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91-537: The project began as an unclassified study that was commissioned to a group of academics (particularly active was the Center for Global Policy at George Mason University ) by the Central Intelligence Agency 's Directorate of Intelligence in response to a request from senior U.S. policy makers. The State Failure Problem Set dataset and spreadsheets were originally prepared in 1994 by researchers at

182-482: A one-tailed test , or partitioned to both sides of the distribution, as in a two-tailed test , with each tail (or rejection region) containing 2.5% of the distribution. The use of a one-tailed test is dependent on whether the research question or alternative hypothesis specifies a direction such as whether a group of objects is heavier or the performance of students on an assessment is better . A two-tailed test may still be used but it will be less powerful than

273-403: A sample from a population , there is always the possibility that an observed effect would have occurred due to sampling error alone. But if the p -value of an observed effect is less than (or equal to) the significance level, an investigator may conclude that the effect reflects the characteristics of the whole population, thereby rejecting the null hypothesis. This technique for testing

364-464: A sanctuary of Athena , the goddess of wisdom and skill , north of Athens , Greece. The Royal Spanish Academy defines academy as scientific, literary or artistic society established with public authority and as a teaching establishment, public or private, of a professional, artistic, technical or simply practical nature. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece , which derives from

455-413: A brief narrative description of the event. The goal was to find factors associated with major political conflicts. Over 400 cases were analyzed, both for global and regional data sets . The common variables listed in each data version are as follows: Revolutionary wars are episodes of violent conflict between governments and politically organized groups (political challengers) that seek to overthrow

546-506: A great influence on Renaissance Neo-Platonism . In Rome, after unity was restored following the Western Schism , humanist circles, cultivating philosophy and searching out and sharing ancient texts tended to gather where there was access to a library. The Vatican Library was not coordinated until 1475 and was never catalogued or widely accessible: not all popes looked with satisfaction at gatherings of unsupervised intellectuals. At

637-419: A lapse during the early Roman occupation, Akademia was refounded as a new institution of some outstanding Platonists of late antiquity who called themselves "successors" ( diadochoi , but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato. However, there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or personal continuity with the original Academy in

728-408: A one-tailed test, because the rejection region for a one-tailed test is concentrated on one end of the null distribution and is twice the size (5% vs. 2.5%) of each rejection region for a two-tailed test. As a result, the null hypothesis can be rejected with a less extreme result if a one-tailed test was used. The one-tailed test is only more powerful than a two-tailed test if the specified direction of

819-452: A probability of one in twenty (0.05) as a convenient cutoff level to reject the null hypothesis. In a 1933 paper, Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson called this cutoff the significance level , which they named α {\displaystyle \alpha } . They recommended that α {\displaystyle \alpha } be set ahead of time, prior to any data collection. Despite his initial suggestion of 0.05 as

910-451: A result has statistical significance when a result at least as "extreme" would be very infrequent if the null hypothesis were true. More precisely, a study's defined significance level , denoted by α {\displaystyle \alpha } , is the probability of the study rejecting the null hypothesis, given that the null hypothesis is true; and the p -value of a result, p {\displaystyle p} ,

1001-402: A rule these academies, all very much alike, were merely circles of friends or clients gathered around a learned man or wealthy patron, and were dedicated to literary pastimes rather than methodical study. They fitted in, nevertheless, with the general situation and were in their own way one element of the historical development. Despite their empirical and fugitive character, they helped to keep up

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1092-415: A significance level, Fisher did not intend this cutoff value to be fixed. In his 1956 publication Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference, he recommended that significance levels be set according to specific circumstances. The significance level α {\displaystyle \alpha } is the threshold for p {\displaystyle p} below which the null hypothesis

1183-585: A symptom of the problem. There is nothing wrong with hypothesis testing and p -values per se as long as authors, reviewers, and action editors use them correctly." Some statisticians prefer to use alternative measures of evidence, such as likelihood ratios or Bayes factors . Using Bayesian statistics can avoid confidence levels, but also requires making additional assumptions, and may not necessarily improve practice regarding statistical testing. The widespread abuse of statistical significance represents an important topic of research in metascience . In 2016,

1274-586: A target group so that it can no longer pose any conceivable threat to their rule or interests. Additional variables specific to the Genocide/Politicide episodes are as follows: Fairly consistent findings were produced, suggesting that there are three statistically significant variables most often associated with political upheavals: Thus partial democracies with low involvement in international trade and with high infant mortality are most prone to revolutions. Quantitative models developed during

1365-402: A wall, it contained a sacred grove of olive trees dedicated to Athena , the goddess of wisdom , outside the city walls of ancient Athens . The archaic name for the site was Hekademia , which by classical times evolved into Akademia and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an Athenian hero , a legendary " Akademos ". The site of Akademia

1456-479: Is also a difference between statistical significance and practical significance. A study that is found to be statistically significant may not necessarily be practically significant. Effect size is a measure of a study's practical significance. A statistically significant result may have a weak effect. To gauge the research significance of their result, researchers are encouraged to always report an effect size along with p -values. An effect size measure quantifies

1547-479: Is known today as the Old Academy . By extension, academia has come to mean the accumulation, development and transmission of knowledge across generations as well as its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning. Before Akademia was a school, and even before Cimon enclosed its precincts with

1638-485: Is readily importable to most spreadsheet and statistical software applications. The four versions are as follows: 80 cases; 16 ongoing 65 cases; 4 ongoing 115 cases; 2 ongoing 41 cases; 1 ongoing Average magnitude over all years: 2.4 Genocides/politicides occurred most frequently in 1975 and 1978. Frequency of occurrence increased beginning in 1962 until 1980, when frequency dropped slightly. The frequency of genocides/politicides plateaued from 1980 to 1987. In 1988

1729-408: Is rejected even though by assumption it were true, and something else is going on. This means that α {\displaystyle \alpha } is also the probability of mistakenly rejecting the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis is true. This is also called false positive and type I error . Sometimes researchers talk about the confidence level γ = (1 − α ) instead. This

1820-715: Is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila. Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts , which included skills such as archery , hunting , and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school , medical school , and school of military science . Nalanda

1911-411: Is set to 5%, the conditional probability of a type I error , given that the null hypothesis is true , is 5%, and a statistically significant result is one where the observed p -value is less than (or equal to) 5%. When drawing data from a sample, this means that the rejection region comprises 5% of the sampling distribution . These 5% can be allocated to one side of the sampling distribution, as in

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2002-426: Is the probability of not rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true. Confidence levels and confidence intervals were introduced by Neyman in 1937. Statistical significance plays a pivotal role in statistical hypothesis testing. It is used to determine whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or retained. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that no effect exists in the phenomenon being studied. For

2093-479: Is the probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme, given that the null hypothesis is true. The result is statistically significant, by the standards of the study, when p ≤ α {\displaystyle p\leq \alpha } . The significance level for a study is chosen before data collection, and is typically set to 5% or much lower—depending on the field of study. In any experiment or observation that involves drawing

2184-605: The Accademia Pontaniana , after Giovanni Pontano . The 16th century saw at Rome a great increase of literary and aesthetic academies, more or less inspired by the Renaissance, all of which assumed, as was the fashion, odd and fantastic names. We learn from various sources the names of many such institutes; as a rule, they soon perished and left no trace. In the 1520s came the Accademia degli Intronati , for

2275-717: The Accademia di Santa Cecilia for music from 1585; Paris had the Académie Royale de Musique from 1669 and the Académie Royale d'Architecture from 1671. The Accademia degli Infiammati of Padova and the Accademia degli Umidi, soon renamed the Accademia Fiorentina , of Florence were both founded in 1540, and were both initially concerned with the proper basis for literary use of the volgare , or vernacular language of Italy, which would later become

2366-491: The American Statistical Association (ASA) published a statement on p -values, saying that "the widespread use of 'statistical significance' (generally interpreted as ' p  ≤ 0.05') as a license for making a claim of a scientific finding (or implied truth) leads to considerable distortion of the scientific process". In 2017, a group of 72 authors proposed to enhance reproducibility by changing

2457-512: The Athenian hero , Akademos . Outside the city walls of Athens , the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena , had formerly been an olive grove , hence the expression "the groves of Academe". In these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what

2548-583: The Guild of Saint Luke , as the bodies responsible for training and often regulating artists, a change with great implications for the development of art, leading to the styles known as Academic art . The private Accademia degli Incamminati set up later in the century in Bologna by the Carracci brothers was also extremely influential, and with the Accademia di San Luca of Rome (founded 1593) helped to confirm

2639-950: The Göttingen Academy of Sciences , in 1754 in Erfurt , in 1759 the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities , in 1763 the Academia Theodoro-Palatina in Heidelberg , in 1779 the Sciences Academy of Lisbon , in 1783 the Royal Society of Edinburgh , in 1782 the Accademia dei Quaranta in Rome, in 1784 in Turin . Statistically significant In statistical hypothesis testing ,

2730-541: The Higgs boson particle's existence was based on the 5 σ criterion, which corresponds to a p -value of about 1 in 3.5 million. In other fields of scientific research such as genome-wide association studies , significance levels as low as 5 × 10 are not uncommon —as the number of tests performed is extremely large. Researchers focusing solely on whether their results are statistically significant might report findings that are not substantive and not replicable. There

2821-683: The Italian language . In 1582 five Florentine literati gathered and founded the Accademia della Crusca to demonstrate and conserve the beauty of the Florentine vernacular tongue, modelled upon the authors of the Trecento. The main instrument to do so was the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca . The Crusca long remained a private institution, criticizing and opposing the official Accademia Fiorentina. The first institution inspired by

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2912-611: The New Academy . In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories and established the Lyceum in another gymnasium. The Musaeum , Serapeum and library of Alexandria Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a medieval university in Timbuktu , present-day Mali, which comprised three schools:

3003-570: The Quadrivium ( Arithmetic , Geometry , Music , and Astronomy )—had been codified in late antiquity . This was the basis of the curriculum in Europe until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became more available in Europe in the 12th century. It remained in place even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas , until

3094-826: The Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid (founded 1744), the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg (1757), the Royal Academy in London (1768) and the Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in Milan (1776) still run art schools and hold large exhibitions, although their influence on taste greatly declined from the late 19th century. A fundamental feature of academic discipline in

3185-614: The Sabians ). The Grand School was the main center of learning in the Persian capital Ctesiphon , but little is known about it. Perhaps the most famous center of learning in Persia was the Academy of Gundishapur , teaching medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and logic. The academy was later instrumental in founding the Muslim city of Baghdad as a center of learning, and serving as the model for

3276-441: The p -value threshold for statistical significance from 0.05 to 0.005. Other researchers responded that imposing a more stringent significance threshold would aggravate problems such as data dredging ; alternative propositions are thus to select and justify flexible p -value thresholds before collecting data, or to interpret p -values as continuous indices, thereby discarding thresholds and statistical significance. Additionally,

3367-523: The " Animosi " (1576), and the " Illuminati " (1598); this last, founded by the Marchesa Isabella Aldobrandini Pallavicino . Towards the middle of the 16th century there were also the academy of the " Notti Vaticane ", or " Vatican Nights ", founded by St . Charles Borromeo ; an "Accademia di Diritto civile e canonico", and another of the university scholars and students of philosophy ( Accademia Eustachiana ). As

3458-474: The 18th century, in the work of John Arbuthnot and Pierre-Simon Laplace , who computed the p -value for the human sex ratio at birth, assuming a null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births; see p -value § History for details. In 1925, Ronald Fisher advanced the idea of statistical hypothesis testing, which he called "tests of significance", in his publication Statistical Methods for Research Workers . Fisher suggested

3549-678: The Adverse Regime Change episodes are as follows: Genocide and politicide events involve the promotion, execution, and/or implied consent of sustained policies by governing elites or their agents or in the case of civil war, either of the contending authorities that result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a communal group or politicized non communal group. In genocides the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal (ethnolinguistic, religious) characteristics. In politicides, by contrast, groups are defined primarily in terms of their political opposition to

3640-628: The Byzantine empire in 532 guaranteed their personal security (an early document in the history of freedom of religion ), some members found sanctuary in the pagan stronghold of Harran , near Edessa . One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the last head of the Athenian school. It has been speculated that Akademia did not altogether disappear. After his exile, Simplicius (and perhaps some others), may have travelled to Harran , near Edessa . From there,

3731-843: The Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes. In Europe, the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to cathedral cities and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. The most notable of these new schools were in Bologna and Salerno , Naples , Salamanca , Paris , Oxford and Cambridge , while others were opened throughout Europe. The seven liberal arts —the Trivium ( Grammar , Rhetoric , and Logic ), and

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3822-564: The Center for International Development and Conflict Management (CIDCM) at the University of Maryland under the direction of Ted Robert Gurr and subject to the review of the State Failure Task Force. The Problem Set was subsequently reviewed, revised, and updated on an annual basis through 1999 under the direction of Ted Gurr and, beginning in 1999, Monty G. Marshall at CIDCM. In January 2001, a major review and revision of

3913-641: The Crusca was the Fruitbearing Society for German language, which existed from 1617 to 1680. The Crusca inspired Richelieu to found in 1634 the analogous Académie française with the task of acting as an official authority on the French language , charged with publishing the official dictionary of that language. The following year the Académie received letters patent from the king Louis XIII as

4004-526: The Ethnic and Revolutionary War episodes are as follows: Adverse Regime Changes are defined by the State Failure Task Force as major, adverse shifts in patterns of governance, including Abrupt transitions from more authoritarian rule to more open, institutionalized governance systems, defined by the State Failure Task Force as "democratic transitions," are not considered state failures in this sense and, thus, are not included. Additional variables specific to

4095-510: The Mosque of Djinguereber, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Sankore. During its zenith, the university had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at Nanjing , founded in 258, was a result of

4186-549: The Problem Set coding guidelines and dataset, under the direction of Monty G. Marshall, was concluded that substantially altered the case identifications and case parameters recorded in the Problem Set. The PITF first identified over 100 "problem cases" in the world from 1955 to 2011. Four distinct types of state failure events are included in the dataset: revolutionary wars , ethnic wars , adverse regime changes, and genocides and politicides . The Problem Set data includes

4277-580: The academic circle, like Publio Fausto Andrelini of Bologna who took the New Learning to the University of Paris , to the discomfiture of his friend Erasmus . In their self-confidence, these first intellectual neopagans compromised themselves politically, at a time when Rome was full of conspiracies fomented by the Roman barons and the neighbouring princes: Paul II (1464–71) caused Pomponio and

4368-643: The academy of Oscuri became the Royal Academy of Lucca . The Académie de peinture et de sculpture in Paris, established by the monarchy in 1648 (later renamed) was the most significant of the artistic academies, running the famous Salon exhibitions from 1725. Artistic academies were established all over Europe by the end of the 18th century, and many, like the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (founded 1696),

4459-460: The academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution. In contrast to Royal Society , the academy was founded as an organ of government. In 1699, Louis XIV gave the academy its first rules and named it Académie royale des sciences . Although Prussia was a member of Holy Roman Empire, in 1700 Prince-elector Frederick III of Brandenburg founded its own Prussian Academy of Sciences upon

4550-831: The advice of Gottfried Leibniz , who was appointed president. During the 18th century many European kings followed and founded their own academy of sciences: in 1714 the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna , in 1724 the Russian Academy of Sciences , in 1731 the Royal Dublin Society , in 1735 in Tuscany , in 1739 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , in 1742 the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters , in 1751

4641-410: The alternative hypothesis is correct. If it is wrong, however, then the one-tailed test has no power. In specific fields such as particle physics and manufacturing , statistical significance is often expressed in multiples of the standard deviation or sigma ( σ ) of a normal distribution , with significance thresholds set at a much stricter level (for example 5 σ ). For instance, the certainty of

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4732-684: The art of war. The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university's heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors. Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. The geographical position of Persia allowed it to absorb cultural influences and ideas from both west and east. This include

4823-551: The artistic academies was regular practice in making accurate drawings from antiquities, or from casts of antiquities, on the one hand, and on the other, in deriving inspiration from the other fount, the human form. Students assembled in sessions drawing the draped and undraped human form , and such drawings, which survive in the tens of thousands from the 17th through the 19th century, are termed académies in French. Similar institutions were often established for other arts: Rome had

4914-460: The central government, to replace its leaders, or to seize power in one region. Conflicts must include substantial use of violence by one or both parties to qualify as "wars." Ethnic wars are episodes of violent conflict between governments and national, ethnic, religious, or other communal minorities (ethnic challengers) in which the challengers seek major changes in their status. Most ethnic wars since 1955 have been guerrilla or civil wars in which

5005-514: The challengers have sought independence or regional autonomy. A few, like the events in South Africa's black townships in 1976–77, involve large-scale demonstrations and riots aimed at sweeping political reform that were violently suppressed by police and military. Rioting and warfare between rival communal groups is not coded as ethnic warfare unless it involves conflict over political power or government policy. Additional variables specific to

5096-451: The change to 0.005 would increase the likelihood of false negatives, whereby the effect being studied is real, but the test fails to show it. In 2019, over 800 statisticians and scientists signed a message calling for the abandonment of the term "statistical significance" in science, and the ASA published a further official statement declaring (page 2): We conclude, based on our review of

5187-518: The classic philosophy. The next generation of humanists were bolder admirers of pagan culture, especially in the highly personal academy of Pomponius Leto , the natural son of a nobleman of the Sanseverino family, born in Calabria but known by his academic name, who devoted his energies to the enthusiastic study of classical antiquity, and attracted a great number of disciples and admirers. He

5278-408: The encouragement of theatrical representations. There were also the academy of the " Vignaiuoli ", or " Vinegrowers " (1530), and the Accademia della Virtù  [ it ] (1542), founded by Claudio Tolomei under the patronage of Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici . These were followed by a new academy in the " Orti " or Farnese gardens. There were also the academies of the " Intrepidi " (1560),

5369-663: The evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became Nanjing University . In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan , which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan (later become Hunan University ) can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila , in ancient India , modern-day Pakistan,

5460-694: The first Muslim hospital ( bimaristan ) at Damascus. Founded in Fes, University of Al-Karaouine in the 9th century and in Cairo, Al-Azhar University in the 10th century, and in Mali, the University of Timbuktu in about 1100. Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad , Iraq was established in 1227 as a madrasah by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir . Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by

5551-546: The first half of the 19th century some of these became the national academies of pre-unitarian states: the academy of Accesi became the Panomitan Academy of Buon Gusto ( Trento ); the academy of Timidi became the Royal Academy of Mantua ; the Accademia dei Ricovrati became the Galileiana Academy of Arts and Science ( Padova ); the academy of Dissonanti became the Royal Academy of Modena and

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5642-411: The following information on each case: country, month and year of onset, month and year of ending (unless ongoing as of December 31 of the current update year), type of case, and annual codes on magnitude variables. The basic structure of the data is the "case-year," that is, there is a separate case-entry for each additional year of a multi-year episode. Only the first annual record for each event contains

5733-566: The formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. In 1662 Charles II of England signed a Royal Charter which created the "Royal Society of London", then "Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge". In 1666 Colbert gathered a small group of scholars to found a scientific society in Paris. The first 30 years of

5824-488: The general esteem for literary and other studies. Cardinals, prelates, and the clergy in general were most favourable to this movement, and assisted it by patronage and collaboration. In Florence, the Medici again took the lead in establishing the Accademia e Compagnia delle Arti del Disegno in 1563, the first of the more formally organised art academies that gradually displaced the medieval artists' guilds , usually known as

5915-485: The head of this movement for renewal in Rome was Cardinal Bessarion , whose house from the mid-century was the centre of a flourishing academy of Neoplatonic philosophy and a varied intellectual culture. His valuable Greek as well as Latin library (eventually bequeathed to the city of Venice after he withdrew from Rome) was at the disposal of the academicians. Bessarion, in the latter years of his life, retired from Rome to Ravenna , but he left behind him ardent adherents of

6006-551: The humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. With the Neoplatonist revival that accompanied the revival of humanist studies , academia took on newly vivid connotations. During the Florentine Renaissance , Cosimo de' Medici took a personal interest in the new Platonic Academy that he determined to re-establish in 1439, centered on the marvellous promise shown by

6097-412: The journal Basic and Applied Social Psychology banned the use of significance testing altogether from papers it published, requiring authors to use other measures to evaluate hypotheses and impact. Other editors, commenting on this ban have noted: "Banning the reporting of p -values, as Basic and Applied Social Psychology recently did, is not going to solve the problem because it is merely treating

6188-423: The leaders of the academy to be arrested on charges of irreligion, immorality, and conspiracy against the Pope . The prisoners begged so earnestly for mercy, and with such protestations of repentance, that they were pardoned. The Letonian academy, however, collapsed. In Naples, the Quattrocento academy founded by Alfonso of Aragon and guided by Antonio Beccadelli was the Porticus Antoniana , later known as

6279-400: The likelihood that the result was a false positive. Starting in the 2010s, some journals began questioning whether significance testing, and particularly using a threshold of α =5%, was being relied on too heavily as the primary measure of validity of a hypothesis. Some journals encouraged authors to do more detailed analysis than just a statistical significance test. In social psychology,

6370-542: The new organizational entity. The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Akademia in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the Hellenistic cultural world and suggest the broad syncretism of the common culture (see koine ): Five of the seven Akademia philosophers mentioned by Agathias were Syriac in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, Damascius of Syria, Iamblichus of Coele-Syria and perhaps even Simplicius of Cilicia . The emperor Justinian ceased

6461-496: The null hypothesis is true. The null hypothesis is rejected if the p -value is less than (or equal to) a predetermined level, α {\displaystyle \alpha } . α {\displaystyle \alpha } is also called the significance level , and is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true (a type I error ). It is usually set at or below 5%. For example, when α {\displaystyle \alpha }

6552-426: The null hypothesis to be rejected, an observed result has to be statistically significant, i.e. the observed p -value is less than the pre-specified significance level α {\displaystyle \alpha } . To determine whether a result is statistically significant, a researcher calculates a p -value, which is the probability of observing an effect of the same magnitude or more extreme given that

6643-626: The only recognized academy for French language. In its turn the state established Académie was the model for the Real Academia Española (founded in 1713) and the Swedish Academy (1786), which are the ruling bodies of their respective languages and editors of major dictionaries. It also was the model for the Russian Academy , founded in 1783, which afterwards merged into the Russian Academy of Sciences. After

6734-406: The regime and dominant groups. Genocide and politicide are distinguished from state repression and terror . In cases of state terror authorities arrest, persecute or execute a few members of a group in ways designed to terrorize the majority of the group into passivity or acquiescence. In the case of genocide and politicide authorities physically exterminate enough (not necessarily all) members of

6825-590: The religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in some detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous treatise Arthashastra ( Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics ) by Chanakya,

6916-457: The school's funding in AD 529, a date that is often cited as the end of Antiquity . According to the sole witness, the historian Agathias , its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of Sassanid king Khosrau I in his capital at Ctesiphon , carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy, and to a lesser degree of science. After a peace treaty between the Persian and

7007-555: The short-lived Academia Secretorum Naturae of Naples, the first academy exclusively devoted to sciences was the Accademia dei Lincei founded in 1603 in Rome, particularly focused on natural sciences. In 1657 some students of Galileo founded the Accademia del Cimento (Academy of Experiment) in Florence , focused on physics and astronomy. The foundation of academy was funded by Prince Leopoldo and Grand Duke Ferdinando II de' Medici . This academy lasted after few decades. In 1652

7098-703: The spread of the Greek form of schools in the new Hellenistic cities built in Persia after the invasion of Alexander the Great . Under the Sasanians , Syriac became an important language of the administration and intellectuals, rivaling Greek. Several cities developed centers of higher learning in the Sasanian Empire, including Mosul , al-Hira , and Harran (famous for the Pythagorean School of

7189-416: The statistical significance of results was developed in the early 20th century. The term significance does not imply importance here, and the term statistical significance is not the same as research significance, theoretical significance, or practical significance. For example, the term clinical significance refers to the practical importance of a treatment effect. Statistical significance dates to

7280-412: The strength of an effect, such as the distance between two means in units of standard deviation (cf. Cohen's d ), the correlation coefficient between two variables or its square , and other measures. A statistically significant result may not be easy to reproduce. In particular, some statistically significant results will in fact be false positives. Each failed attempt to reproduce a result increases

7371-607: The students of an academy-in-exile could have survived into the 9th century, long enough to facilitate the Arabic revival of the Neoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad . In ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Plato 's colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus , a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy . Carneades , another student, established

7462-620: The study would have accurately predicted over 85% of major state crises events occurring in 1990–1997. However while the models can predict state crises, they cannot predict their magnitude and eventual outcome. There are four versions of the Political Instability (State Failure) Problem Set data; each are downloadable from the PITF Problem Set page in Microsoft Excel format. This format was chosen because it

7553-431: The use of the term for these institutions. Gradually academies began to specialize on particular topics (arts, language, sciences) and began to be founded and funded by the kings and other sovereigns (few republics had an academy). And, mainly, since 17th century academies spread throughout Europe. In the 17th century the tradition of literary-philosophical academies, as circles of friends gathering around learned patrons,

7644-514: The world saw a slight increase of genocides/politicides, which then quickly turned into a steady decrease in events through 2011. An example of a typical event: Uganda, 1980–1986. Average magnitude: 3.3. Academia An academy ( Attic Greek : Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato 's school of philosophy , founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia ,

7735-419: The young Marsilio Ficino . Cosimo had been inspired by the arrival at the otherwise ineffective Council of Florence of Gemistos Plethon , who seemed a dazzling figure to the Florentine intellectuals. In 1462 Cosimo gave Ficino a villa at Careggi for the academy's use, situated where Cosimo could see it from his own villa, and drop by for visits. The academy remained a wholly informal group, but one which had

7826-517: Was a worshipper not merely of the literary and artistic form, but also of the ideas and spirit of classic paganism, which made him appear a condemner of Christianity and an enemy of the Church. In his academy every member assumed a classical name. Its principal members were humanists, like Bessarion's protégé Giovanni Antonio Campani (Campanus), Bartolomeo Platina , the papal librarian, and Filippo Buonaccorsi , and young visitors who received polish in

7917-445: Was an early centre of learning, near present-day Islamabad in the city of Taxila . It is considered one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC. Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where

8008-475: Was continued in Italy; the " Umoristi " (1611), the " Fantastici (1625), and the " Ordinati ", founded by Cardinal Dati and Giulio Strozzi . About 1700 were founded the academies of the " Infecondi ", the " Occulti ", the " Deboli ", the " Aborigini ", the " Immobili ", the " Accademia Esquilina ", and others. During the 18th century many Italian cities established similar philosophical and scientific academies. In

8099-599: Was established in the 5th century AD in Bihar , India. It was founded in 427 in northeastern India, not far from what is today the southern border of Nepal. It survived until 1197 when it was set upon, destroyed and burnt by the marauding forces of Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji . It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and

8190-689: Was founded the Academia Naturae Curiosorum by four physicians. In 1677, Leopold I , emperor of the Holy Roman Empire , recognised the society and in 1687 he gave it the epithet Leopoldina , with which is internationally famous. So, it became the academy of sciences for the whole Holy Roman Empire . On 28 November 1660, a group of scientists from and influenced by the Invisible College (gathering approximately since 1645) met at Gresham College and announced

8281-635: Was sacred to Athena and other immortals. Plato's immediate successors as "scholarch" of Akademia were Speusippus (347–339 BC), Xenocrates (339–314 BC), Polemon (314–269 BC), Crates ( c.  269 –266 BC), and Arcesilaus ( c.  266 –240 BC). Later scholarchs include Lacydes of Cyrene , Carneades , Clitomachus , and Philo of Larissa ("the last undisputed head of the Academy"). Other notable members of Akademia include Aristotle , Heraclides Ponticus , Eudoxus of Cnidus , Philip of Opus , Crantor , and Antiochus of Ascalon . After

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