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82-416: This is a list of current heads of state and heads of government . In some cases, mainly in presidential systems , one leader is head of state and head of government . In other cases, mainly in semi-presidential and parliamentary systems , the head of state and the head of government are different people. In semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, the head of government role (i.e. executive branch )

164-469: A veto , the power to pardon crimes, authority over foreign policy, authority to command the military as the Commander-in-chief , and authority over advisors and employees of the executive branch. Separation of powers is sometimes held up as an advantage, in that each branch may scrutinize the actions of the other. This is in contrast with a parliamentary system, where the majority party in

246-601: A Kongolese army of 5,000, was destroyed by an army of Afro-Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila . The empire dissolved into petty polities, fighting among each other for war captives to sell into slavery. Kongo gained captives from the Kingdom of Ndongo in wars of conquest. Ndongo was ruled by the ngola . Ndongo would also engage in slave trading with the Portuguese, with São Tomé being a transit point to Brazil. The kingdom

328-676: A UN member state. The following states control at least part of their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state. The following states control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states. These alternative governments control part of their territory and are recognised as legitimate by at least one UN member state. These alternative governments control part of their territory, but are not recognized as legitimate by any UN member states. These alternative governments do not control their territory but are recognized as legitimate by at least one UN member state. Presidential system This head of government

410-472: A fee to use this area. The governments only enforced rules and regulations to a limited extent. Local governments and traditional authorities are increasingly engaged in rent-seeking , collecting license fees with the help of the police or army. Oil is also a major export of the countries of northern and eastern Central Africa, notably making up a large proportion of the GDPs of Chad and South Sudan. Following

492-569: A head of government elected by citizens to serve one or more fixed-terms. Fixed-terms are praised for providing a level of stability that other systems lack. Although most parliamentary governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote, Italy, Israel, and the French Fourth Republic have all experienced difficulties maintaining stability. When parliamentary systems have multiple parties, and governments are forced to rely on coalitions, as they often do in nations that use

574-455: A legislative item passed. The presidential model is said to discourage this sort of opportunism, and instead forces the executive to operate within the confines of a term they cannot alter to suit their own needs. Unlike in parliamentary systems, the legislature does not have the power to recall a president under the presidential system. However, presidential systems may have methods to remove presidents under extraordinary circumstances, such as

656-595: A much larger pool of potential candidates. This allows presidents the ability to select cabinet members based as much or more on their ability and competency to lead a particular department as on their loyalty to the president, as opposed to parliamentary cabinets, which might be filled by legislators chosen for no better reason than their perceived loyalty to the prime minister. Supporters of the presidential system note that parliamentary systems are prone to disruptive " cabinet shuffles " where legislators are moved between portfolios, whereas in presidential system cabinets (such as

738-400: A new election". The consistency of a presidency may be seen as beneficial during times of crisis. When in a time of crisis, countries may be better off being led by a president with a fixed term than rotating premierships. Some critics, however, argue that the presidential system is weaker because it does not allow a transfer of power in the event of an emergency. Walter Bagehot argues that

820-472: A parliamentary system. The presidential system elects a head of government independently of the legislature, while in contrast, the head of government in a parliamentary system answers directly to the legislature. Presidential systems necessarily operate under the principle of structural separation of powers, while parliamentary systems do not; however, the degree of functional separation of powers exhibited in each varies – dualistic parliamentary systems such as

902-407: A president committing a crime or becoming incapacitated. In some countries, presidents are subject to term limits. The inability to remove a president early is also the subject of criticism. Even if a president is "proved to be inefficient, even if he becomes unpopular, even if his policy is unacceptable to the majority of his countrymen, he and his methods must be endured until the moment comes for

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984-501: A presidential system can produce gridlock when the president and the legislature are in opposition. This rarely happens in a parliamentary system, as the prime minister is always a member of the party in power. This gridlock is common occurrence, as the electorate often expects more rapid results than are possible from new policies and switches to a different party at the next election. Critics such as Juan Linz , argue that in such cases of gridlock, presidential systems do not offer voters

1066-599: A quantitative comparison of the strength of presidential system characteristics for individual countries. Presidentialism metrics include the presidentialism index in V-Dem Democracy indices and presidential power scores. The table below shows for individual countries the V-Dem presidentialism index, where higher values indicate higher concentration of political power in the hands of one individual. Subnational governments may be structured as presidential systems. All of

1148-411: A semi-presidential system. A pure presidential system may also have mechanisms that resemble those of a parliamentary system as part of checks and balances . The legislature may have oversight of some of the president's decisions through advice and consent , and mechanisms such as impeachment may allow the legislature to remove the president under drastic circumstances. Presidentialism metrics allow

1230-402: A subnational or local level. One example is Japan , where the national government uses the parliamentary system. Non-UN members or observers are in italics. The following countries have presidential systems where the post of prime minister (official title may vary) exists alongside that of the president. The president is still both the head of state and government and the prime minister's role

1312-417: A system of proportional representation , extremist parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas. Proponents of the presidential system also argue that stability extends to the cabinets chosen under the system. In most parliamentary systems, cabinets must be drawn from within the legislative branch. Under the presidential system, cabinet members can be selected from

1394-439: A unitary executive can give way to a dictatorship. The presidential system is defined by the separation of the executive branch from other aspects of government. The head of government is elected to work alongside, but not as a part of, the legislature. There are several types of powers that are traditionally delegated to the president. Under a presidential system, the president may have the power to challenge legislation through

1476-452: Is fulfilled by the listed head of government and the head of state. In one-party states , the ruling party 's leader (i.e. General Secretary ) is usually the de facto top leader of the state, though sometimes this leader also holds the presidency or premiership. In some countries like Andorra and Vatican City ( Holy See ), a clergy member also acts as the head of state for both countries (Bishop of Urgell as Co-Prince of Andorra and

1558-476: Is in most cases also the head of state . In a presidential system, the head of government is directly or indirectly elected by a group of citizens and is not responsible to the legislature, and the legislature cannot dismiss the president except in extraordinary cases. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system , where the head of government comes to power by gaining the confidence of an elected legislature . Not all presidential systems use

1640-679: Is mostly to assist the president. Dependencies of the United States Special administrative regions of China Central Africa Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Middle Africa is an analogous term used by the United Nations in its geoscheme for Africa and consists of the following countries: Angola , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Democratic Republic of

1722-458: Is not as strictly enforced in presidential systems. Another stated benefit of the separation of powers is the ability of the legislature to enforce limits on the powers of the executive. In a parliamentary system, if important legislation proposed by the incumbent prime minister and his cabinet is "voted down" by a majority of the members of parliament then it is considered a vote of no confidence . The presidential system has no such mechanism, and

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1804-523: Is now Angola . The West African Sao civilization flourished from ca. the 6th century BCE to as late as the 16th century CE in northern Central Africa. The Sao lived by the Chari River south of Lake Chad in territory that later became part of Cameroon and Chad. They are the earliest people to have left clear traces of their presence in the territory of modern Cameroon . Today, several ethnic groups of northern Cameroon and southern Chad but particularly

1886-637: Is now the country of Chad. Baguirmi emerged to the southeast of the Kanem–Bornu Empire . The kingdom's first ruler was Mbang Birni Besse. Later in his reign, the Bornu Empire conquered and made the state a tributary. The Wadai Empire was centered in Chad from the 17th century. The Tunjur people founded the Wadai Kingdom to the east of Bornu in the 16th century. In the 17th century, there

1968-464: Is possible only in the southern belt. Slash-and-burn agriculture is a common practice. Flood recession agriculture is practiced around Lake Chad and in the riverine wetlands. Nomadic herders migrate with their animals into the grasslands of the northern part of the basin for a few weeks during each short rainy season, where they intensively graze the highly nutritious grasses. When the dry season starts they move back south, either to grazing lands around

2050-595: Is sometimes the subject of criticism. Dana D. Nelson criticizes the office of the President of the United States as essentially undemocratic and characterizes presidentialism as worship of the president by citizens, which she believes undermines civic participation. British-Irish philosopher and MP Edmund Burke stated that an official should be elected based on "his unbiased opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience", and therefore should reflect on

2132-614: Is the dominant form of government in the mainland Americas , with 17 of its 22 sovereign states being presidential republics, the exceptions being Canada , Belize , Peru , Guyana and Suriname . It is also prevalent in Central and southern West Africa and in Central Asia . By contrast, there are very few presidential republics in Europe, with Cyprus and Turkey being the only examples. The presidential system has its roots in

2214-409: Is the separation of powers that divides the executive and the legislature. Advocates of presidential systems cite the democratic nature of presidential elections, the advantages of separation of powers, the efficiency of a unitary executive, and the stability provided by fixed-terms. Opponents of presidential systems cite the potential for gridlock, the difficulty of changing leadership, and concerns that

2296-828: The Bantu Migration , Central Africa is primarily inhabited by Native African or Bantu peoples and Bantu languages predominate. These include the Mongo , Kongo and Luba peoples. Central Africa also includes many Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo Ubangian communities: in north western Central Africa the Nilo-Saharan Kanuri predominate. Most of the Ubangian speakers in Africa (often grouped with Niger-Congo) are also found in Central Africa, such as

2378-700: The Congo Crisis (1960–1965) which ended with the installment of Joseph Mobutu as president and renamed the country Zaire in 1971. Equatorial Guinea gained independence from Spain in 1968, leading to the election of Francisco Macías Nguema , now widely regarded as one of the most brutal dictators in history. In 1961, Angola became involved in the Portuguese Colonial War , a 13-year-long struggle for independence in Lusophone Africa . It gained independence only in 1975, following

2460-836: The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , was made up of what are now the nations of Malawi , Zambia , and Zimbabwe . Similarly, the Anglican Church of the Province of Central Africa covers dioceses in Botswana , Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, while the Church of Central Africa, Presbyterian has synods in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. These states are now typically considered part of East or Southern Africa . The Congo River basin has historically been ecologically significant to

2542-800: The Gbaya , Banda and Zande , in northern Central Africa. Notable Central African supra-regional organizations include the Lake Chad Basin Commission and the Economic Community of Central African States . The predominant religions of Central Africa are Christianity and traditional faiths . Islam is also practiced in some areas in Chad and the Central African Republic . Due to common historical processes and widespread demographic movements between

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2624-624: The Japanese occupation of Korea , it assisted South Korea in the formation of a presidential government. However, the early years of the South Korean presidency were marked by dictatorial control. At the same time, Indonesia declared independence from the Netherlands in 1945. While it nominally used a presidential system, it was in effect a dictatorship where the president controlled all branches of government. A true presidential system

2706-478: The Kingdom of Kongo under a ruler called the manikongo , residing in the fertile Pool Malebo area on the lower Congo River . The capital was M'banza-Kongo . With superior organization, they were able to conquer their neighbors and extract tribute. They were experts in metalwork, pottery, and weaving raffia cloth. They stimulated interregional trade via a tribute system controlled by the manikongo . Later, maize (corn) and cassava (manioc) would be introduced to

2788-537: The Pope ) and head of government for the latter ( President of the Governorate of Vatican City State ). The list includes the names of recently elected or appointed heads of state and government who will take office on an appointed date, as presidents-elect and prime ministers-designate , and those leading a government in exile if internationally recognised. The following states are in free association with

2870-551: The Sara people claim descent from the civilization of the Sao. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers in bronze , copper, and iron. Finds include bronze sculptures and terra cotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewelry, highly decorated pottery, and spears. The largest Sao archaeological finds have been made south of Lake Chad. The West-Central African kingdom of Kanem–Bornu Empire

2952-552: The United States Cabinet ), cabinet shuffles are unusual. Some political scientists dispute this concept of stability, arguing that presidential systems have difficulty sustaining democratic practices and that they have slipped into authoritarianism in many of the countries in which they have been implemented. According to political scientist Fred Riggs , presidential systems have fallen into authoritarianism in nearly every country they've been attempted. The list of

3034-463: The delegates developed what is now known as the presidential system. Most notably, James Wilson advocated for a unitary executive figure that would become the role of the president. The United States became the first presidential republic when the Constitution of the United States came into force in 1789, and George Washington became the first president under a presidential system. During

3116-514: The manikongo . In 1506, Afonso I (1506–1542), a Christian, took over the throne. Slave trading increased with Afonso's wars of conquest. About 1568 to 1569, the Jaga invaded Kongo, laying waste to the kingdom and forcing the manikongo into exile. In 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I was reinstated with the help of Portuguese mercenaries. During the latter part of the 1660s, the Portuguese tried to gain control of Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661–1665), with

3198-779: The 1810s and 1820s, Spanish colonies in the Americas sought independence , and several new Spanish-speaking governments emerged in Latin America . These countries modeled their constitutions after that of the United States, and the presidential system became the dominant political system in the Americas. Following several decades of monarchy , Brazil also adopted the presidential system in 1889 with Deodoro da Fonseca as its first president. Latin American presidential systems have experienced varying levels of stability, with many experiencing periods of dictatorial rule. Following

3280-754: The 1974 Carnation Revolution in Lisbon . São Tomé and Príncipe also gained independence in 1975 in the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution. In 2011, South Sudan gained its independence from the Republic of Sudan after over 50 years of war . In the 21st century, many jihadist and Islamist groups began to operate in the Central African region, including the Seleka and the Ansaru . Over

3362-660: The Bornu empire had expanded and recaptured the parts of Kanem that had been conquered by the Bulala. Satellite states of Bornu included the Damagaram in the west and Baguirmi to the southeast of Lake Chad. The Shilluk Kingdom was centered in South Sudan from the 15th century from along a strip of land along the western bank of White Nile, from Lake No to about 12° north latitude . The capital and royal residence were in

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3444-590: The British and French concluded an agreement to clarify the boundary between French West Africa and what would become Nigeria . A boundary was agreed along a line from Say on the Niger to Barruwa on Lake Chad , but leaving the Sokoto Caliphate in the British sphere. Parfait-Louis Monteil was given charge of an expedition to discover where this line actually ran. On 9 April 1892 he reached Kukawa on

3526-513: The Congo , Republic of the Congo , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , and São Tomé and Príncipe . The United Nations Office for Central Africa also includes Burundi and Rwanda in the region, which are considered part of East Africa in the geoscheme. These eleven countries are members of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). Six of those countries (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of

3608-618: The Congo) are also members of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) and share a common currency, the Central African CFA franc . The African Development Bank , on the other hand, defines Central Africa as seven countries: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The Central African Federation (1953–1963), also called

3690-549: The Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington". Years before becoming president, Woodrow Wilson famously wrote "how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping?" Walter Bagehot said of the American system, "the executive is crippled by not getting the law it needs, and the legislature is spoiled by having to act without responsibility:

3772-586: The German traveler Heinrich Barth . Kanem rose in the 8th century in the region to the north and east of Lake Chad. The Kanem empire went into decline, shrank, and in the 14th century was defeated by Bilala invaders from the Lake Fitri region. The Kanuri people of West Africa led by the Sayfuwa migrated to the west and south of the lake, where they established the Bornu Empire . By the late 16th century

3854-543: The Lunda. The Imbangala of inland Angola claimed descent from a founder, Kinguri, brother of Queen Rweej, who could not tolerate the rule of mulopwe Tshibunda. Kinguri became the title of kings of states founded by Queen Rweej's brother. The Luena (Lwena) and Lozi (Luyani) in Zambia also claim descent from Kinguri. During the 17th century, a Lunda chief and warrior called Mwata Kazembe set up an Eastern Lunda kingdom in

3936-490: The Netherlands, Sweden and Slovakia forbid members of the legislature from serving in the executive simultaneously, while Westminster-type parliamentary systems such as the United Kingdom require it. Heads of government under the presidential system do not depend on the approval of the legislature as they do in a parliamentary system (with the exception of mechanisms such as impeachment). The presidential system and

4018-413: The arguments for and against certain policies and then do what he believes is best for his constituents and country as a whole, even if it means short-term backlash. Thus defenders of presidential systems hold that sometimes what is wisest may not always be the most popular decision and vice versa. The separation of the executive and the legislature is the key difference between a presidential system and

4100-604: The coast as trade dealers, not venturing on conquest of the interior. Slavery wreaked havoc in the interior, with states initiating wars of conquest for captives. The Imbangala formed the slave-raiding state of Kasanje , a major source of slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the Conference of Berlin in 1884–85 Africa was divided up between the European colonial powers, defining boundaries that are largely intact with today's post-colonial states. On 5 August 1890

4182-407: The colonial administrative boundaries. Chad , Gabon , the Republic of the Congo , and the Central African Republic became autonomous states with the dissolution of French Equatorial Africa in 1958, gaining full independence in 1960. The Democratic Republic of the Congo also gained independence from Belgium in 1960, but quickly devolved into a period of political upheaval and conflict known as

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4264-557: The countries of Central Africa before the Bantu Migration into much of southern Central Africa, the cultures of the region evidence many similarities and interrelationships. Similar cultural practices stemming from common origins as largely Nilo-Saharan or Bantu peoples are also evident in Central Africa including in music, dance, art, body adornment, initiation, and marriage rituals. Some major Native African ethnic groups in Central Africa are as follows: Further information in

4346-508: The course of the 2010s, the internationally unrecognized secessionist state called Ambazonia gained increasing momentum in its home regions, resulting in the ongoing Anglophone Crisis in Cameroon. The main economic activities of Central Africa are farming, herding and fishing. At least 40% of the rural population of northern and eastern Central Africa lives in poverty and routinely face chronic food shortages. Crop production based on rain

4428-408: The executive becomes unfit for its name, since it cannot execute what it decides on; the legislature is demoralized by liberty, by taking decisions of which others [and not itself] will suffer the effects". A 2024 meta-analytical review found that presidential systems were associated with more corruption than parliamentary systems. In a presidential system, the president is elected independently of

4510-525: The first millennium BCE. Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilizations of West Africa: Sao , Kanem , Bornu , Shilluk , Baguirmi , and Wadai . Around 2500 BCE, Bantu migrants had reached the Great Lakes Region in Central Africa. Halfway through the first millennium BCE, the Bantu had also settled as far south as what

4592-572: The governance of the British colonies of the 17th century in what is now the United States. The Pilgrims , permitted to govern themselves in Plymouth Colony , established a system that utilized an independent executive branch. Each year, a governor was chosen by the colonial legislature , as well as several assistants, analogous to modern day cabinets . Additional executive officials such as constables and messengers were then appointed. At

4674-449: The ideal ruler in times of calm is different from the ideal ruler in times of crisis, criticizing the presidential system for having no mechanism to make such a change. In many cases, the president is elected as both the head of government and the head of state . This is in contrast to most parliamentary governments where the head of state is separate from the head of government and plays a largely symbolic role. The president's status

4756-404: The kind of accountability seen in parliamentary systems, and that this inherent political instability can cause democracies to fail, as seen in such cases as Brazil and Allende's Chile . It is easy for either the president or the legislature to escape blame by shifting it to the other. Describing the United States, former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon said "the president blames Congress,

4838-421: The kingdom. His son Naweej expanded the empire further and is known as the first Lunda emperor, with the title Mwata Yamvo ( mwaant yaav , mwant yav ), the "Lord of Vipers". The Luba political system was retained, and conquered peoples were integrated into the system. The mwata yamvo assigned a cilool or kilolo (royal adviser) and tax collector to each state conquered. Numerous states claimed descent from

4920-480: The lakes and floodplains, or to the savannas further to the south. In the 2000–01 period, fisheries in the Lake Chad basin provided food and income to more than 10 million people, with a harvest of about 70,000 tons. Fisheries have traditionally been managed by a system where each village has recognized rights over a defined part of the river, wetland or lake, and fishers from elsewhere must seek permission and pay

5002-533: The legislature has little incentive to appease the president beyond saving face. When an action is within the scope of a president's power, a presidential system can respond more rapidly to emerging situations than parliamentary ones. A prime minister, when taking action, needs to retain the support of the legislature, but a president is often less constrained. In Why England Slept , future U.S. president John F. Kennedy argued that British prime ministers Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain were constrained by

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5084-480: The legislature that also serves as the executive is unlikely to scrutinize its own actions. Writing about the Watergate scandal , former British MP Woodrow Wyatt said "don't think a Watergate couldn't happen here, you just wouldn't hear about it." The extent of this effect is debated. Some commentators argue that the effect is mitigated when the president's party is in power, while others note that party discipline

5166-419: The legislature. This may be done directly through a popular vote or indirectly such as through the electoral college used in the United States. This aspect of presidential systems is sometimes touted as more democratic, as it provides a broader mandate for the president. Once elected, a president typically remains in office until the conclusion of a term. Presidential systems are typically understood as having

5248-603: The need to maintain the confidence of the Commons . James Wilson , who advocated for a presidential system at the constitutional convention , maintained that a single chief executive would provide for greater public accountability than a group and thereby protect against tyranny by making it plain who was responsible for executive actions. He also submitted that a singular chief executive was necessary to ensure promptness and consistency and guard against deadlock, which could be essential in times of national emergency. Conversely,

5330-437: The parliamentary system can also be blended into a semi-presidential system . Under such a system, executive power is shared by an elected head of state (a president) and a legislature-appointed head of government (a prime minister or premier). The amount of power each figure holds may vary, and a semi-presidential system may lean closer to one system over the other. The president typically retains authority over foreign policy in

5412-575: The pattern of other Spanish colonies, the Philippines established the first presidential system in Asia in 1898, but it fell under American control due to the Spanish–American War . The presidential system was restored after the United States granted the Philippines independence in 1946. The end of World War II established presidential systems in two countries. After the United States ended

5494-629: The populations of Central Africa, serving as an important supra-regional organization in Central Africa. Archeological finds in Central Africa have been made which date back over 100,000 years. According to Zagato and Holl, there is evidence of iron smelting in the Central African Republic that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled settlements have recently been found in Northeast Nigeria, approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad dating to

5576-574: The presidential system in the final decades of the 20th century. A modified version of the presidential system was implemented in Iran following constitutional reform in 1989 in which the Supreme Leader serves as the head of state and is the absolute power in this country. In 1981, Palau achieved independence and adopted a presidential system. When the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991,

5658-588: The presidential system was adopted by the new states that were created, though most of them adopted other governmental systems over the following decades. The presidential system continues to be adopted in the 21st century. Following its independence in 2011, South Sudan adopted a presidential system. In 2018, after the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum , Turkey adopted a presidential system. There are several characteristics that are unique to presidential systems or prominent in countries that use presidential systems. The defining aspect of presidential systems

5740-523: The region via trade with the Portuguese at their ports at Luanda and Benguela . The maize and cassava would result in population growth in the region and other parts of Africa, replacing millet as the main staple. By the 16th century, the manikongo held authority from the Atlantic in the west to the Kwango River in the east. Each territory was assigned a mani-mpembe (provincial governor) by

5822-451: The same time, the British Isles underwent a brief period of republicanism as the Protectorate , during which the Lord Protector served as an executive leader similar to a president. The first true presidential system was developed during the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787. Drawing inspiration from the previous colonial governments, from English Common Law , and from philosophers such as John Locke and Montesquieu ,

5904-707: The shore of the lake. Over the next twenty years a large part of the Chad Basin was incorporated by treaty or by force into French West Africa . On 2 June 1909, the Wadai capital of Abéché was occupied by the French. The remainder of the basin was divided by the British in Nigeria, who took Kano in 1903, and the Germans in Cameroon. The countries of the basin regained their independence between 1956 and 1962, retaining

5986-407: The stakes of presidential elections and inevitably exacerbates their attendant tension and polarization. Fixed-terms in a presidential system may also be considered a check on the powers of the executive, contrasting parliamentary systems, which may allow the prime minister to call elections whenever they see fit or orchestrate their own vote of no confidence to trigger an election when they cannot get

6068-412: The state governments in the United States use the presidential system, even though this is not constitutionally required. In these cases instead of the title of President the role has the title of Governor. On a local level, a presidential system might be organized with the office of Mayor acting as the president. Some countries without a presidential system at the national level use a form of this system at

6150-771: The title of president . Likewise, the title is sometimes used by other systems. It originated from a time when such a person personally presided over the governing body, as with the President of the Continental Congress in the early United States , prior to the executive function being split into a separate branch of government. It may also be used by presidents in semi-presidential systems . Heads of state of parliamentary republics , largely ceremonial in most cases, are called presidents. Dictators or leaders of one-party states , whether popularly elected or not, are also often called presidents. The presidential system

6232-644: The town of Fashoda . The kingdom was founded during the mid-15th century CE by its first ruler, Nyikang . During the 19th century, the Shilluk Kingdom faced decline following military assaults from the Ottoman Empire and later British and Sudanese colonization in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . The Kingdom of Baguirmi existed as an independent state during the 16th and 17th centuries southeast of West-Central Africa Lake Chad region in what

6314-621: The valley of the Luapula River . The Lunda's western expansion also saw claims of descent by the Yaka and the Pende . The Lunda linked Central Africa with the western coast trade. The kingdom of Lunda came to an end in the 19th century when it was invaded by the Chokwe , who were armed with guns. By the 15th century CE, the farming Bakongo people ( ba being the plural prefix) were unified as

6396-597: The world's 22 older democracies includes only two countries (Costa Rica and the United States) with presidential systems. Yale political scientist Juan Linz argues that: The danger that zero-sum presidential elections pose is compounded by the rigidity of the president's fixed term in office. Winners and losers are sharply defined for the entire period of the presidential mandate ... losers must wait four or five years without any access to executive power and patronage. The zero-sum game in presidential regimes raises

6478-513: Was established in 1998. Decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s brought with it significant expansion of the presidential system. During this time, several new presidential republics were formed in Africa. Cyprus, the Maldives, and South Vietnam also adopted the presidential system following decolonization. Pakistan and Bangladesh did so as well, but they changed their governmental systems shortly afterward. Several more countries adopted

6560-556: Was a revolt of the Maba people who established a Muslim dynasty. At first, Wadai paid tribute to Bornu and Durfur, but by the 18th century, Wadai was fully independent and had become an aggressor against its neighbors. Following the Bantu Migration from Western Africa, Bantu kingdoms and empires began to develop in southern Central Africa. In the 1450s, a Luba from the royal family Ilunga Tshibinda married Lunda queen Rweej and united all Lunda peoples. Their son Mulopwe Luseeng expanded

6642-696: Was centered in the Lake Chad Basin . It was known as the Kanem Empire from the 9th century CE onward and lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu until 1900. At its height it encompassed an area covering not only much of Chad , but also parts of modern eastern Niger , northeastern Nigeria , northern Cameroon and parts of South Sudan . The history of the Empire is mainly known from the Royal Chronicle or Girgam discovered in 1851 by

6724-513: Was not as welcoming as Kongo; it viewed the Portuguese with great suspicion and as an enemy. The Portuguese in the latter part of the 16th century tried to gain control of Ndongo but were defeated by the Mbundu . Ndongo experienced depopulation from slave raiding. The leaders established another state at Matamba , affiliated with Queen Nzinga , who put up a strong resistance to the Portuguese until coming to terms with them. The Portuguese settled along

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