seen the tulip and they also began growing their own. Soon images of

20130-489: The rest of Anatolia continued to exist throughout the 20th century, and still influences Turkish politics today. Even in the 21st century, politicians who hail from Trabzon are often faced with xenophobic attacks from both nationalist and conservative circles. During World War II shipping activity was limited because the Black Sea had again become a war zone. Hence, the most important export products, tobacco and hazelnuts , could not be sold and living standards degraded. As

20295-643: The rest of the Black Sea coast of Turkey, is generally mild, and fluctuates between 8 °C (46 °F) and 20 °C (68 °F) throughout the year. As of 1920, the port at Trabzon was considered "the most important of the Turkish Black Sea ports" by the British . It traded as far as Tabriz and Mosul . As of 1911, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey signed an agreement to develop

20460-466: The right to mint its own coin. Trebizond gained importance for its access to roads leading over the Zigana Pass to the Armenian frontier or the upper Euphrates valley. New roads were constructed from Persia and Mesopotamia under the rule of Vespasian . In the next century, the emperor Hadrian commissioned improvements to give the city a more structured harbor. The emperor visited the city in

20625-527: The schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople . As a young man, he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim , a Greek slave who later became one of his most trusted advisers (but who was later executed on Suleiman's orders). At age seventeen, he was appointed as the governor of first Kaffa (Theodosia), then Manisa , with a brief tenure at Edirne . Upon the death of his father, Selim I (r. 1512–1520), Suleiman entered Constantinople and ascended to

20790-440: The subtropical microclimate zone along the shore occupies a very narrow band due to the continuous parallel mountain range starting right at the coast is why local authorities still classify the city as oceanic, as this climate subtype is better representative of the entire coastal region of the province. Summers are warm, the average maximum temperature is around 28 °C (82 °F) in August, while winters are generally cool,

20955-452: The sultan's order. His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleiman's orders, along with Bayezid's four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars typically regarded the period after his death to be one of crisis and adaptation rather than simple decline , the end of Suleiman's reign was a watershed in Ottoman history. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes,

21120-535: The table-like central hill between the Zağnos (İskeleboz) and Kuzgun streams on which it was founded ( τράπεζα meant "table" in Ancient Greek ; note the table on the coin in the figure). In Latin , Trabzon is called Trapezus , which is a latinization of its ancient Greek name. Both in Pontic Greek and Modern Greek , it is called Τραπεζούντα ( Trapezounta ). In Ottoman Turkish and Persian , it

21285-473: The term Kanunî (the Lawgiver) first came to be used as an epithet for Suleiman. It is entirely absent from sixteenth and seventeenth-century Ottoman sources and may date from the early 18th century. There is a tradition of western origin, according to which Suleiman the Magnificent was "Suleiman II", but that tradition has been based on an erroneous assumption that Süleyman Çelebi was to be recognised as

21450-526: The territories of the German king Ferdinand, as well as 150 galleys against Charles, while France promised to attack Flanders , harass the coasts of Spain with a naval force, and send 40 galleys to assist the Turks for operations in the Levant. In August 1551, Ottoman naval commander Turgut Reis attacked and captured Tripoli , which had been a possession of the Knights of Malta since 1530. In 1553, Turgut Reis

21615-455: The throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. An early description of Suleiman, a few weeks following his accession, was provided by the Venetian envoy Bartolomeo Contarini : The sultan is only twenty-five years [actually 26] old, tall and slender but tough, with a thin and bony face. Facial hair is evident, but only barely. The sultan appears friendly and in good humor. Rumor has it that Suleiman

21780-495: The throne in 1703. Ahmet III’s gardens in Istanbul were adorned with tulips from Turkey’s mountains and the finest bulbs imported from Dutch commercial growers. Throughout his reign, he imported millions of Dutch tulip bulbs, reflecting the enduring legacy of Suleiman’s influence and the extravagant height of tulip culture during this period. Suleiman had two known consorts: Suleiman I had at least eight sons: Süleyman had two daughters: Suleiman fell in love with Hurrem Sultan ,

21945-421: The throne. Under his pen name, Muhibbi, Sultan Suleiman composed this poem for Hurrem Sultan: Throne of my lonely niche, my wealth, my love, my moonlight. My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love. The most beautiful among the beautiful ... My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf ... My plants, my sweet, my rose,

22110-409: The throne. Ibrahim eventually fell from grace with the Sultan and his wife. Suleiman consulted his Qadi , who suggested that Ibrahim be put to death. The Sultan recruited assassins and ordered them to strangle Ibrahim in his sleep. Ottoman Turkish language Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and

22275-407: The time of Justinian , the city served as an important base in his Persian Wars, and Miller notes that a portrait of the general Belisarius "long adorned the church of St. Basil." An inscription above the eastern gate of the city, commemorated the reconstruction of the civic walls at Justinian's expense following an earthquake. At some point before the 7th century the university (Pandidakterion) of

22440-413: The time, Ibrahim was only about thirty years old and lacked any actual military expertise; it is said that 'tongues wagged' at this unprecedented promotion straight from palace service to the two highest offices of the empire. During his thirteen years as Grand Vizier, his rapid rise to power and vast accumulation of wealth had made Ibrahim many enemies at the Sultan's court. Suleiman's suspicion of Ibrahim

22605-575: The topic of national identity and global citizenship . They were so influential that Bessarion was considered for the position of Pope , and George could survive as an academic even after being defamed for his heavy criticism of Plato. The Black Death arrived at the city in September 1347, probably via Kaffa . At that time the local aristocracy was engaged in the Trapezuntine Civil War . In 1340, Tur Ali Beg, an early ancestor of

22770-589: The trade routes to the Portuguese and maintained a significant level of trade with the Mughal Empire throughout the 16th century. From 1526 until 1543, Suleiman stationed over 900 Turkish soldiers to fight alongside the Somali Adal Sultanate led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during the Conquest of Abyssinia . After the first Ajuran-Portuguese war , the Ottoman Empire would in 1559 absorb

22935-509: The tulip were woven into rugs and fired into ceramics. Suleiman is credited with large-scale cultivation of the tulip and it is thought that the tulips spread throughout Europe because of Suleiman. It is thought that diplomats who visited him were gifted the flowers while visiting his court. Suleiman’s passion for tulips set a precedent for their cultivation and cultural significance in the Ottoman Empire. This fascination continued to flourish, reaching its zenith under Sultan Ahmet III, who ascended

23100-404: The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in the same way, with

23265-485: The vicinity, who moved to Greece (founding the new towns of Nea Trapezounta, Pieria and Nea Trapezounta, Grevena amongst others). During the war Trebizond parliamentarian Ali Şükrü Bey had been one of the leading figures of the first Turkish opposition party . In his newspaper Tan , Şükrü and colleagues publicized critiques of the Kemalist government, such as towards the violence perpetrated against Greeks during

23430-506: The war, the Treaty of Sèvres was annulled and replaced with the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). As part of this new treaty, Trebizond became part of the new Turkish Republic . The efforts of the pro- Ottoman , anti-nationalist population of Trebizond only postponed the inevitable, because the national governments of Turkey and Greece agreed to a mutual forced population exchange . This exchange included well over 100,000 Greeks from Trebizond and

23595-707: The weakened Adal Sultanate into its domain. This expansion furthered Ottoman rule in Somalia and the Horn of Africa . This also increased its influence in the Indian Ocean to compete with the Portuguese Empire with its close ally, the Ajuran Empire . In 1564, Suleiman received an embassy from Aceh (a sultanate on Sumatra , in modern Indonesia ), requesting Ottoman support against the Portuguese. As

23760-473: The well-known Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story . When his young son Mehmed died in 1543, he composed a moving chronogram to commemorate the year: Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed . In Turkish the chronogram reads شهزاده‌لر گزیده‌سی سلطان محمدم ( Şehzadeler güzidesi Sultan Muhammed'üm ), in which the Arabic Abjad numerals total 955, the equivalent in

23925-489: The western coast of the Mughal Empire. Sailing on, the Ottomans failed against the Portuguese at the siege of Diu in September 1538, but then returned to Aden, where they fortified the city with 100 pieces of artillery. From this base, Sulayman Pasha managed to take control of the whole country of Yemen, also taking Sana'a . With its strong control of the Red Sea , Suleiman successfully managed to dispute control of

24090-528: The winter of 1914–15, while during those same months the Russian navy bombarded the city a total of five times, taking 1300 lives. Especially the port quarter Çömlekçi and surrounding neighborhoods were targeted. In July 1915 most of the adult male Armenians of the city were marched off south in five convoys, towards the mines of Gümüşhane, never to be seen again. Other victims of the Armenian genocide were reportedly taken out to sea in boats which were then capsized. In some areas of Trebizond province - such as

24255-476: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

24420-513: The year 129 as part of his inspection of the eastern border ( limes ). A mithraeum now serves as a crypt for the church and monastery of Panagia Theoskepastos ( Kızlar Manastırı ) in nearby Kizlara, east of the citadel and south of the modern harbor. Septimius Severus punished Trebizond for having supported his rival Pescennius Niger during the Year of the Five Emperors . In 257 the city

24585-411: Was "not an obscure town." Christianity had reached Trebizond by the third century, for during the reign of Diocletian occurred the martyrdom of Eugenius and his associates Candidius, Valerian, and Aquila. Eugenius had destroyed the statue of Mithras which overlooked the city from Mount Minthrion (Boztepe), and became the patron saint of the city after his death. Early Christians sought refuge in

24750-551: Was also executed, for his alleged involvement in the İzmir plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal. The literal decapitation of the Turkish political opposition - which was in large part based in the Trabzon region - decreased the city's national influence, and led to a long-standing animosity between the Kemalists and the population of Trabzon. A political and cultural divide between the Eastern Black Sea Region and

24915-436: Was an inseparable friend and possible lover of Suleiman. In fact, he is referred to by his chroniclers as "the favourite" (Maḳbūl) along with "the executed" (Maḳtūl). Historians state that Suleiman I is remembered for "his passion for two of his slaves: for his beloved Ibrahim when the sultan was a hot-blooded youth, and for his beloved Hurrem when he was mature." Ibrahim was originally a Christian from Parga (in Epirus ), who

25080-427: Was campaigning in Hungary, Turkmen tribes in central Anatolia (in Cilicia ) revolted under the leadership of Kalender Çelebi . Some Hungarian nobles proposed that Ferdinand , who was the ruler of neighboring Austria and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs. However, other nobles turned to

25245-419: Was captured in a raid during the 1499–1503 Ottoman–Venetian War , and was given as a slave to Suleiman most likely in 1514. Ibrahim converted to Islam and Suleiman made him the royal falconer , then promoted him to first officer of the Royal Bedchamber. It was reported that they slept together in the same bed. The sultan also built Ibrahim a lavish palace on the ancient Hippodrome , Istanbul's main forum outside

25410-449: Was described as having "large leaves and a bright colour." Trabzon was known for producing poor quality cereals , mostly for local use. Trabzon produced a white green bean , which was sold in Europe. It was, as of 1920, the only vegetable exported out of the province. Poultry farming was also popular in Trabzon. Sericulture was seen in the area before 1914. The area produced copper , silver , zinc , iron and manganese . Copper

25575-425: Was equipped with cranes by Stothert & Pitt of Bath in England. In 1912 the Sümer Opera House was opened on the central Meydan square, being one of the first in the empire. The start of the First World War brought an abrupt end to the relatively peaceful and prosperous period the city had seen during the previous century. First Trebizond would lose many of its young male citizens at the Battle of Sarikamish in

25740-423: Was hobbled by overstretched supply lines. In 1533 the Treaty of Constantinople was signed by Ferdinand I , in which he acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty and recognised Suleiman as his "father and suzerain", he also agreed to pay an annual tribute and accepted the Ottoman grand vizier as his brother and equal in rank. By the 1540s, a renewal of the conflict in Hungary presented Suleiman with the opportunity to avenge

25905-473: Was nominated commander of Tripoli by Suleiman, making the city an important center for piratical raids in the Mediterranean and the capital of the Ottoman province of Tripolitania . In 1560, a powerful naval force was sent to recapture Tripoli, but that force was defeated in the Battle of Djerba . Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew

26070-420: Was pillaged by the Goths , despite reportedly being defended by "10,000 above its usual garrison" and two bands of walls. Trebizond was subsequently rebuilt, pillaged again, by the Persians , in 258, and then rebuilt once more. It did not soon recover. Only in the reign of Diocletian does an inscription allude to the restoration of the city; Ammianus Marcellinus had nothing to say of Trebizond except that it

26235-434: Was probably used mostly for astrological purposes for the emperor and/or the church. Scientists and philosophers of Trebizond were among the first western thinkers to compare contemporaneous theories with classical Greek texts. Basilios Bessarion and George of Trebizond travelled to Italy and taught and published works on Plato and Aristotle , starting a fierce debate and literary tradition that continues to this day on

26400-499: Was reestablished. As part of the university Gregory Choniades opened a new academy of astronomy, which housed the best observatory outside Persia. Choniades brought with him the works of Shams al-Din al-Bukhari, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini from Tabriz, which he translated into Greek. These works later found their way to western Europe, together with the astrolabe . The observatory Choniades built would become known for its accurate solar eclipse predictions, but

26565-433: Was the longest surviving of the Byzantine successor states. Byzantine authors, such as Pachymeres , and to some extent Trapezuntines such as Lazaropoulos and Bessarion , regarded the Trebizond Empire as being no more than a Lazian border state. Thus from the point of view of the Byzantine writers connected with the Lascaris and later with the Palaiologos , the rulers of Trebizond were not emperors. Geographically,

26730-477: Was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman Empire ruled over at least 25 million people. Suleiman succeeded his father, Selim I , as sultan on 30 September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in Central Europe and the Mediterranean. Belgrade fell to him in 1521 and the island of Rhodes in 1522–1523. At Mohács , in August 1526, Suleiman broke

26895-426: Was to last more than three hundred years. The Sultan also played a role in protecting the Jewish subjects of his empire for centuries to come. In late 1553 or 1554, on the suggestion of his favorite doctor and dentist, the Spanish Jew Moses Hamon , the Sultan issued a firman ( فرمان ) formally denouncing blood libels against the Jews. Furthermore, Suleiman enacted new criminal and police legislation, prescribing

27060-399: Was worsened by a quarrel between the latter and the finance secretary ( defterdar ) İskender Çelebi . The dispute ended in the disgrace of Çelebi on charges of intrigue, with Ibrahim convincing Suleiman to sentence the defterdar to death. Ibrahim also supported Şehzade Mustafa as the successor of Suleiman. This caused disputes between him and Hurrem Sultan, who wanted her sons to succeed to

27225-399: Was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish , a dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish

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