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89-451: PIM or Pim may refer to: Computing [ edit ] Parallel inference machine, an intended fifth generation computer Personal information management Personal information manager software Personal Information Module for PalmDOS Personal Iterations Multiplier for VeraCrypt Protocol Independent Multicast , Internet protocols Processor-in-memory , CPU and memory on

178-591: A Turing-complete machine in 1998 by Raúl Rojas . In two 1936 patent applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data—the key insight of what became known as the von Neumann architecture , first implemented in 1948 in America in the electromechanical IBM SSEC and in Britain in the fully electronic Manchester Baby . Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in

267-835: A character in TV series Phil of the Future Pim Pimling , a character in the TV series Smiling Friends Places [ edit ] Pimhill or Pim Hill, England Pim Island , Canada Pim (river) , Russia Pondok Indah Mall , Indonesia Other uses [ edit ] Pacific Islands Monthly , a news magazine, discontinued 2000 Penalty (ice hockey) (Penalties infraction minutes) Pim Fortuyn List , Dutch political party Pim weight in ancient Israel Prague International Marathon Providence Industrial Mission Public Illumination Magazine See also [ edit ] Pimm's , alcoholic beverages Pym (disambiguation) Topics referred to by

356-468: A committee which assessed the performance of the FGCS Project as having made major contributions in computing, in particular eliminating bottlenecks in parallel processing software and the realization of intelligent interactive processing based on large knowledge bases. However, the committee was strongly biased to justify the project, so this overstates the actual results. Many of the themes seen in

445-695: A correct circuit diagram for a 4 bit digital binary adder. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines such as the Z3 , the Atanasoff–Berry Computer , the Colossus computers , and the ENIAC were built by hand, using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes), and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for input and as

534-560: A line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s, shortly after Napier's work, to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible. Edmund Gunter built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford . His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division. William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with

623-563: A market where general purpose systems could replace and outperform them. This is parallel to the Lisp machine market, where rule-based systems such as CLIPS could run on general-purpose computers, making expensive Lisp machines unnecessary. In summary, the Fifth-Generation project was revolutionary, and accomplished some basic research that anticipated future research directions. Many papers and patents were published. MITI established

712-618: A method adapted from the Jacquard loom invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, which controlled textile patterns with a sequence of punched cards. These cards became foundational in later computing systems as well. Babbage's machine would have featured multiple output devices, including a printer, a curve plotter, and even a bell, demonstrating his ambition for versatile computational applications beyond simple arithmetic. Ada Lovelace expanded on Babbage's vision by conceptualizing algorithms that could be executed by his machine. Her notes on

801-510: A new "sixth generation" project. Ehud Shapiro captured the rationale and motivations driving this project: "As part of Japan's effort to become a leader in the computer industry, the Institute for New Generation Computer Technology has launched a revolutionary ten-year plan for the development of large computer systems which will be applicable to knowledge information processing systems. These Fifth Generation computers will be built around

890-512: A range of subsequent developments in computing hardware. Notably, in the 1890s, Herman Hollerith adapted the idea of punched cards for automated data processing, which was utilized in the U.S. Census and sped up data tabulation significantly, bridging industrial machinery with data processing. The Industrial Revolution's advancements in mechanical systems demonstrated the potential for machines to conduct complex calculations, influencing engineers like Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Vannevar Bush in

979-407: A result of these hurdles, MITI held a conference to seek assistance from experts. The primary fields for investigation from this initial project were: The aim was to build parallel computers for artificial intelligence applications using concurrent logic programming. The project imagined an "epoch-making" computer with supercomputer-like performance running on top of large databases (as opposed to

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1068-472: A ten-year period, 3 years for initial R&D, 4 years for building various subsystems, and a final 3 years to complete a working prototype system. In 1982 the government decided to go ahead with the project, and established the Institute for New Generation Computer Technology (ICOT) through joint investment with various Japanese computer companies. After the project ended, MITI would consider an investment in

1157-399: A traditional filesystem ) using a logic programming language to define and access the data using massively parallel computing/processing . They envisioned building a prototype machine with performance between 100M and 1G LIPS, where a LIPS is a Logical Inference Per Second. At the time typical workstation machines were capable of about 100k LIPS. They proposed to build this machine over

1246-416: A vast number of administrative uses. The Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University , performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing . By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer"

1335-499: Is Boolean algebra , developed by the British mathematician George Boole in his work The Laws of Thought , published in 1854. His Boolean algebra was further refined in the 1860s by William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce , and was first presented systematically by Ernst Schröder and A. N. Whitehead . In 1879 Gottlob Frege develops the formal approach to logic and proposes the first logic language for logical equations. In

1424-436: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Fifth generation computer The term "fifth generation" was chosen to emphasize the system's advanced nature. In the history of computing hardware , there had been four prior "generations" of computers: the first generation utilized vacuum tubes ; the second, transistors and diodes ; the third, integrated circuits ; and

1513-493: Is not clear if FGCS was leveraged to facilitate these developments in any significant way. No significant impact of FGCS on the computing industry has been demonstrated. History of computing hardware The history of computing hardware spans the developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today's complex computers, encompassing advancements in both analog and digital technology. The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required

1602-667: Is one example. The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as c.  2700 –2300 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. Several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These included

1691-448: Is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation . Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete , which

1780-512: Is the "zeroth-generation" computer based on metal gears (such as the IBM 407 ) or mechanical relays (such as the Mark I), and the post-third-generation computers based on Very Large Scale Integrated ( VLSI ) circuits. There was also a parallel set of generations for software: Throughout these multiple generations up to the 1970s, Japan built computers following U.S. and British leads. In the mid-1970s,

1869-567: Is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine . The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were built with electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These mechanical components had a low operating speed due to their mechanical nature and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric components, originally using vacuum tubes and later transistors . The Z2

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1958-465: Is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used." However, Leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz also described the binary numeral system , a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including Charles Babbage 's machines of 1822 and even ENIAC of 1945) were based on

2047-479: The Analytical Engine in 1833. This concept, far more advanced than his Difference Engine, included an arithmetic logic unit , control flow through conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory. Babbage's plans made his Analytical Engine the first general-purpose design that could be described as Turing-complete in modern terms. The Analytical Engine was programmed using punched cards ,

2136-1030: The Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC), in the UK as Alvey , and in Europe as the European Strategic Program on Research in Information Technology (ESPRIT), as well as the European Computer‐Industry Research Centre (ECRC) in Munich , a collaboration between ICL in Britain, Bull in France, and Siemens in Germany. The project ran from 1982 to 1994, spending a little less than ¥57 billion (about US$ 320 million) total. After

2225-456: The Norden ( United States Army Air Forces ). The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer , built by H. L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927, which built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious;

2314-664: The astrolabe and Antikythera mechanism from the Hellenistic world (c. 150–100 BC). In Roman Egypt , Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart . The steam-powered automatic flute described by the Book of Ingenious Devices (850) by the Persian-Baghdadi Banū Mūsā brothers may have been the first programmable device. Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include

2403-640: The consumer electronics field during the 1970s and the automotive world during the 1980s, the Japanese had developed a strong reputation. The launch of the FGCS project spread the belief that parallel computing was the future of all performance gains, producing a wave of apprehension in the computer field. Soon parallel projects were set up in the US as the Strategic Computing Initiative and

2492-444: The microprocessor , leading to another key breakthrough, the miniaturized personal computer (PC), in the 1970s. The cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s, and then mobile computers ( smartphones and tablets ) in the 2000s, became ubiquitous. Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers . The earliest counting device

2581-515: The planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by Al-Biruni (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Al-Zarqali (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (1094) during the Song dynasty . The castle clock , a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Ismail al-Jazari in 1206,

2670-508: The telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes . In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer. This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display). John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,

2759-417: The " cryptologic bomb " ( Polish : "bomba kryptologiczna" ). In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world's first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays , implementing a 22- bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10  Hz . Program code and data were stored on punched film . It

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2848-413: The "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division. Leibniz once said "It

2937-517: The 1930s and working independently, American electronic engineer Claude Shannon and Soviet logician Victor Shestakov both showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of Boolean logic and certain electrical circuits, now called logic gates , which are now ubiquitous in digital computers. They showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of Boolean algebra . This thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design. In addition Shannon's paper gives

3026-686: The 1930s that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. In 1948, the Curta was introduced by Austrian inventor Curt Herzstark . It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz 's Stepped Reckoner and Thomas ' Arithmometer . The world's first all-electronic desktop calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITA , released in 1961. It used vacuum tubes , cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. The ANITA sold well since it

3115-653: The 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications. The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing , who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers . Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel 's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines . He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm . He went on to prove that there

3204-421: The 1970s. In 1804, French weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards . The paper tape could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark achievement in programmability. His machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punched cards were preceded by punch bands, as in

3293-484: The Analytical Engine, written in the 1840s, are now recognized as the earliest examples of computer programming. Lovelace saw potential in computers to go beyond numerical calculations, predicting that they might one day generate complex musical compositions or perform tasks like language processing. Though Babbage's designs were never fully realized due to technical and financial challenges, they influenced

3382-512: The FGCS Project, MITI stopped funding large-scale computer research projects, and the research momentum developed by the FGCS Project dissipated. However MITI/ICOT embarked on a neural-net project which some called the Sixth Generation Project in the 1990s, with a similar level of funding. Per-year spending was less than 1% of the entire R&D expenditure of the electronics and communications equipment industry. For example,

3471-403: The Fifth-Generation project are now being re-interpreted in current technologies, as the hardware limitations foreseen in the 1980s were finally reached in the 2000s. When clock speeds of CPUs began to move into the 3–5 GHz range, CPU power dissipation and other problems became more important. The ability of industry to produce ever-faster single CPU systems (linked to Moore's Law about

3560-569: The Ministry of International Trade and Industry stopped following western leads and started looking into the future of computing on a small scale. They asked the Japan Information Processing Development Center (JIPDEC) to indicate a number of future directions, and in 1979 offered a three-year contract to carry out more in-depth studies along with industry and academia. It was during this period that

3649-509: The Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete. The term digital was first suggested by George Robert Stibitz and refers to where a signal, such as a voltage, is not used to directly represent a value (as it would be in an analog computer ), but to encode it. In November 1937, Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs (1930–1941), completed a relay-based calculator he later dubbed the " Model K " (for " k itchen table", on which he had assembled it), which became

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3738-501: The calculation of first, second, third and quarter degrees can be avoided. Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation. Wilhelm Schickard , a German polymath , designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam. A fire destroyed at least one of

3827-462: The concepts of logic programming. In order to refute the accusation that Japan exploits knowledge from abroad without contributing any of its own, this project will stimulate original research and will make its results available to the international research community." The target defined by the FGCS project was to develop "Knowledge Information Processing systems" (roughly meaning, applied Artificial Intelligence ). The chosen tool to implement this goal

3916-491: The continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical , mechanical , or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved, in contrast to digital computers that represented varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines . The first modern analog computer

4005-472: The course of Allied bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents. In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories. It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to

4094-572: The decimal system. Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer . It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division. It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until

4183-407: The early 20th century. Torres Quevedo designed an electromechanical machine with floating-point arithmetic, while Bush's later work explored electronic digital computing. By the mid-20th century, these innovations paved the way for the first fully electronic computers. In the first half of the 20th century, analog computers were considered by many to be the future of computing. These devices used

4272-436: The evolution of computing hardware, as the era's rapid advancements in machinery and manufacturing laid the groundwork for mechanized and automated computing. Industrial needs for precise, large-scale calculations—especially in fields such as navigation, engineering, and finance—prompted innovations in both design and function, setting the stage for devices like Charles Babbage's Difference Engine (1822). This mechanical device

4361-444: The existentially quantified variables: these values constitute the output of the computation. Logic programming was thought of as something that unified various gradients of computer science ( software engineering , databases , computer architecture and artificial intelligence ). It seemed that logic programming was a key missing connection between knowledge engineering and parallel computer architectures. After having influenced

4450-543: The first binary adder . Typically signals have two states – low (usually representing 0) and high (usually representing 1), but sometimes three-valued logic is used, especially in high-density memory. Modern computers generally use binary logic , but many early machines were decimal computers . In these machines, the basic unit of data was the decimal digit, encoded in one of several schemes, including binary-coded decimal or BCD, bi-quinary , excess-3 , and two-out-of-five code . The mathematical basis of digital computing

4539-496: The first binary electronic digital calculating device. This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. Computers whose logic

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4628-421: The flight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the ship would relay distance measures and observations to a central plotting station. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for Coriolis effect , weather effects on the air, and other adjustments; the computer would then output a firing solution, which would be fed to

4717-450: The fourth, microprocessors . While earlier generations focused on increasing the number of logic elements within a single CPU, it was widely believed at the time that the fifth generation would achieve enhanced performance through the use of massive numbers of CPUs. In the late 1960s until the early 1970s, there was much talk about "generations" of computer hardware, then usually organized into three generations. Omitted from this taxonomy

4806-511: The language in a Report marked as ICOT Technical Report 003, which presented a Concurrent Prolog interpreter written in Prolog. Shapiro's work on Concurrent Prolog inspired a change in the direction of the FGCS from focusing on parallel implementation of Prolog to the focus on concurrent logic programming as the software foundation for the project. It also inspired the concurrent logic programming language Guarded Horn Clauses (GHC) by Ueda, which

4895-469: The logical semantics of the languages. The project found that the benefits of logic programming were largely negated using committed choice. Another problem was that existing CPU performance quickly overcame the barriers that experts anticipated in the 1980s, and the value of parallel computing dropped to the point where it was for some time used only in niche situations. Although a number of workstations of increasing capacity were designed and built over

4984-544: The machine proposed by Basile Bouchon . These bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools. In the late 1880s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be read by a machine. To process these punched cards, he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machine. His machines used electromechanical relays and counters . Hollerith's method

5073-611: The machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another. In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented a mechanical calculator . He built twenty of these machines (called Pascal's calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years. Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums. A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as

5162-528: The main (non-volatile) storage medium. Engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926. While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange . Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of

5251-541: The modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two Gunter rules , held together with the hands. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator . In 1609 Guidobaldo del Monte made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree. Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant. Thanks to this machine, errors in

5340-471: The most powerful was constructed at the University of Pennsylvania 's Moore School of Electrical Engineering , where the ENIAC was built. A fully electronic analog computer was built by Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at Peenemünde Army Research Center . By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but hybrid analog computers , controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into

5429-483: The multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his ' Napier's bones ', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division. Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on

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5518-469: The nineteenth century People [ edit ] Given name [ edit ] Pim (name) Surname [ edit ] Bedford Clapperton Trevelyan Pim , (1826-1886), Royal Navy officer Jonathan Pim (1806–1885) , Irish politician Jonathan Pim (1858–1949) , Irish lawyer and politician Joshua Pim (1869-1942), Irish doctor and tennis player Raymond Pim (1897–1993), American politician Fictional [ edit ] Pim Diffy,

5607-486: The operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. In later stages, computing devices began representing numbers in continuous forms, such as by distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a specific voltage level. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanism. Although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased

5696-544: The parallel database management system Kappa, the legal reasoning system HELIC-II , and the automated theorem prover MGTP , as well as bioinformatics applications. The FGCS Project did not meet with commercial success for reasons similar to the Lisp machine companies and Thinking Machines . The highly parallel computer architecture was eventually surpassed in speed by less specialized hardware (for example, Sun workstations and Intel x86 machines). A primary problem

5785-641: The periodic doubling of transistor counts) began to be threatened. In the early 21st century, many flavors of parallel computing began to proliferate, including multi-core architectures at the low-end and massively parallel processing at the high end. Ordinary consumer machines and game consoles began to have parallel processors like the Intel Core , AMD K10 , and Cell . Graphics card companies like Nvidia and AMD began introducing large parallel systems like CUDA and OpenCL . It appears, however, that these new technologies do not cite FGCS research. It

5874-448: The precision of results. The development of transistor technology, followed by the invention of integrated circuit chips, led to revolutionary breakthroughs. Transistor-based computers and, later, integrated circuit-based computers enabled digital systems to gradually replace analog systems, increasing both efficiency and processing power. Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) large-scale integration (LSI) then enabled semiconductor memory and

5963-593: The project's highest expenditure year was 7.2 million yen in 1991, but IBM alone spent 1.5 billion dollars (370 billion yen) in 1982, while the industry spent 2150 billion yen in 1990. In 1982, during a visit to the ICOT, Ehud Shapiro invented Concurrent Prolog , a novel programming language that integrated logic programming and concurrent programming. Concurrent Prolog is a process oriented language , which embodies dataflow synchronization and guarded-command indeterminacy as its basic control mechanisms. Shapiro described

6052-443: The project's lifespan, they generally found themselves soon outperformed by "off the shelf" units available commercially. The project also failed to incorporate outside innovations. During its lifespan, GUIs became mainstream in computers; the internet enabled locally stored databases to become distributed; and even simple research projects provided better real-world results in data mining. The FGCS workstations had no appeal in

6141-469: The same chip Engineering, science, and mathematics [ edit ] Passive intermodulation of signals Phosphatidylmyo-inositol mannosides , a glycolipid component of the cell wall of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Principal indecomposable module in mathematical module theory Business [ edit ] Product information management Partnerized Inventory Management Pim Brothers & Co. , large Irish family business founded in

6230-494: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title PIM . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PIM&oldid=1245640287 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description

6319-504: The term "fifth-generation computer" started to be used. Prior to the 1970s, MITI guidance had successes such as an improved steel industry, the creation of the oil supertanker , the automotive industry , consumer electronics, and computer memory. MITI decided that the future was going to be information technology . However, the Japanese language , particularly in its written form, presented and still presents obstacles for computers. As

6408-614: The turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer Arthur Pollen developed the first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (called at the time the Argo Clock). It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I . The alternative Dreyer Table fire control system was fitted to British capital ships by mid-1916. Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy of aerial bombing . Drift Sight

6497-415: Was logic programming . Logic programming approach as was characterized by Maarten Van Emden – one of its founders – as: More technically, it can be summed up in two equations: The Axioms typically used are universal axioms of a restricted form, called Horn-clauses or definite-clauses . The statement proved in a computation is an existential statement. The proof is constructive, and provides values for

6586-508: Was a tide-predicting machine , invented by Sir William Thomson , later Lord Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location and was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. His device was the foundation for further developments in analog computing. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms,

6675-572: Was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations. By the 1920s, British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson 's interest in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather; to this day, the most powerful computers on Earth are needed to adequately model its weather using the Navier–Stokes equations . Companies like Friden , Marchant Calculator and Monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from

6764-419: Was able to compute the roots of arbitrary polynomials of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths. An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first fire-control systems for long range ship gunlaying . When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given

6853-476: Was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson , the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators . In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by Leonardo Torres Quevedo since 1895, including one that

6942-607: Was created in 1939 at the UK Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park by Alan Turing , with an important refinement devised in 1940 by Gordon Welchman . The engineering design and construction was the work of Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company . It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologist Marian Rejewski , and known as

7031-461: Was intended to automate the calculation of polynomial functions and represented one of the earliest applications of computational logic. Babbage, often regarded as the "father of the computer," envisioned a fully mechanical system of gears and wheels, powered by steam, capable of handling complex calculations that previously required intensive manual labor. His Difference Engine, designed to aid navigational calculations, ultimately led him to conceive

7120-507: Was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable : in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a universal Turing machine ), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine, or in other words, it

7209-581: Was one of the earliest examples of an electric operated digital computer built with electromechanical relays and was created by civil engineer Konrad Zuse in 1940 in Germany. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical Z1 ; although it used the same mechanical memory , it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical relay circuits. In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called bombes were built by British cryptologists to help decipher German Enigma-machine -encrypted secret messages during World War II . The bombe's initial design

7298-586: Was probably a form of tally stick . The Lebombo bone from the mountains between Eswatini and South Africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact. It dates from 35,000 BCE and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon 's fibula . Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods

7387-467: Was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers . Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was proven to have been

7476-519: Was the basis of KL1 , the programming language that was finally designed and implemented by the FGCS project as its core programming language. The FGCS project and its findings contributed greatly to the development of the concurrent logic programming field. The project produced a new generation of promising Japanese researchers. Five running Parallel Inference Machines (PIM) were eventually produced: PIM/m, PIM/p, PIM/i, PIM/k, PIM/c. The project also produced applications to run on these systems, such as

7565-410: Was the choice of concurrent logic programming as the bridge between the parallel computer architecture and the use of logic as a knowledge representation and problem solving language for AI applications. This never happened cleanly; a number of languages were developed, all with their own limitations. In particular, the committed choice feature of concurrent constraint logic programming interfered with

7654-496: Was the first programmable analog computer. Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science . Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that

7743-553: Was the first such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval Air Service ; it measured the wind speed from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight , and reached a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV bomb sight ( RAF Bomber Command ) and

7832-471: Was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) CRT , and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN). The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) had a significant impact on

7921-1216: Was used in the 1890 United States Census . That census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of IBM . By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals. Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels . When the United States instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers. Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration. Leslie Comrie 's articles on punched-card methods and W. J. Eckert 's publication of Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation in 1940, described punched-card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating-point representations, all on punched cards and unit record machines . Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing, as well as

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