164-399: Surfing is a surface water sport in which an individual, a surfer (or two in tandem surfing ), uses a board to ride on the forward section, or face, of a moving wave of water , which usually carries the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found on ocean shores, but can also be found as standing waves in the open ocean, in lakes , in rivers in the form of
328-594: A balsilla caballero , or sitting stubbornly cutting the waves of the sea, which is rough where they fish, they looked like the Tritons, or Neptunes, who paint upon the water. In Polynesian culture , surfing was an important activity. Modern surfing as we know it today is thought to have originated in Hawaii . The history of surfing dates to c. AD 400 in Polynesia, where Polynesians began to make their way to
492-514: A body of water . Environmental impact includes noise, pollutants, shoreline degradation, and disturbance and dislocation of wildlife, and the governing body, the International Waterski & Wakeboard Federation (IWWF) has been acting to reduce this impact. The IWWF also governs the related sports of barefoot skiing , cable skiing , cable wakeboard, disabled ski, racing, show ski, water skiing , and wakesurfing . Skurfing
656-571: A brief period in which Fiji was an independent kingdom , the British established the Colony of Fiji . Fiji operated as a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence and became known as the Dominion of Fiji . In 1987, following a series of coups d'état , the military government that had taken power declared it a republic. In a 2006 coup , Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power. In 2009,
820-493: A tidal bore , or wave pools . The term surfing refers to a person riding a wave using a board, regardless of the stance. There are several types of boards. The Moche of Peru would often surf on reed craft, while the native peoples of the Pacific surfed waves on alaia , paipo, and other such water craft. Ancient cultures often surfed on their belly and knees, while the modern-day definition of surfing most often refers to
984-535: A "flat spell", when no waves are available. Completely artificial wave pools aim to solve that problem by controlling all the elements that go into creating perfect surf, however there are only a handful of wave pools that can simulate good surfing waves, owing primarily to construction and operation costs and potential liability. Most wave pools generate waves that are too small and lack the power necessary to surf. The Seagaia Ocean Dome , located in Miyazaki, Japan,
1148-531: A "paradise wasted on savage cannibals". Authors such as Deryck Scarr have perpetuated 19th century claims of "freshly killed corpses piled up for eating" and ceremonial mass human sacrifice on the construction of new houses and boats. In fact, during colonial times, Fiji was known as the Cannibal Isles . Modern archaeological research conducted on Fijian sites has shown that Fijians did in fact practice cannibalism, which has helped modern scholars to assess
1312-403: A book whose photographs serve as a historical artifact of 1930s surf culture, primarily featuring images taken before World War II . Through his work in surf photography, Doc Ball played a pivotal role in documenting and popularizing California’s early surf scene, leaving a lasting legacy in surf photography. Mary Ann Hawkins, inspired by Duke Kahanamoku's surfing during the late 1920s, developed
1476-599: A break from their boarding school, St. Matthew's Hall in San Mateo , and came to cool off in Santa Cruz, California . There, David Kawānanakoa , Edward Keliʻiahonui and Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole surfed the mouth of the San Lorenzo River on custom-shaped redwood boards, according to surf historians Kim Stoner and Geoff Dunn. In 1890, the pioneer in agricultural education John Wrightson reputedly became
1640-633: A campaign into the mountains but suffered a humiliating loss with 61 of his fighters being killed. Settlers also came into conflict with the local eastern Kai Colo people called the Wainimala. Thurston called in the Australia Station section of the Royal Navy for assistance. The Navy duly sent Commander Rowley Lambert and HMS Challenger to conduct a punitive mission against the Wainimala. An armed force of 87 men shelled and burnt
1804-891: A compromise electoral formula and a timetable for independence as a fully sovereign and independent nation within the Commonwealth . The Legislative Council would be replaced with a bicameral Parliament , with a Senate dominated by Fijian chiefs and a popularly elected House of Representatives . In the 52-member House, Native Fijians and Indo-Fijians would each be allocated 22 seats, of which 12 would represent communal constituencies comprising voters registered on strictly ethnic roles, and another 10 representing national constituencies to which members were allocated by ethnicity but elected by universal suffrage. A further 8 seats were reserved for " general electors " – Europeans , Chinese , Banaban Islanders , and other minorities; 3 of these were "communal" and 5 "national". With this compromise, it
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#17327977538901968-593: A confederacy of the seven main native kingdoms in Fiji to establish some sort of government. This was initially successful, and Cakobau was elected as the first president of the confederacy. With the demand for land high, the white planters started to push into the hilly interior of Viti Levu. This put them into direct confrontation with the Kai Colo, which was a general term to describe the various Fijian clans resident to these inland districts. The Kai Colo were still living
2132-617: A democratic election took place . Bainimarama's FijiFirst party won 59.2% of the vote, and international observers deemed the election credible. Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific through its abundant forest, mineral, and fish resources. The currency is the Fijian dollar , with the main sources of foreign exchange being the tourist industry, remittances from Fijians working abroad, bottled water exports, and sugar cane. The Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development supervises Fiji's local government, which takes
2296-665: A distinctive look that represented the local surf lifestyle. Ball’s work began to gain attention, and in the fall of 1937, The Los Angeles Times published two of his photographs alongside Andy Hamilton's article "Surfboards, Ahoy!" This piece showcased surfers at Bluff Cove who were members of the Palos Verdes Surfing Club, including well-known surfers Tulie Clark, E. Oshiek, and Jim Reynolds. Ball’s photography continued to attract wide recognition. In February 1938, his photo of Palos Verdes Surfing Club member Kay Murray diving off his board at Hermosa Beach appeared on
2460-479: A final offer, which the British accepted. On 23 September, Sir Hercules Robinson , soon to be appointed the British Governor of Fiji, arrived on HMS Dido and received Cakobau with a royal 21-gun salute. After some vacillation, Cakobau agreed to renounce his Tui Viti title, retaining the title of Vunivalu , or Protector. The formal cession took place on 10 October 1874, when Cakobau, Ma'afu, and some of
2624-428: A force led by Walter Carew and George Le Hunte who were stationed at Nasaucoko. Carew also ensured the rebellion did not spread east by securing the loyalty of the Wainimala people of the eastern highlands. The war involved the use of the soldiers of the old Native Regiment of Cakobau supported by around 1,500 Christian Fijian volunteers from other areas of Viti Levu. The colonial New Zealand Government provided most of
2788-678: A growing perception that the government was dominated by the Indo-Fijian (Indian) community. The second 1987 coup saw both the Fijian monarchy and the Governor General replaced by a non-executive president and the name of the country changed from Dominion of Fiji to Republic of Fiji and then in 1997 to Republic of the Fiji Islands . The two coups and the accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indo-Fijian emigration;
2952-502: A half-yearly profit of around $ 25,000 for the dealer. The Fijian workers were often given firearms and ammunition as an exchange for their labour, and by the end of the 1820s most of the Fijian chiefs had muskets and many were skilled at using them. Some Fijian chiefs soon felt confident enough with their new weapons to forcibly obtain more destructive weaponry from the Europeans. In 1834, men from Viwa and Bau were able to take control of
3116-471: A large company of naked natives of both sexes and all ages, amusing themselves with the national pastime of surf-bathing." References to surf riding on planks and single canoe hulls are also verified for pre-contact Samoa , where surfing was called fa'ase'e or se'egalu (see Augustin Krämer, The Samoa Islands ), and Tonga , far pre-dating the practice of surfing by Hawaiians and eastern Polynesians by over
3280-437: A layer of water against a smooth structure mimicking the shape of a breaking wave. Because of the velocity of the rushing water, the wave and the surfer can remain stationary while the water rushes by under the surfboard. Artificial waves of this kind provide the opportunity to try surfing and learn its basics in a moderately small and controlled environment near or far from locations with natural surf. Standup surfing begins when
3444-475: A lifelong passion for surfing. In 1935, her family relocated to Santa Monica , providing her with opportunities to further immerse herself in surfing and paddleboarding. On September 12, 1936, Hawkins achieved a historic milestone by winning California’s first women’s paddleboard race at the Santa Monica Breakwater. She continued to dominate the sport, winning numerous competitions, including
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#17327977538903608-620: A military fortress, Fort Canarvon, at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River where a large contingent of soldiers were based to maintain British control. He renamed the Native Regiment, the Armed Native Constabulary to lessen its appearance of being a military force. To further consolidate social control throughout the colony, Governor Gordon introduced a system of appointed chiefs and village constables in
3772-411: A more turbulent part of the wave (often completely submerged by whitewater). In contrast, surfers who instead ride a hydrofoil feel substantially less drag and may ride unbroken waves in the open ocean. Three major subdivisions within stand-up surfing are stand-up paddling , long boarding and short boarding with several major differences including the board design and length, the riding style and
3936-488: A mostly traditional lifestyle, they were not Christianised, and they were not under the rule of Cakobau or the confederacy. In 1867, a travelling missionary named Thomas Baker was killed by Kai Colo in the mountains at the headwaters of the Sigatoka River . The acting British consul, John Bates Thurston , demanded that Cakobau lead a force of Fijians from coastal areas to suppress the Kai Colo. Cakobau eventually led
4100-561: A motorboat or jet ski. In wakeboarding , the participant is towed standing on a small board, riding a wake produced by the towing boat, and attempts to do tricks. Events are organized by the World Wakeboarding Association. A special wakeboard boat has a wakeboard tower, which places the pull point higher above water's surface which makes it easier to jump. Wakeboarding boats have a ballast system that pumps water into tanks to increase displacement , and enlarge
4264-421: A naturally unpredictable backdrop—an organic environment that is, by turns, graceful and serene, violent and formidable. Windsurfing is a sport involving travel over water on a small 2–4.7 metre board powered by wind acting on a single sail. The sail is connected to the board by a flexible joint. The sport is a hybrid between sailing and surfing. The sail board might be considered the most minimalistic version of
4428-481: A new generation of women surfers. In January 1939, Hawkins was appointed head of the women’s auxiliary group of the Santa Monica Paddle Club and rose to vice president by January 1940. Her surfing peers frequently lauded her achievements, with "Whitey" Harrison describing her as "the best tandem rider." Throughout her career, Hawkins exemplified grace and athleticism, leaving an indelible mark on
4592-510: A number of incidents involving their consul in the Fiji islands, John Brown Williams. In 1849, Williams had his trading store looted following an accidental fire, caused by stray cannon fire during a Fourth of July celebration, and in 1853 the European settlement of Levuka was burnt to the ground. Williams blamed Cakobau for both these incidents, and the U.S. representative wanted Cakobau's capital at Bau destroyed in retaliation. A naval blockade
4756-465: A powerful influence in the region. His father was Ratu Tanoa Visawaqa , the Vunivalu (a chiefly title meaning warlord , often translated also as paramount chief) who had previously subdued much of western Fiji. Cakobau, following on from his father, became so dominant that he was able to expel the Europeans from Levuka for five years over a dispute about their giving of weapons to his local enemies. In
4920-570: A result many men, women and children were either killed or wounded in these operations. The rest were taken prisoner and sent to the towns on the northern coast. The chief medical officer in British Fiji, William MacGregor, also took part both in killing Kai Colo and tending to their wounded. After the caves were taken, the Kai Colo surrendered and their leader, Bisiki, was captured. Various trials were held, mostly at Nasaucoko under Le Hunte, and 32 men were either hanged or shot including Bisiki, who
5084-444: A rigid binding, they have rubber molded binding, in which the skier's feet are placed. Skiers are pulled along by a rope with a handle fitted at one end and attached to a powerboat at the other. There are two types of waterskiing: doubles and slalom. When skiing doubles, you use two skis. When skiing slalom, one ski is used. Slalom skiing is notably harder than doubles. Boardsports are sports that are played with some sort of board as
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5248-478: A similar system to the Native Police that was present in the colonies of Australia, two white settlers, James Harding and W. Fitzgerald, were appointed as the head officers of this paramilitary brigade. The formation of this force did not sit well with many of the white plantation owners as they did not trust an army of Fijians to protect their interests. The situation intensified further in early 1873 when
5412-463: A skimboard either on an outgoing wave, or in shallow water, where instead of going for waves the rider may attempt to ride a rail or do "tech" tricks. Surfing is a recreational activity in which individuals paddle into a wave on a surfboard, jump to their feet, and are propelled across the water by the force of the wave. Surfing's appeal probably derives from an unusual confluence of elements: adrenaline, skill, and high paced maneuvering are set against
5576-844: A student at the University of Redlands , John Heath Doc Ball received a Kodak Autographic camera from his father and this gift sparked his interest in surf photography, an interest he pursued during summers at his family’s home in Hermosa Beach. By 1929, Ball had graduated and decided to follow his father’s career path in dentistry. Despite this, Ball’s passion for photography and surfing remained strong, and it would continue to shape his life in significant ways. In August 1930, after completing his first year of dental school at USC, Ball traveled with his father to Honolulu for summer vacation. This trip further fueled Ball’s enthusiasm for surfing. A black-and-white surf photograph taken by Tom Blake
5740-458: A surfboard or bodyboard. Bodysurfers typically equip themselves only with a pair of specialized swimfins that stay on during turbulent conditions and optimize propulsion. Fiji Fiji ( / ˈ f iː dʒ i / FEE -jee , / f iː ˈ dʒ iː / fee- JEE ; Fijian : Viti , [ˈβitʃi] ; Fiji Hindi : फ़िजी, Fijī ), officially the Republic of Fiji ,
5904-447: A surfer riding a wave standing on a surfboard ; this is also referred to as stand-up surfing. Another prominent form of surfing is body boarding , where a surfer rides the wave on a bodyboard, either lying on their belly, drop knee (one foot and one knee on the board), or sometimes even standing up on a body board. Other types of surfing include knee boarding, surf matting (riding inflatable mats) and using foils. Body surfing , in which
6068-460: A surfing location, but also dissipate wave energy and shelter the coastline from erosion. Ships such as Seli 1 that have accidentally stranded on sandy bottoms, can create sandbanks that give rise to good waves. An artificial reef known as Chevron Reef was constructed in El Segundo, California in hopes of creating a new surfing area. However, the reef failed to produce any quality waves and
6232-410: A term of three years, paid three pounds per year, issued basic clothing, and given access to the company store for supplies. Most Melanesians were recruited by deceit, usually being enticed aboard ships with gifts, and then locked up. In 1875, the chief medical officer in Fiji, Sir William MacGregor , listed a mortality rate of 540 out of every 1,000 labourers. After the expiry of the three-year contract,
6396-661: A thousand years. West Africans (e.g., Ghana , Ivory Coast , Liberia , Senegal ) and western Central Africans (e.g., Cameroon ) independently developed the skill of surfing. Amid the 1640s CE, Michael Hemmersam provided an account of surfing in the Gold Coast : “the parents ‘tie their children to boards and throw them into the water.’” In 1679 CE, Barbot provided an account of surfing among Elmina children in Ghana: “children at Elmina learned “to swim, on bits of boards, or small bundles of rushes, fasten’d under their stomachs, which
6560-466: A two pronged attack throughout the region. The combined forces of the different clans of the Kai Colo made a stand at the village of Na Culi. The Kai Colo were defeated with dynamite and fire being used to flush them out from their defensive positions amongst the mountain caves. Many Kai Colo were killed, and one of the main leaders of the hill clans, Ratu Dradra, was forced to surrender with around 2,000 men, women and children being taken prisoner and sent to
6724-697: A waterproof camera that he had successfully created the previous month, Ball also captured the excitement of riding the “Mighty Ski Jump” at Bluff Cove in December 1940. In 1940, Ball photographed scenes from the Pacific Coast Surf Riding Championships at San Onofre . These images are unique as they feature cars parked on the beach, spectators, and surfers waiting for their turn to surf Moser, Patrick (2024). Waikīkī dreams: how California appropriated Hawaiian beach culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Ball’s reputation led
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6888-539: A wave as it travels since a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died. During summer, heavy swells are generated when cyclones form in the tropics. Tropical cyclones form over warm seas, so their occurrence is influenced by El Niño and La Niña cycles. Their movements are unpredictable. Surf travel and some surf camps offer surfers access to remote, tropical locations, where tradewinds ensure offshore conditions. Since winter swells are generated by mid-latitude cyclones , their regularity coincides with
7052-491: A way to entice visitors to his own budding resort community south of Venice where he had heavily invested in real estate, he hired Freeth as a lifeguard and to give surfing exhibitions in front of the Hotel Redondo . Another native Hawaiian, Duke Kahanamoku , spread surfing to both the U.S. and Australia, riding the waves after displaying the swimming prowess that won him Olympic gold medals in 1912 and 1920. In 1926, as
7216-436: A widespread uprising quickly took hold. Villages along the Sigatoka River and in the highlands above this area refused British control, and Gordon was tasked with quashing this rebellion. In what Gordon termed the "Little War", the suppression of this uprising took the form of two co-ordinated military campaigns in the western half of Viti Levu. The first was conducted by Gordon's second cousin, Arthur John Lewis Gordon, against
7380-600: Is Ono-i-Lau . About 87% of the total population of 924,610 live on the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu . About three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in the capital city of Suva , or in smaller urban centres such as Nadi (where tourism is the major local industry) or Lautoka (where the sugar-cane industry is dominant). The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely inhabited because of its terrain. The majority of Fiji's islands were formed by volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago. Some geothermal activity still occurs today on
7544-701: Is a good diversion to the spectators.” James Alexander provided an account of surfing in Accra , Ghana in 1834 CE: “From the beach, meanwhile, might be seen boys swimming into the sea, with light boards under their stomachs. They waited for a surf; and came rolling like a cloud on top of it. But I was told that sharks occasionally dart in behind the rocks and ‘yam’ them.” Thomas Hutchinson provided an account of surfing in southern Cameroon in 1861: “Fishermen rode small dugouts ‘no more than six feet in length, fourteen to sixteen inches in width, and from four to six inches in depth.’” In July 1885, three teenage Hawaiian princes took
7708-589: Is a late-20th century alternative boardsport incorporating elements of surfing, bodyboarding, skateboarding, skimboarding, snowboarding and wakeboarding. Flowriding takes place on an artificial wave machine, called the FlowRider or the FlowBarrel, created by Wave Loch . Kiteboarding , also known as kitesurfing, and sometimes as flysurfing, involves using a power kite to pull a small surfboard with bindings. Jetboarding , also known as motorized surfboarding,
7872-434: Is a surface water sport in which the participant is towed on a surfboard, behind a boat, with a ski rope. It is not a professional sport and has no competitions; it is a freestyle sport with a highly individualistic style and form. Tubing , also known as biscuiting, is where a large, usually circular, rubber tube is towed behind a boat at fast speeds. The general aim is to hold on as long as possible without falling off due to
8036-468: Is a type of water sport that involves riding a surfboard with electric- or petrol-powered system. Riders can achieve high speed to 70 km/h in a very short of period with a hand controller. Paddleboarding is an activity in which a person paddles a long streamlined surfboard with their hands. This is done while laying or kneeling on the board. Paddleboards are raced throughout the world. Standup paddleboarding (SUP), also known as standup paddle surfing,
8200-469: Is a water sport born from surfing with modern roots in Hawaii. Stand up paddle boarders stand on boards that are floating on the water, and use a paddle to propel themselves through the water. In riverboarding , also known as hydrospeed or white-water sledging, the participant lies prone on their board with fins on their feet for propulsion and steering. Skimboarding is a boardsport which involves riding
8364-642: Is aided by advances in information technology. Mathematical modeling graphically depicts the size and direction of swells around the globe. Swell regularity varies across the globe and throughout the year. During winter, heavy swells are generated in the mid-latitudes, when the North and South polar fronts shift toward the Equator . The predominantly Westerly winds generate swells that advance Eastward, so waves tend to be largest on West coasts during winter months. However, an endless train of mid-latitude cyclones cause
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#17327977538908528-572: Is an island country in Melanesia , part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean . It lies about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km ; 1,300 mi ) north-northeast of New Zealand . Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about 110 are permanently inhabited—and more than 500 islets , amounting to a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The most outlying island group
8692-724: Is believed that either the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first, but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived; the old culture may have had some influence on the new one, and archaeological evidence shows that some of the migrants moved on to Samoa , Tonga and even Hawai'i . Archeological evidence also shows signs of human settlement on Moturiki Island beginning at least by 600 BC and possibly as far back as 900 BC. Although some aspects of Fijian culture are similar to
8856-525: Is the Lovoni people of Ovalau, who after being defeated in a war with the Cakobau government in 1871, were rounded up and sold to the settlers at £6 per head. Two thousand Lovoni men, women and children were sold, and their period of slavery lasted five years. Likewise, after the Kai Colo wars in 1873, thousands of people from the hill tribes of Viti Levu were sent to Levuka and sold into slavery. Warnings from
9020-411: Is the angle between the wave front and the horizontal projection of the point of break over time, which in a regular break is most easily represented by the line of white water left after the break. A break that closes out, or breaks all at once along its length, leaves white water parallel to the wave front, and has a peel angle of 0°. This is unsurfable as it would require infinite speed to progress along
9184-625: The 2020 Summer Olympics in Japan. The first gold medalists of the Tokyo 2020 surfing men and women's competitions were, respectively, the Brazilian Ítalo Ferreira and the American from Hawaii, Carissa Moore . About three to five thousand years ago, cultures in ancient Peru fished in kayak-like watercraft ( mochica ) made of reeds that the fishermen surfed back to shore. The Moche culture used
9348-602: The Hawaiian Islands from Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands . They brought many of their customs with them including playing in the surf on Paipo (belly/body) boards. It was in Hawaii that the art of standing and surfing upright on boards was invented. Various European explorers witnessed surfing in Polynesia . Surfing may have been observed by British explorers at Tahiti in 1767. Samuel Wallis and
9512-527: The Ku Klux Klan in homage to the white supremacist group in America. However, when respected individuals such as Charles St Julian , Robert Sherson Swanston and John Bates Thurston were appointed by Cakobau, a degree of authority was established. With the rapid increase in white settlers entering the country, the desire for land acquisition also intensified. Once again, conflict with the Kai Colo in
9676-639: The Melanesian culture of the western Pacific, Fijian culture has a stronger connection to the older Polynesian cultures . The evidence is clear that there was trade between Fiji and neighbouring archipelagos long before Europeans made contact with Fiji. In the 10th century, the Tu'i Tonga Empire was established in Tonga, and Fiji came within its sphere of influence. The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs and language into Fiji. That empire began to decline in
9840-584: The Melanesian Mission at Nukapu in the Reef Islands had provoked public outrage, which was compounded by the massacre by crew members of more than 150 Fijians on board the brig Carl. Two British commissioners were sent to Fiji to investigate the possibility of an annexation. The question was complicated by maneuverings for power between Cakobau and his old rival, Ma'afu, with both men vacillating for many months. On 21 March 1874, Cakobau made
10004-750: The Solomon Islands campaign , with one war correspondent describing their ambush tactics as "death with velvet gloves". Corporal Sefanaia Sukanaivalu , of Yucata, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross , as a result of his bravery in the Battle of Bougainville . A constitutional conference was held in London in July 1965 to discuss constitutional changes with a view to introducing responsible government. Indo-Fijians, led by A. D. Patel , demanded
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#173279775389010168-586: The caballito de totora (little horse of totora ), with archaeological evidence showing its use around 200 CE. An early description of the Inca surfing in Callao was documented by Jesuit missionary José de Acosta in his 1590 publication Historia natural y moral de las Indias , writing: It is true to see them go fishing in Callao de Lima, was for me a thing of great recreation, because there were many and each one in
10332-511: The constitutional monarchy . However, many of the settlers had come from Australia , where negotiation with the indigenous people almost universally involved coercing them to accept very unfavourable terms. These settlers' expectation of dominating by force led them to form several aggressive, racially motivated groups, such as the British Subjects Mutual Protection Society. One group called themselves
10496-437: The floater (riding on top of the breaking curl of the wave), and off the lip (banking off crest of the breaking wave). A newer addition to surfing is the progression of the air, whereby a surfer propels off the wave entirely up into the air and then successfully lands the board back on the wave. List of surface water sports The following is a list of surface water sports . These are sports which are performed atop
10660-498: The isobars to become undulated, redirecting swells at regular intervals toward the tropics. East coasts also receive heavy winter swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving highs inhibit their movement. These lows produce a shorter fetch than polar fronts, however, they can still generate heavy swells since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular wind direction. The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over
10824-404: The liku . As with most other ancient human civilisations, warfare or preparation for warfare was an important part of everyday life in pre-colonial Fiji. The Fijians were noted for their distinctive use of weapons, especially war clubs. Fijians used many different types of clubs that can be broadly divided into two groups, two handed clubs and small specialised throwing clubs called ula . With
10988-499: The 13th century. Fiji has long had permanent settlements, but its peoples also have a history of mobility. Over the centuries, unique Fijian cultural practices developed. Fijians constructed large, elegant watercraft, with rigged sails called drua and exported some to Tonga. Fijians also developed a distinctive style of village architecture, consisting of communal and individual bure and vale housing, and an advanced system of ramparts and moats that were usually constructed around
11152-560: The British colonial authorities, a number of charismatic individuals preaching dissent and return to pre-colonial culture were able to forge a following amongst the disenfranchised. These movements were called Tuka, which roughly translates as "those who stand up". The first Tuka movement was led by Ndoongumoy, better known as Navosavakandua, which means "he who speaks only once". He told his followers that if they returned to traditional ways and worshipped traditional deities such as Degei and Rokola, their current condition would be transformed, with
11316-440: The British colonial government, subjugated areas in Fiji under its power, the resultant prisoners of war were regularly sold at auction to the planters. This provided a source of revenue for the government and also dispersed the rebels to different, often isolated islands where the plantations were located. The land that was occupied by these people before they became slaves was then also sold for additional revenue. An example of this
11480-574: The Burns family was killed by a Kai Colo raid in the Ba River area. The Cakobau government deployed 50 King's Troopers to the region under the command of Major Fitzgerald to restore order. The local whites refused their posting, and deployment of another 50 troops under Captain Harding was sent to emphasise the government's authority. To prove the worth of the Native Regiment, this augmented force went into
11644-526: The Cakobau government did not approve of the settlers taking justice into their own hands, it did want the Kai Colo subjugated and their land sold. The solution was to form an army. Robert S. Swanston, the minister for Native Affairs in the Kingdom, organised the training and arming of suitable Fijian volunteers and prisoners to become soldiers in what was variably called the King's Troops or the Native Regiment. In
11808-467: The Fijian High Court ruled that the military leadership was unlawful. At that point, President Ratu Josefa Iloilo , whom the military had retained as the nominal head of state, formally abrogated the 1997 Constitution and re-appointed Bainimarama as interim prime minister . Later in 2009, Ratu Epeli Nailatikau succeeded Iloilo as president. On 17 September 2014, after years of delays,
11972-746: The Fijians was a gradual process which was observed first-hand by Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States Exploring Expedition. Wilkes wrote that "all the chiefs seemed to look upon Christianity as a change in which they had much to lose and little to gain". Christianised Fijians, in addition to forsaking their spiritual beliefs, were pressured into cutting their hair short, adopting the sulu form of dress from Tonga and fundamentally changing their marriage and funeral traditions. This process of enforced cultural change
12136-451: The Fijians were sandalwood merchants, whalers and "beche-de-mer" (sea cucumber) traders. The first whaling vessel known to have visited was the Ann and Hope in 1799, and she was followed by many others in the 19th century. These ships came for drinking water, food and firewood and, later, for men to help man their ships. Some of the Europeans who came to Fiji in this period were accepted by
12300-541: The French ship L'amiable Josephine and use its cannon against their enemies on the Rewa River , although they later ran it aground. Christian missionaries like David Cargill also arrived in the 1830s from recently converted regions such as Tonga and Tahiti , and by 1840 the European settlement at Levuka had grown to about 40 houses with former whaler David Whippey being a notable resident. The religious conversion of
12464-669: The Indian workers to Fiji on a five-year contract, after which they could return to India at their own expense; if they chose to renew their contract for a second five-year term, they would be given the option of returning to India at the government's expense, or remaining in Fiji. The great majority chose to stay. The Queensland Act, which regulated indentured labour in Queensland, was made law in Fiji also. Between 1879 and 1916, tens of thousands of Indians moved to Fiji to work as indentured labourers, especially on sugarcane plantations. Given
12628-469: The Qalimari and Kai Colo people. In early 1875, colonial administrator Edgar Leopold Layard had met with thousands of highland clans at Navuso to formalise their subjugation to British rule and Christianity. Layard and his delegation managed to spread the measles epidemic to the highlanders, causing mass deaths in this population. As a result, anger at the British colonists flared throughout the region, and
12792-414: The Qalimari insurgents along the Sigatoka River. The second campaign was led by Louis Knollys against the Kai Colo in the mountains to the north of the river. Governor Gordon invoked a type of martial law in the area where Arthur John Lewis Gordon and Knollys had absolute power to conduct their missions outside of any restrictions of legislation. The two groups of rebels were kept isolated from each other by
12956-493: The Royal Navy stationed in the area that buying these people was illegal were largely given without enforcement, and the British consul in Fiji, Edward Bernard Marsh, regularly turned a blind eye to this type of labour trade. Despite achieving military victories over the Kai Colo, the Cakobau government was faced with problems of legitimacy and economic viability. Indigenous Fijians and white settlers refused to pay taxes, and
13120-612: The San Clemente Chamber of Commerce to contact him in July 1939 to organize a similar event, which would take place in late August. By 1941, Ball’s personal life saw new developments: he married Evelyn, and they would soon have two sons, Norman and John Jr. In 1944, Ball’s photographs gained further prominence when they appeared in National Geographic , solidifying surfing’s place in American popular culture. In 1946, Ball self-published California Surfriders ,
13284-487: The Tongan pronunciation, occurred in accounts and other writings by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji until the late 19th century. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled by Austronesian peoples by at least 3500 to 1000 BC, with Melanesians following around a thousand years later, although there are still many open questions about the specific dates and patterns of human migration. It
13448-604: The Tongans, backed by the Americans and British, to subjugate the remaining chiefs in the region who still refused to convert. These chiefs were soon defeated with Qaraniqio of the Rewa being poisoned and Ratu Mara of Kaba being hanged in 1855. After these wars, most regions of Fiji, except for the interior highland areas, had been forced into giving up much of their traditional systems and were now vassals of Western interest. Cakobau
13612-667: The Viti Kabani's rise, and again the colonists were forced to send in the Armed Native Constabulary. Apolosi and his followers were arrested in 1915, and the company collapsed in 1917. Over the next 30 years, Apolosi was re-arrested, jailed and exiled, with the British viewing him as a threat right up to his death in 1946. Fiji was only peripherally involved in World War I. One memorable incident occurred in September 1917 when Count Felix von Luckner arrived at Wakaya Island , off
13776-414: The ability of Fijians to own, buy or sell land as individuals, the control being transferred to colonial authorities. Gordon decided in 1878 to import indentured labourers from India to work on the sugarcane fields that had taken the place of the cotton plantations. The 463 Indians arrived on 14 May 1879 – the first of some 61,000 that were to come before the scheme ended in 1916. The plan involved bringing
13940-409: The accuracy of some of these colonial European accounts. Studies conducted by scholars including Degusta, Cochrane, and Jones provide evidence of burnt or cut human skeletons, suggesting that cannibalism was practised in Fiji. However, these archaeological accounts indicate that cannibalistic practices were likely more intermittent and less ubiquitous than European settlers had implied; it appears that
14104-425: The advanced weapons for the army including 100 Snider rifles . The campaign along the Sigatoka River was conducted under a scorched earth policy whereby numerous rebel villages were burnt and their fields ransacked. After the capture and destruction of the main fortified towns of Koroivatuma, Bukutia and Matanavatu, the Qalimari surrendered en masse . Those not killed in the fighting were taken prisoner and sent to
14268-550: The arrival of Europeans in the 17th century, and European colonization in the late 19th century, many elements of Fijian culture were either repressed or modified to ensure European – specifically, British – control. This was especially the case with respect to traditional Fijian spiritual beliefs. Early colonists and missionaries pointed to the practice of cannibalism in Fiji as providing a moral imperative justifying colonization. Europeans labelled many native Fijian customs as debased or primitive, enabling many colonists to see Fiji as
14432-565: The best deal they could get. A series of compromises led to the establishment of a cabinet system of government in 1967, with Ratu Kamisese Mara as the first Chief Minister . Ongoing negotiations between Mara and Sidiq Koya , who had taken over the leadership of the mainly Indo-Fijian National Federation Party on Patel's death in 1969, led to a second constitutional conference in London, in April 1970, at which Fiji's Legislative Council agreed on
14596-543: The best waves in the world. Surfers from around the world flock to breaks like Backdoor, Waimea Bay , and Pipeline . However, there are still many popular surf spots around the world: Teahupo'o , located off the coast of Tahiti ; Mavericks , California , United States; Cloudbreak, Tavarua Island, Fiji ; Superbank, Gold Coast, Australia. In 2016 surfing was added by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as an Olympic sport to begin at
14760-751: The boat does not tow a rider (continuously). The rider uses a tow rope to help them get up in the wake. After doing so, they drop the rope and then ride the wake as they would when surfing. The rider is also much closer to the boat than with other water sports such as wakeboarding. Water skiing is an aquatic sport and recreational activity and is popular in many countries around the world where appropriate conditions exist - an expanse of water unaffected by wave motion. Rivers, lakes, and sheltered bays are all popular for water skiing. Standard water skis were originally made of wood but now are usually constructed out of fibreglass-based composites. They are of similar length to downhill snow skis but are somewhat wider. Instead of
14924-399: The boat's sharp turns; more experienced biscuiters also try to jump the boat's wake and become airborne. Wake sports are sports that involves riding a wake while being towed by a motorboat, personal watercraft, close-course cable systems, ski lifts, winches or a crane, at speeds between 10 mph (wakesurfing) to 25 mph (some professional wakeboarders). Kneeboarding is an aquatic sport where
15088-468: The breaking formation of the wave. Waves are generally recognized by the surfaces over which they break. For example, there are beach breaks, reef breaks and point breaks. The most important influence on wave shape is the topography of the seabed directly behind and immediately beneath the breaking wave. Each break is different since each location's underwater topography is unique. At beach breaks, sandbanks change shape from week to week. Surf forecasting
15252-433: The breaking part (whitewash) of the wave, in the so-called 'pocket'. It is difficult for beginners to catch the wave at all. Surfers' skills are tested by their ability to control their board in difficult conditions, riding challenging waves, and executing maneuvers such as strong turns and cutbacks (turning board back to the breaking wave) and carving (a series of strong back-to-back maneuvers). More advanced skills include
15416-548: The cannibalism may more often have been nonviolent and ritualistic. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the first known European visitor to Fiji, sighting the northern island of Vanua Levu and the North Taveuni archipelago in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent. James Cook , the British navigator, visited one of the southern Lau islands in 1774. It was not until 1789, however, that
15580-410: The coast. In the months after this defeat, the only main resistance was from the clans around the village of Nibutautau. Major Thurston crushed this resistance in the two months following the battle at Na Culi. Villages were burnt, Kai Colo were killed, and a further large number of prisoners were taken. About 1,000 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to Levuka where some were hanged and
15744-486: The coastal town of Cuvu. This included 827 men, women and children as well as Mudu, the leader of the insurgents. The women and children were distributed to places like Nadi and Nadroga . Of the men, 15 were sentenced to death at a hastily conducted trial at Sigatoka . Governor Gordon was present, but chose to leave the judicial responsibility to his relative, Arthur John Lewis Gordon. Four were hanged and ten, including Mudu, were shot with one prisoner managing to escape. By
15908-407: The colonial administrators decided not to quarantine the ship on which the convalescents travelled. This was despite the British having a very extensive knowledge of the devastating effect of infectious disease on an unexposed population. In 1875–76 the resulting epidemic of measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, about one-third of the Fijian population. Some Fijians allege that this failure of quarantine
16072-524: The colonial authorities did not permit Fijians to enlist. One Fijian of chiefly rank, a great-grandson of Cakobau, joined the French Foreign Legion and received France's highest military decoration, the Croix de Guerre . After going on to complete a law degree at Oxford University , this same chief returned to Fiji in 1921 as both a war hero and the country's first-ever university graduate. In
16236-458: The command of Ratu Sir Edward Cakobau , another great-grandson of Cakobau. The regiment was attached to New Zealand and Australian army units during the war. Because of its central location, Fiji was selected as a training base for the Allies . An airstrip was built at Nadi (later to become an international airport), and gun emplacements studded the coast. Fijians gained a reputation for bravery in
16400-468: The cotton price had collapsed. With these major issues in mind, John Bates Thurston approached the British government, at Cakobau's request, with another offer to cede the islands. The newly elected Tory British government under Benjamin Disraeli encouraged expansion of the empire and was therefore much more sympathetic to annexing Fiji than it had been previously. The murder of Bishop John Patteson of
16564-486: The country, and a compromise was needed. In June 1871, George Austin Woods , an ex-lieutenant of the Royal Navy, managed to influence Cakobau and organise a group of like-minded settlers and chiefs into forming a governing administration. Cakobau was declared the monarch ( Tui Viti ) and the Kingdom of Fiji was established. Most Fijian chiefs agreed to participate, and even Ma'afu chose to recognise Cakobau and participate in
16728-451: The cover of Saturday Night magazine, with additional images published in an article titled "Surf Slaloms." That same year, Ball’s work also appeared in Life magazine, helping to establish surfing as a defining element of California’s identity. Ball’s images documented iconic surfing scenes such as surfers gathered around a campfire, tired yet satisfied after a “Super Surf” in April 1939. Using
16892-661: The crew members of HMS Dolphin were the first Britons to visit the island in June of that year. Another candidate is the botanist Joseph Banks who was part of the first voyage of James Cook on HMS Endeavour , arriving on Tahiti on 10 April 1769. Lieutenant James King was the first person to write about the art of surfing on Hawaii, when he was completing the journals of Captain James Cook (upon Cook's death in 1779). In Herman Melville 's 1849 novel Mardi , based on his experiences in Polynesia earlier that decade,
17056-490: The early 1850s, Cakobau went one step further and declared war on all Christians. His plans were thwarted after the missionaries in Fiji received support from the already converted Tongans and the presence of a British warship. The Tongan Prince Enele Maʻafu , a Christian, had established himself on the island of Lakeba in 1848, forcibly converting the local people to the Methodist Church . Cakobau and other chiefs in
17220-512: The eastern coast of Viti Levu, after his raider, SMS Seeadler , had run aground in the Cook Islands following the shelling of Papeete in the French colony of Tahiti . On 21 September, the district police inspector took a number of Fijians to Wakaya, and von Luckner, not realising that they were unarmed, unwittingly surrendered. Citing unwillingness to exploit the Fijian people,
17384-718: The eclectic interests of land developer Abbot Kinney (founder of Venice of America, now Venice, California) helped bring Freeth to California. Freeth had sought the help of the Hawaii Promotion Committee (HPC) in Honolulu to sponsor him on a trip to California to give surfing exhibitions. The HPC arranged through their contacts in Los Angeles to secure a contract for Freeth to perform at Venice of America in July, 1907. Later that year, land baron Henry E. Huntington brought surfing to Redondo Beach . Looking for
17548-434: The end of proceedings the governor noted that "my feet were literally stained with the blood that I had shed". The northern campaign against the Kai Colo in the highlands was similar but involved removing the rebels from large, well protected caves in the region. Knollys managed to clear the caves "after some considerable time and large expenditure of ammunition". The occupants of these caves included whole communities, and as
17712-496: The face fast enough to keep up with the break. A break which advances along the wave face more slowly will leave a line of new white water at an angle to the line of the wave face. Where: In most cases a peel angle less than 25° is too fast to surf. The type of break depends on shoaling rate. Breaking waves can be classified as four basic types: spilling (ξ b <0.4), plunging (0.4<ξ b <2), collapsing (ξ b >2) and surging (ξ b >2), and which type occurs depends on
17876-537: The finest vessels in the Pacific, but not great sailors. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. "Feejee", the Anglicised spelling of
18040-408: The first British surfer when instructed by two Hawaiian students at his college. George Freeth (1883–1919), of English and Native Hawaiian descent, is generally credited as the person who had done more than anyone else to renew interest in surfing at Waikiki in the early twentieth century after the sport had declined in popularity in Hawaii during the latter half of the nineteenth century. In 1907,
18204-559: The form of city and town councils. The name of Fiji's main island, Viti Levu, served as the origin of the name "Fiji", though the common English pronunciation is based on that of Fiji's island neighbours in Tonga . An official account of the emergence of the name states: Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of
18368-403: The government required captains to transport the labourers back to their villages, but most ship captains dropped them off at the first island they sighted off the Fiji waters. The British sent warships to enforce the law ( Pacific Islanders Protection Act 1872 ( 35 & 36 Vict. c. 19)), but only a small proportion of the culprits were prosecuted. A notorious incident of the blackbirding trade
18532-460: The group to disband. The authority of the King's Troops and the Cakobau government to crush the Kai Colo was now total. From March to October 1873, a force of about 200 King's Troops under the general administration of Swanston with around 1,000 coastal Fijian and white volunteer auxiliaries, led a campaign throughout the highlands of Viti Levu to annihilate the Kai Colo. Major Fitzgerald and Major H.C. Thurston (the brother of John Bates Thurston) led
18696-407: The history of women’s surfing and paddleboarding. In 1975, a professional tour started. That year Margo Oberg became the first female professional surfer. Swell is generated when the wind blows consistently over a large space of open water, called the wind's fetch . The size of a swell is determined by the strength of the wind, and the length of its fetch and duration. Because of these factors,
18860-545: The immediate introduction of full self-government, with a fully elected legislature, to be elected by universal suffrage on a common voters' roll. These demands were vigorously rejected by the ethnic Fijian delegation, who still feared loss of control over natively owned land and resources should an Indo-Fijian dominated government come to power. The British made it clear, however, that they were determined to bring Fiji to self-government and eventual independence. Realizing that they had no choice, Fiji's chiefs decided to negotiate for
19024-470: The interior and massacred about 170 Kai Colo people at Na Korowaiwai. Upon returning to the coast, the force was met by the white settlers who still saw the government troops as a threat. A skirmish between the government's troops and the white settlers' brigade was only prevented by the intervention of Captain William Cox Chapman of HMS Dido , who detained the settlers' leaders, forcing
19188-487: The interior of Viti Levu ensued. In 1871, the killing of two settlers near the Ba River in the northwest of the island prompted a large punitive expedition of white farmers, imported slave labourers, and coastal Fijians to be organised. This group of around 400 armed vigilantes, including veterans of the U.S. Civil War, had a battle with the Kai Colo near the village of Cubu, in which both sides had to withdraw. The village
19352-424: The islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni . The geothermal systems on Viti Levu are non-volcanic in origin and have low-temperature surface discharges (of between roughly 35 and 60 degrees Celsius (95 and 140 °F)). Humans have lived in Fiji since the second millennium BC—first Austronesians and later Melanesians , with some Polynesian influences. Europeans first visited Fiji in the 17th century. In 1874, after
19516-497: The islands were charted and plotted, when William Bligh , the castaway captain of HMS Bounty , passed Ovalau and sailed between the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu en route to Batavia , in what is now Indonesia. Bligh Water , the strait between the two main islands, is named after him and for a time, the Fiji Islands were known as the Bligh Islands . The first Europeans to maintain substantial contact with
19680-650: The kind of wave that is ridden. In tow-in surfing (most often, but not exclusively, associated with big wave surfing ), a motorized water vehicle such as a personal watercraft , tows the surfer into the wave front, helping the surfer match a large wave's speed, which is generally a higher speed than a self-propelled surfer can produce. Surfing-related sports such as paddle boarding and sea kayaking that are self-propelled by hand paddles do not require waves, and other derivative sports such as kite surfing and windsurfing rely primarily on wind for power, yet all of these platforms may also be used to ride waves. Recently with
19844-451: The leaders and followers, with figureheads such as Sailose being banished to an asylum for 12 years. In 1891, entire populations of villages who were sympathetic to the Tuka ideology were deported as punishment. Three years later in the highlands of Vanua Levu, where locals had re-engaged in traditional religion, Governor Thurston ordered in the Armed Native Constabulary to destroy the towns and
20008-480: The locals and were allowed to stay as residents. By the 1820s, Levuka was established as the first European-style town in Fiji, on the island of Ovalau. The market for "beche-de-mer" in China was lucrative, and British and American merchants set up processing stations on various islands. Local Fijians were utilised to collect, prepare and pack the product which would then be shipped to Asia. A good cargo would result in
20172-409: The modern sailboat, with the major exception that steering is accomplished by the rider tilting the mast and sail or, when planing, carving the board, rather than with a rudder. Wing foiling or wingsurfing is a sport where an individual holds a lightweight wing on a surf board with a hydrofoil . Bodysurfing is the art and sport of riding a wave without the assistance of any buoyant device such as
20336-438: The more important settlements. Pigs were domesticated for food, and a variety of agricultural endeavors, such as banana plantations , existed from an early stage. Villages were supplied with water brought in by constructed wooden aqueducts. Fijians lived in societies led by chiefs, elders and notable warriors. Spiritual leaders, often called bete , were also important cultural figures, and the production and consumption of yaqona
20500-430: The narrator describes the "Rare Sport at Ohonoo" (title of chap. 90): “For this sport, a surf-board is indispensable: some five feet in length; the width of a man's body; convex on both sides; highly polished; and rounded at the ends. It is held in high estimation; invariably oiled after use; and hung up conspicuously in the dwelling of the owner.” When Mark Twain visited Hawaii in 1866 he wrote, "In one place, we came upon
20664-408: The participant is towed kneeling on a buoyant, convex, and hydrodynamically shaped board at a planing speed, most often behind a motorboat. A hydrofoil is towed water ski where the participant is seated on the ski. The ski consists of a seat tower and board, as well as a foil, which rides beneath the water’s surface, with front and rear wings. The participant straps into the hydrofoil ski and secures
20828-469: The passage of these lows. Swells arrive in pulses, each lasting for a couple of days, with a few days between each swell. The availability of free model data from the NOAA has allowed the creation of several surf forecasting websites. Tube shape is defined by length to width ratio. A perfectly cylindrical vortex has a ratio of 1:1. Other forms include: Peel or peeling off as a descriptive term for
20992-449: The primary equipment. The following aquatic boardsports are those that are not towed behind a boat: A bodyboard is an instrument of wave riding consisting of a small roughly rectangular piece of foam, shaped to a hydrodynamic form. The bodyboard is ridden predominantly lying down, (or 'prone'). It can also be ridden in a half-standing stance (known as 'dropknee') or can even be ridden standing up. Flowriding , also known as flowboarding,
21156-402: The quality of a break has been defined as "a fast, clean, evenly falling curl line, perfect for surfing, and usually found at pointbreaks." Tube speed is the rate of advance of the break along the length of the wave, and is the speed at which the surfer must move along the wave to keep up with the advance of the tube. Tube speed can be described using the peel angle and wave celerity. Peel angle
21320-404: The religious relics. Leaders were jailed and villagers exiled or forced to amalgamate into government-run communities. Later, in 1914, Apolosi Nawai came to the forefront of Fijian Tuka resistance by founding Viti Kabani, a co-operative company that would legally monopolise the agricultural sector and boycott European planters. The British and their proxy Council of Chiefs were not able to prevent
21484-470: The rest were sold into slavery and forced to work on various plantations throughout the islands. The blackbirding era began in Fiji in 1865 when the first New Hebridean and Solomon Islands labourers were transported there to work on cotton plantations. The American Civil War had cut off the supply of US cotton to the international market when the Union blockaded Confederate ports. Cotton cultivation
21648-421: The safety straps on the seat tower and the foot bindings. After the deep water start, the skier can ski, jump, and attempt aerial tricks launching the hydrofoil off the water and off boat wake. Other variants include a wake surfboard with a foil attached to the back underneath the water. The board can move up and down out of the water based on the position of the rider’s weight. Hydrofoiling is most often done behind
21812-430: The seabed before the break. The breaker type index and Iribarren number allow classification of breaker type as a function of wave steepness and seabed slope. The value of good surf in attracting surf tourism has prompted the construction of artificial reefs and sand bars. Artificial surfing reefs can be built with durable sandbags or concrete, and resemble a submerged breakwater. These artificial reefs not only provide
21976-516: The senior chiefs of Fiji signed two copies of the Deed of Cession. Thus the Colony of Fiji was founded; 96 years of British rule followed. To celebrate the annexation of Fiji, Hercules Robinson, who was Governor of New South Wales at the time, took Cakobau and his two sons to Sydney . There was a measles outbreak in that city and the three Fijians all came down with the disease. On returning to Fiji,
22140-403: The slope of the bottom. Waves suitable for surfing break as spilling or plunging types, and when they also have a suitable peel angle, their value for surfing is enhanced. Other factors such as wave height and period, and wind strength and direction can also influence steepness and intensity of the break, but the major influence on the type and shape of breaking waves is determined by the slope of
22304-494: The steady influx of ships carrying indentured Indians to Fiji up until 1916, repatriated Indians generally boarded these same ships on their return voyage. The total number of repatriates under the Fiji indenture system is recorded as 39,261, while the number of arrivals is said to have been 60,553. Because the return figure includes children born in Fiji, many of the indentured Indians never returned to India. With almost all aspects of indigenous Fijian social life being controlled by
22468-454: The surf tends to be larger and more prevalent on coastlines exposed to large expanses of ocean traversed by intense low pressure systems . Local wind conditions affect wave quality since the surface of a wave can become choppy in blustery conditions. Ideal conditions include a light to moderate "offshore" wind, because it blows into the front of the wave, making it a "barrel" or "tube" wave. Waves are left-handed and right-handed depending upon
22632-401: The surfer paddles toward shore in an attempt to match the speed of the wave (the same applies whether the surfer is standup paddling, bodysurfing, boogie-boarding or using some other type of watercraft, such as a waveski or kayak). Once the wave begins to carry the surfer forward, the surfer stands up and proceeds to ride the wave. The basic idea is to position the surfboard so it is just ahead of
22796-544: The use of V-drive boats, Wakesurfing , in which one surfs on the wake of a boat, has emerged. As of 2023, the Guinness Book of World Records recognized a 26.2 m (86 ft) wave ride by Sebastian Steudtner at Nazaré , Portugal as the largest wave ever surfed. During the winter season in the northern hemisphere, the North Shore of Oahu , the third-largest island of Hawaii , is known for having some of
22960-435: The various districts to both enact his orders and report any disobedience from the populace. Gordon adopted the chiefly titles Roko and Buli to describe these deputies and established a Great Council of Chiefs which was directly subject to his authority as Supreme Chief. This body remained in existence until being suspended by the military-backed interim government in 2007 and only abolished in 2012. Gordon also extinguished
23124-587: The village of Deoka, and a skirmish ensued which resulted in the deaths of over 40 Wainimala. After the collapse of the confederacy, Enele Maʻafu established a stable administration in the Lau Islands and the Tongans. Other foreign powers such as the United States were considering the possibility of annexing Fiji. This situation was not appealing to many settlers, almost all of whom were British subjects from Australia. Britain, however, refused to annex
23288-439: The wake. Wakeskating is an adaptation of wakeboarding that employs a similar design of board manufactured from maple or fibreglass. Unlike wakeboarding, the rider is not bound to the board in any way, similar to the skateboard, from which the name derives. The rider is able to do more complicated tricks than on a wakeboard such as kick flips because of the absence of bindings. Wakesurfing differs from other wake sports in that
23452-433: The wave is caught and ridden using the surfer's own body rather than a board, is very common and is considered by some surfers to be the purest form of surfing. The closest form of body surfing using a board is a handboard which normally has one strap over it to fit on one hand. Surfers who body board, body surf, or handboard feel more drag as they move through the water than stand up surfers do. This holds body surfers into
23616-501: The west of Fiji regarded Maʻafu as a threat to their power and resisted his attempts to expand Tonga's dominion. Cakobau's influence, however, began to wane, and his heavy imposition of taxes on other Fijian chiefs, who saw him at best as first among equals , caused them to defect from him. Around this time the United States also became interested in asserting their power in the region, and they threatened intervention following
23780-530: The whites and their puppet Fijian chiefs being subservient to them. Navosavakandua was previously exiled from the Viti Levu highlands in 1878 for disturbing the peace, and the British quickly arrested him and his followers after this open display of rebellion. He was again exiled, this time to Rotuma where he died soon after his 10-year sentence ended. Other Tuka organisations, however, soon appeared. The British colonial administration ruthlessly suppressed both
23944-405: The women and children" as they burnt to death. Wilkes demanded the survivors should "sue for mercy" and if not "they must expect to be exterminated". Around 57 to 87 Maloloan people were killed in this encounter. The 1840s was a time of conflict where various Fiji clans attempted to assert dominance over each other. Eventually, a warlord named Seru Epenisa Cakobau of Bau Island was able to become
24108-489: The women’s half-mile paddleboard race and the Venice Breakwater event in 1938, both held on the same day. Hawkins was also a pioneer in tandem surfing, a discipline that highlights synchronized surfing between two individuals on a single board. She gained further recognition in 1939 when she performed exhibition paddleboarding and tandem surfing displays at various Southern California beaches, inspiring
24272-544: The years that followed, Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna , as he was later known, established himself as the most powerful chief in Fiji and forged embryonic institutions for what would later become the modern Fijian nation. By the time of World War II, the United Kingdom had reversed its policy of not enlisting natives, and many thousands of Fijians volunteered for the Fiji Infantry Regiment , which was under
24436-402: Was a deliberate action to introduce the disease into the country. Historians have found no such evidence; the disease spread before the new British governor and colonial medical officers had arrived, and no quarantine rules existed under the outgoing regime. Robinson was replaced as Governor of Fiji in June 1875 by Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon . Gordon was immediately faced with an insurgency of
24600-483: Was agreed that Fiji would become independent. The British flag, the Union Jack , was lowered for the last time at sunset on 9 October 1970 in the capital Suva. The Fijian flag was raised after dawn on the morning of 10 October 1970; the country had officially become independent at midnight. The British granted Fiji independence in 1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987 precipitated by
24764-449: Was an example of a surfable wave pool. Able to generate waves with up to 3 m (10 ft) faces, the specialized pump held water in 20 vertical tanks positioned along the back edge of the pool. This allowed the waves to be directed as they approach the artificial sea floor. Lefts, Rights, and A-frames could be directed from this pump design providing for rippable surf and barrel rides. The Ocean Dome cost about $ 2 billion to build and
24928-421: Was called lotu . Intensification of conflict between the cultures increased, and Wilkes was involved in organising a large punitive expedition against the people of Malolo . He ordered an attack with rockets which acted as makeshift incendiary devices. The village, with the occupants trapped inside, quickly became an inferno with Wilkes noting that the "shouts of men were intermingled with the cries and shrieks of
25092-545: Was destroyed, and the Kai Colo, despite being armed with muskets, received numerous casualties. The Kai Colo responded by making frequent raids on the settlements of the whites and Christian Fijians throughout the district of Ba . Likewise, in the east of the island on the upper reaches of the Rewa River, villages were burnt, and many Kai Colo were shot by the vigilante settler squad called the Rewa Rifles. Although
25256-481: Was expensive to maintain. The Ocean Dome was closed in 2007. In England, construction is nearing completion on the Wave, situated near Bristol , which will enable people unable to get to the coast to enjoy the waves in a controlled environment, set in the heart of nature. There are two main types of artificial waves that exist today. One being artificial or stationary waves which simulate a moving, breaking wave by pumping
25420-470: Was featured in the Los Angeles Times in 1931, leaving a lasting impact on Ball, and inspiring him to deepen his involvement in surf photography. Between 1931 and 1941, Ball documented California’s surf culture, capturing approximately 900 images of surfers and beach scenes. In 1934, Ball photographed unique surf gear at Bluff Cove. These pictures included cowboy hats and hand paddles, providing
25584-519: Was instead set up around the island which put further pressure on Cakobau to give up on his warfare against the foreigners and their Christian allies. Finally, on 30 April 1854, Cakobau offered his soro (supplication) and yielded to these forces. He underwent the lotu and converted to Christianity. The traditional Fijian temples in Bau were destroyed, and the sacred nokonoko trees were cut down. Cakobau and his remaining men were then compelled to join with
25748-431: Was killed trying to escape. By the end of October 1876, the "Little War" was over, and Gordon had succeeded in vanquishing the rebels in the interior of Viti Levu. Remaining insurgents were sent into exile with hard labour for up to 10 years. Some non-combatants were allowed to return to rebuild their villages, but many areas in the highlands were ordered by Gordon to remain depopulated and in ruins. Gordon also constructed
25912-479: Was never brought to trial for his actions, as he was given immunity in return for giving evidence against his crew members. The captain of the Carl , Joseph Armstrong, was later sentenced to death. In addition to the blackbirded labour from other Pacific islands, thousands of people indigenous to the Fijian archipelago were sold into slavery on the plantations. As the white settler backed Cakobau government, and later
26076-413: Was part of their ceremonial and community rites. Fijians developed a monetary system where the polished teeth of the sperm whale , called tambua , became an active currency. A type of writing existed which can be seen today in various petroglyphs around the islands. Fijians developed a refined masi cloth textile industry, and used the cloth they produced to make sails and clothes such as the malo and
26240-603: Was potentially an extremely profitable business. Thousands of European planters flocked to Fiji to establish plantations, but found the natives unwilling to adapt to their plans. They sought labour from the Melanesian islands. On 5 July 1865 Ben Pease received the first licence to provide 40 labourers from the New Hebrides to Fiji. The British and Queensland governments tried to regulate this recruiting and transport of labour. Melanesian labourers were to be recruited for
26404-539: Was removed in 2008. In Kovalam , South West India, an artificial reef has successfully provided the local community with a quality lefthander, stabilized coastal soil erosion, and provided good habitat for marine life . ASR Ltd., a New Zealand-based company, constructed the Kovalam reef and is working on another reef in Boscombe, England. Even with artificial reefs in place, a tourist's vacation time may coincide with
26568-525: Was retained as a largely symbolic representative of a few Fijian peoples and was allowed to take the ironic and self proclaimed title of "Tui Viti" ("King of Fiji"), but the overarching control now lay with foreign powers. The rising price of cotton in the wake of the American Civil War (1861–1865) caused an influx of hundreds of settlers to Fiji in the 1860s from Australia and the United States in order to obtain land and grow cotton. Since there
26732-417: Was still a lack of functioning government in Fiji, these planters were often able to get the land in violent or fraudulent ways such as exchanging weapons or alcohol with Fijians who may or may not have been the true owners. Although this made for cheap land acquisition, competing land claims between the planters became problematic with no unified government to resolve the disputes. In 1865, the settlers proposed
26896-412: Was the 1871 voyage of the brig Carl , organised by Dr. James Patrick Murray to recruit labourers to work in the plantations of Fiji. Murray had his men reverse their collars and carry black books, to appear as church missionaries. When islanders were enticed to a religious service, Murray and his men would produce guns and force the islanders onto boats. During the voyage Murray shot about 60 islanders. He
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