126-582: The Polonnaruwa Vatadage is an ancient structure dating back to the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa of Sri Lanka . It is believed to have been built during the reign of Parakramabahu I to hold the Relic of the tooth of the Buddha or during the reign of Nissanka Malla of Polonnaruwa to hold the alms bowl used by the Buddha. Both these venerated relics would have given the structure a great significance and importance at
252-652: A perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir. Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs. Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland. Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period. Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign. Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for
378-410: A base diameter of 27 feet 8 inches (8.43 m). The Vatadage has two levels; the lower platform and the raised upper platform that contains the stupa. The upper platform is 80 feet (24 m) in diameter, and the lower one 120 feet (37 m). The lower platform is 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m) from ground level, and the upper platform is 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) from
504-567: A facility unsurpassed by any other people in the world. Divine architecture ranging from larger dams to artificial seas, such as the Parakrama Samudra, always required advanced technology and were built in unique ways. The Vatadages were built since the Anuradhapura period, however, the peak was reached during the Polonnaruwa period. The Polonnaruwa Vatadage is considered the "ultimate creation" out of all Vatadages. A Vatedage
630-417: A military campaign that lasted seventeen years. Polonnaruwa was renamed Vijayarajapura and chosen as the capital. The coronation ceremony was held in a palace built for this purpose in Anuradhapura, the former capital of the country. Vijayabahu married Lilavati, the daughter of Jagatipala of Kanauj , as his queen. He later married Tilokasundari, a princess from Kalinga , with the view of strengthening ties with
756-471: A navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura kingdom, and one was rarely maintained. This would have been the first line of defence for the island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India. The economy of the Anuradhapura kingdom was based mainly on agriculture . The main agricultural product was rice , the cultivation of which was supported by an intricate irrigation network. Rice cultivation began around
882-481: A novice. They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale on a Poson poya day. After this meeting, king Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism and the order of monks was established in the country. The king, guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country. Soon afterwards, the bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived from India in order to establish the Bhikkhuni sasana (order of nuns) in
1008-403: A revolt of his own Indian mercenary troops , fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana . The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak, and the country was suffering from poverty by this time. It further mentions that his army rose against him due to lack of wages. Taking advantage of this internal strife Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered
1134-548: A rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659). Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as
1260-480: A rival to Lokissara's forces, killed him. Parakrama Pandyan II from Pandyan Kingdom invaded Polonnaruwa, thus forcing Lilavati into exile. Parakrama Pandyan II ascended the throne, reigned between 1212 and 1215 CE. He was ousted by the invader, Kalinga Magha , who in the aftermath founded the Jaffna kingdom . Kalinga Magha ruled for 21 years until he was also expelled from Polonnaruwa in 1236, with an invasion from
1386-443: A roof, and the stone columns were used to hang lamps, curtains or Buddhist symbols. The brick wall around the platform is in a considerably preserved state as well, although parts of it have broken off. It is quite thick—2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m)—and was presumably constructed to protect the stupa from the sides. There is evidence that inner surface of the wall had been adorned with paintings. Its lower portion
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#17328011110041512-421: Is also mentioned. Buddhism while not prevalent was brought by traders from India who built places of worship. Brahmanism was prevalent among the ruling elite until the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa . It spread rapidly throughout the country under his patronage becoming the official religion of the kingdom. Despite this status, the tolerance of Buddhist society ensured
1638-425: Is built for the protection of a small stupa. The structure has two stone platforms decorated with elaborate stone carvings. The lower platform is entered through a single entrance facing the north, while the second platform can be accessed through four doorways facing the four cardinal points. The upper platform, surrounded by a brick wall, contains the stupa. Four Buddha statues are seated around it, each facing one of
1764-458: Is covered by stone panels with carvings of a flower design. Below the wall, the side of the upper platform itself is decorated with carvings, as is the side of the lower platform. The four Buddha statues, which depict the Dhyana mudra , are also carved from solid rock. Two of them are more or less intact today, while only parts of the other two remain. The stupa in the middle appears to have been of
1890-511: Is decorated with stone carvings. Some of the carvings at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, such as its sandakada pahanas , are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features. Although some archaeologists have suggested that it also had a wooden roof, this theory is disputed by others. Theories vary among archaeologists and historians regarding who built the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, and when. One such theory suggests that it
2016-637: Is disputed by others. The Hatedage and Nissanka Latha Mandapaya were built by Nissanka Malla (1187-1197) to store the relics. Several relics including relics of the Tooth of Buddha and Rice Bowls used by the Buddha are said to have been held in the Hatadage. Several historical sources including the Rajaveliya , Poojavaliya and the Galpotha inscription itself mention that it was built in sixty hours. Since
2142-423: Is entered through a single entrance facing the north, while the second platform can be accessed through four doorways facing the four cardinal points. The upper platform, surrounded by a brick wall, contains the stupa. Four Buddha statues are seated around it, each facing one of the entrances. Three concentric rows of stone columns had also been positioned here, presumably to support a wooden roof. The entire structure
2268-428: Is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier. The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during
2394-504: Is that the alms bowl used by the Buddha may have been enshrined here. Both these relics were important objects in ancient Sri Lankan culture, and would have made the Polonnaruwa Vatadage one of the most significant and venerated buildings in the country. Polonnaruwa was abandoned in 1215 following an invasion from the Eastern Ganga Dynasty invader Kalinga Magha . The Polonnaruwa Vatadage appears to have been abandoned with
2520-553: The Anuradhapura cross indicated a possibility of a strong Christian population during the Anuradhapura period. Nestorian Christians held some influence and power in the Anuradhapura kingdom, particularly during the reign of King Dathusena . There was also a presence of Muslim Traders from Arabia and Persia. From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the Brāhmī script . This gradually developed into
2646-681: The Bubbulakara (bubble shaped) design commonly seen in Sri Lanka. The upper part has been destroyed, and only the dome shaped lower part now remains. However, it has only two Pesavas (the rings found at the base of stupas) rather than the traditional three. 7°56′50″N 81°0′4″E / 7.94722°N 81.00111°E / 7.94722; 81.00111 Kingdom of Polonnaruwa [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa ( Sinhala : පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය , romanized: Polonnaruwa Rājādhaniya )
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#17328011110042772-637: The Chola King Rajaraja and his son Rajendra, who took King Mahinda V as a prisoner of war to Tamil Nadu; he died there in 1029. The Cholas shifted the capital from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa and ruled for nearly 53 years. Polonnaruwa was named Jananathapuram by the Cholas. King Vijayabahu I (or Kitti) eventually defeated the Cholas and re-established the Sinhalese monarchy. Polonnaruwa had always been considered an important settlement in
2898-565: The Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism. Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs. Rulers such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V (914–923) and Mahinda IV (956–972) promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha. Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya (249–262) expelled several monks from
3024-557: The Khmer settled in an area called Kambojavâsaĺa . The Khmer script was used to write Pali texts such as the Khmer script version of the Mahavamsa . Most trade was carried out through the main seaports of the principality, Kalpitiya, Halaavatha (Chilaw) and Colombo. The coins, which were mostly made of copper, were modelled after their ruler. While gold coins also existed within the kingdom and were used, they largely disappeared in
3150-630: The Konesvaram temple had been constructed. Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba. A community of Christians are believed to have migrated and settled in the Kingdom likely introduced by Saint Thomas the Apostle in AD 52-72. Most Christians at that time were either St.Thomas Christians or Nestorian Christians. In 1912, the discovery of
3276-436: The Mahavamsa , King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of Anuradhapura, fixed village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village headmen. He constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. He brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura kingdom. However, it was not until the reign of Dutthagamani (161–137 BC) that
3402-572: The Malvatu Oya , Deduru Oya and Mahaweli Ganga and spread throughout the country. Shifting cultivation was also done during the rainy seasons. Rice was produced in two main seasons named Yala and Maha . Due to the extensive production of rice, the country was mostly self-sufficient . Cotton was grown extensively to meet the requirements of cloth . Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical literature to these agricultural products. Finger millet
3528-626: The Sanskrit Kavyadarsha . Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha , providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda , a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period. During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali Tripitaka
3654-466: The Sinhalese word Hata means sixty and Dage means relic shrine, it is possible that the structure was named Hatadage to commemorate this feat. Another theory is that it is so named because it held sixty relics. Despite having built many structures, Nissanka Malla's major intention was to outdo the works of Parakramabahu I. He also built a statue of himself. Parakramabahu organized the military of
3780-516: The paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art. Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of the art of
3906-399: The tooth relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their country. Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named Datadhatughara . He ordered this procession to be held annually which is still taking place in the country. The tooth relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country and a symbol of kingship. The person who
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4032-416: The worship of gods , the worship of trees , Brahmanism , Nigaṇthas , Śaivisam , various ascetic groups such as Paribbrājakas, Ᾱjīvakas and forms of early Buddhism . Known yakśas that received royal patronage during the reign of King Pandukabhaya include Chitrarāja, Kālavēla and yakśani Valavāmukhī. Named gods to include Sumana and Upulvan while goddess named pachchimarājinī meaning “western queen”
4158-544: The Angkor for centuries. Anuradhapura Kingdom [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal The Anuradhapura kingdom ( Sinhala : අනුරාධපුර රාජධානිය , translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil : அனுராதபுர இராச்சியம் ), named for its capital city , was the second established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka . According to the Mahāvaṃsa , it was founded by King Pandukabhaya in 437 BC, whose authority extended throughout
4284-491: The Anuradhapura era, the country was invaded by South Indians several times. Rulers such as Dutthagamani , Valagamba , and Dhatusena are noted for defeating South Indian invaders and unifying the country. Other rulers such as Sena II are notable for dispatching forces to the South Indian mainland, and gaining several victories such as the sacking of Madurai in 862 . The kingdom was largely based on agriculture, hence
4410-405: The Anuradhapura kingdom, the power of the king had deteriorated that he could not even properly organize the collection of taxes. One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura kingdom was the introduction of Buddhism to the country. A strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BC) and Ashoka of India, who sent a missionary of 5 monks including Arahat Mahinda , and
4536-548: The Anuradhapura kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that the walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted. Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Duttugemunu wanted to see it on his death bed. Statue making, most noticeably statues of the Buddha , was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during
4662-420: The Anuradhapura kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD. Standard postures such as Abhaya Mudra , Dhyana Mudra , Vitarka Mudra and Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan art, shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, and
4788-463: The Anuradhapura kingdom. There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the 2nd century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as Mahatittha and Gokanna were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom, large Hindu temples such as
4914-403: The Anuradhapura period, the second Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V. Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the purohita ,
5040-607: The Buddhist kings' takeover, there was a strong influence of Hinduism caused by Cholas. It is evident from the removal of cow shape in Polonnaruwa moonstone, and also by the presence of Shiva temples in Polonnaruwa. After Chola rule, many viharas were renovated by Vijayabahu I and his successor Parakramabahu I. The primary form of Buddhism practiced in the Polonnaruwa kingdom was the orthodox school of Buddhism; following religious reforms in Burma, many monks there aligned themselves with
5166-467: The Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of international trade transit. Ports such as Mahatittha ( Mannar ) and Gokanna ( Trincomalee ) were used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura kingdom. Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in
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5292-473: The Kalingas. Vijayabahu's death left a disputed throne; the absolute successor Parakramabahu I was only selected after a war between the claimants to the throne. Firstly, he entered secret negotiations with Gajabahu 's military chief, but these attempts to capture power failed. He then sent the army of Dakkhinadesa to capture Rajarata, but he was introduced to Manabaraha, who allied with Gajabahu. Despite
5418-604: The Lambakarana clan seized power in 66 AD. His ascension to the throne saw the start of the first Lambakarana dynasty, which ruled the country for more than three centuries. A new dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455. Named the Maurya dynasty, the origins of this line are uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka. The last dynasty of
5544-541: The North. This would eventually give rise to Vijayabahu III , the ruler of the fortress of Dambadeniya , who eventually centralized Maya Rata by subjugating the power of rival lords and Magha's influence and established the kingdom of Dambadeniya in 1232, marking the beginning of the Transitional period in Sri Lankan history. After ruling the country for over 1,400 years, the Kingdom of Anuradhapura fell in 1017 to
5670-477: The Polonnaruwa Vatadage are quite similar to those seen in buildings of the Anuradhapura period. The foot of each column is carved in the shape of a lotus flower. Archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana has suggested that these stone columns had supported a wooden roof. This is widely accepted, and nails and roof tiles found in excavations seem to support this. However, another theory is that the Vatadage did not have
5796-504: The Polonnaruwa kingdom in the latter. His reign saw the expansion of the kingdom, leading raids and large-scale invasions against his opponents. He launched an invasion against the kings of Ramanna (currently lower Burma) due to their acts of hostility, such as the kidnapping of a princess by Narathu's son Narapatisithu . In this invasion, he captured the Burmese city Bassein . Following the death of Parakramabahu, Vijayabahu II ascended
5922-503: The Polonnaruwa period. These decorational elements were commonly placed at entrances to monastic buildings of ancient Sri Lanka, and historians believe that sandakada pahanas depict the cycle of Saṃsāra in Buddhism. According to Bell, the carvings on the sides of the upper platform are "unrivalled, whether at Anuradhapura or Polonnaruwa, and probably in any other Buddhist shrine of Ceylon". The straight, symmetrical stone columns found in
6048-571: The Polonnaruwan monks. Khmer King Jayavarman VII sent his son Tamalinda to Polonnaruwa to be ordained as a Buddhist monk and study Theravada Buddhism according to the Pali scriptural traditions. Tamalinda then returned to the Angkor, and promoted Buddhist traditions according to the Theravada training he had received, galvanizing the long-standing Theravada presence that had existed throughout
6174-653: The advanced technical and engineering skills used to create them. The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya ; the Ruwanwelisaya , Jetavana stupas , and other large stupas ; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya ; and religious works (like the numerous Buddha statues) are landmarks demonstrating the Anuradhapura period's advancement in sculpting. According the chronicle Mahavamsa , In 543 BC, prince Vijaya (543–505 BC) arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished from his homeland in India. He eventually brought
6300-469: The advisor of the king. The king also had a board of ministers called amati paheja . In central administration, senapati (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a second position only to the king and held by a member of the nobility. This position, and also the positions of yuvaraja (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of
6426-535: The assistance of the Pallavas during succession disputes to secure the throne. However, the Anuradhapura kingdom appears to have had strong armies during some periods, such as when Sena II sent his armies to South India against the Pandyan king. Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India to rescue 12,000 captives, and brought back 12,000 prisoners as well as the freed captives. Surprisingly, however,
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#17328011110046552-421: The bases of law. Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted. Samantapasadika , a 5th-century commentary, gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him, known as vinicchayaka . Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. The king
6678-411: The capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa , a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom, was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and became the new centre of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. There
6804-453: The city. Anuradhapura (Anurapura) was named after the minister who first established the village. The name was also derived from the city's establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura. Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled the country in the Anuradhapura kingdom, with the exception of Kashyapa I (473–491), who chose Sigiriya to be his capital. The city is also marked on Ptolemy's world map . According to
6930-405: The coins of this period. The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati (grain tax) and charged for land used for cultivation. A water tax, named dakapati was also charged for the water used from reservoirs. Customs duties were also imposed in ports. Those unable to pay these taxes in cash were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs. The administration of taxes
7056-476: The construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably Vasabha and Mahasena , built large reservoirs and canals, which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the Rajarata area throughout the Anuradhapura period. These constructions are an indication of
7182-410: The country again under his rule. During the times of Vasabha, Mahasena (274–301) and Dhatusena, the construction of large irrigation tanks and canals was given priority. Vasabha constructed 11 tanks and 12 canals, Mahasen constructed 16 tanks and a large canal, and Dhatusena built 18 tanks. Most of the other kings have also built irrigation tanks throughout Rajarata , the area around Anuradhapura. By
7308-399: The country fell under the control of six rulers from South India . These were Pandu , Parinda , Khudda Parinda , Tiritara , Dathiya and Pithiya , who was defeated by Dhathusena who regained power in 459. More invasions and raids from South India occurred during the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Udaya III (935–938). The final invasion during the Anuradhapura kingdom, which ended
7434-647: The country for 22 years, they were defeated by Asela (215–205 BC), who was in turn overthrown by another invasion led by a Chola prince named Elara (205–161 BC). Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani (Duttugamunu) However, the Mahavamsa records that these kings from the mainland ruled the country fairly and lawfully. The country was invaded again in 103 BC by Five Dravidian chiefs , Pulahatta , Bahiya , Panya Mara , Pilaya Mara and Dathika , who ruled until 89 BC when they were defeated by Valagamba . Another invasion occurred in 433, and
7560-476: The country, he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base and built several monasteries and shrines including the Ruwanweli Seya and Lovamahapaya . Another notable king of the Anuradhapura kingdom is Valagamba (103, 89–77 BC), also known as Vatthagamani Abhaya, who was overthrown by five invaders from South India. He regained his throne after defeating these invaders one by one and unified
7686-418: The country. Buddhism played a major role in the Anuradhapura period, influencing its culture, laws, and methods of governance. The society and the culture were revolutionized when the faith was introduced during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa ; this cultural change was further strengthened by the arrival of the tooth relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage extended by her rulers. During
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#17328011110047812-489: The country. She brought along with her a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi , the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment . The king sent his cousin, Prince Aritta to Dambakolapatuna to escort the delegation back to Anuradhapura. The bo sapling was then planted at the Mahamevna Gardens in Anuradhapura and bestowed the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi . on his kingdom. Prince Aritta along with other men
7938-464: The country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established after Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after
8064-604: The cow: milk, curd , buttermilk , ghee and butter. Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for transport. Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced on a large scale for the military. A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya , which had been roofed entirely with copper. Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below
8190-459: The early stages, the Anuradhapura kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions; an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry. This combination
8316-513: The end of the Anuradhapura kingdom, a large and intricate irrigation network was available throughout Rajarata to support the agriculture of the country. Saddha Tissa (137–119 BC), Mahaculi Mahatissa (77–63 BC), Vasabha (67–111), Gajabahu I (114–136), Dhatusena (455–473), Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggabodhi II (604–614) were among the rulers who held sway over the entire country after Dutthagamani and Valagamba. Rulers from Kutakanna Tissa (44–22 BC) to Amandagamani (29–19 BC) also managed to keep
8442-415: The entrances. Each of these statues are 5 feet (1.5 m) high, and are seated on stone seats with a height of 2 feet 10 inches (0.86 m) each. Three concentric rows of stone columns had existed on the upper platform. Two of these rows, of which nothing remain, were within the brick wall, while the third row is just outside it. The inner row had consisted of 16 columns, the middle row of 20, and
8568-416: The entrances. Three concentric rows of stone columns had also been positioned here, presumably to support a wooden roof. The entire structure is decorated with stone carvings. Some of the carvings at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, such as its sandakada pahanas, are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features. Although some archaeologists have suggested that it also had a wooden roof, this theory
8694-538: The fall of the kingdom, and there is no mention of it in the chronicles in later periods. It was not until 1903 that the Department of Archaeology began excavation work at the site under Bell, who noted that it was "only a mound of earth" at the time. The Polonnaruwa Vatadage is located in a quadrangular area known as the Dalada Maluva in the ancient city of Polonnaruwa . The Dalada Maluva contains some of
8820-441: The form of land revenue. The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu . These eventually became circular in shape, which was in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver , were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on
8946-410: The graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya. The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries. Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara , was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on
9072-658: The initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son the Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered
9198-503: The island under his control and established himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country. One of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama after himself and the Anuradha Nakshatra . In 377 BC, King Pandukabhaya , grandson of King Panduvasudeva (437–367 BC) made it his capital and developed
9324-600: The island, as it commanded the crossings of the Mahaveli River towards Anuradhapura. 3 years after restoring Anuradhapura, Vijayabahu prepared to fight a possible invasion. He moved the capital out of Anuradhapura to a more defensive position, Polonnaruwa. After the victory at Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu had to face more rebellions. This caused him to delay his coronation, which took place in 1072 or 1073, eighteen years after being crowned as Vijayabahu in Ruhuna, and after
9450-474: The island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana was incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa , the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation,
9576-613: The king. The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Rajarata , the area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the Ruhuna (southern part of the country) and the Malaya Rata (hill country) were governed by officials called apa and mapa . These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata . Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit
9702-461: The kingdom and left the country under the rule of the Cholas, took place during the reign of Mahinda V. However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to Ruhuna , the southern part of the country, and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to regain their throne. Throughout the history of Sri Lanka, Ruhuna served as a base for resistance movements. Mahinda V (981-1017), distracted by
9828-545: The kingdom under decline, as evident from repeated intervention and raids by the Pandyans and Cholas to the North. In 1212, the capital was seized by Parakrama Pandyan , a rival claimant who took power via Pandyan assistance. Only three years later, Kalinga Magha , whose title evidently traces his bloodline to that of the Eastern Ganga dynasty of Odisha , invaded the kingdom with a force of 24,000 men, capturing
9954-413: The kingdom were defended with defensive walls and moats . Sieges , often lasting several months, were common during warfare. Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders, mounted on elephants, often decided the outcome of the battle. South Indian mercenaries were often employed in the armies of the Anuradhapura kingdom during its latter stages. Manavanna and Moggallana I (491–508) obtained
10080-491: The kingdom. There were auxiliary forces made up mostly of other Buddhist ethnicities. There were several branches of the ground forces of Polonnaruwa of Parakramabahu. The Culawamsa suggests that the strength may have been as many as 100,000 during the 1140s prior to the first battle of Rajarata. Its strength during the Pandyan war is not said, however, it may have been numerous as well. The ground forces could be divided between
10206-407: The lower. The circular lower platform is entered through a single entrance on the northern side. Four elaborately constructed doorways lead from it to the upper platform, which is surrounded by a brick wall on its edge. These entrances are oriented to the four cardinal directions . The center of this platform is occupied by the stupa, which has four Buddha statues seated around it, each facing one of
10332-482: The main armies led by Lankapura Dandanatha and the auxiliary forces made up mostly of minorities. The armies of Parakramabahu in the early days were led by Rakkha. There were other important generals who Parakramabahu dispatched in order to reinforce Rakkha fighting the forces of Ruhunan separatists. The auxiliary units were used to reinforce the Sinhalese army on multiple occasions. These units were largely made up of Buddhist minorities, and tribals. The first navy
10458-465: The middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of
10584-563: The military of Polonnaruwa and Vira Pandyan of Pandya Dynasty . The tributaries of the Chola empire , Tondi and Pasi, also came under its and Vira Pandya military rule. Rameshwaram was under Sinhalese and Vira Pandyan Alliance rule until 1182. Its currency Kahapana was struck in these provinces. During the occupation of South India, construction works were undertaken. Despite the prosperity endured under kings such as Parakramabahu, territorial and political instability would repeatedly occur, as
10710-411: The modern Sinhala script , but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier. The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya . Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom are found among
10836-485: The monarchy; as a result, king Anikanga appealed for support from the Cholas. An army was sent, and Anikanga ascended the throne. The three month-old Dharmásoka of Polonnaruwa was slaughtered along with the commander of the Polonnaruwa Royal Army. The military once again seized power, and Lilavati was installed on the throne. She was ousted by Lokissara , a military commander. The Royal Army, being
10962-413: The most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.” By the fifth century one of Persians in addition to Tamil and Arab merchants. These foreign merchants, mainly Arabs, often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports. By
11088-548: The ninth century these Muslim traders had established themselves around the ports of the Anuradhapura kingdom, they would soon form the still extant Muslim community of the island. Luxury cloth was also imported from Eastern India and China . A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city. Trade was limited in villages since they were mostly self-sufficient, but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained from outside. The country's position in
11214-506: The northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself. Rajendra Chola I son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. The Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. The capital was at Polonnaruwa which was renamed "Jananathamangalam". A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded
11340-413: The oldest and most sacred monuments of the city. The Polonnaruwa Vatadage, which occupies most of the south western area of it, is a prominent structure among them. It is the best preserved example of a Vatadage in the country, and is somewhat similar in design to those belonging to the Anuradhapura period , especially Thuparamaya and Lankaramaya . The building has been built around a small stupa with
11466-480: The order for supporting such views. A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and the authority of kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine. Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during
11592-458: The outer row of 32. The existing stone columns of the outer ring are about 8 feet (2.4 m) in height. Employing citizens in construction and repairing works was done in ancient Sri Lanka as a form of tax payment. Such labour may also have been used in the construction of the Polonnaruwa Vatadage. However, the quality of the works indicate that most of the task may have been carried out by skilled craftsmen. Architecture of vatadage type structures
11718-537: The previous ruler. As described in the Mahavamsa , Polonnaruwa was sacked and its population massacred, and the widespread devastation the region fell under prompted a massive migration into the South , ending the 1500-year long civilization of the Rajarata basin. Following the capture of the royal capital by Magha , opposition coalesced around various warlords and nobles of the previous kingdom, who established fortresses in numerous locations to fight back enemies from
11844-581: The rain make it to the sea without being useful to the mankind Mass tanks were built for this purpose. Some of his notable works are the Parakrama Samudra and the Giritale tank . These works surpassed what existed during the Anuradhapura period . Previously built dams were largely renovated during this period. The Sinhalese accounted for the majority, and the Sinhalese language was the common language. Settlements from Cambodia are recorded,
11970-441: The reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs), others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear some similarity to
12096-416: The reign of Devanampiya Tissa, under the influence of Ashoka of India. The whole country was brought under the rule of a single monarch by Dutthagamani for the first time. Before this, it had several principalities independent of the Anuradhapura kingdom. The succession of the throne was patrilineal , or if otherwise, inherited by the brother of the previous king. The king of Anuradhapura was recognized as
12222-400: The reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported the maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production. A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall,
12348-647: The residence of many foreign merchants from around the world. From very early times was a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at the University of Peradeniya , writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not the second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but were men who, just two decades ago at
12474-537: The royal court was embroiled with factionalism chiefly between the Pandya and Kalinga bloodlines of the Polonnaruwa kings. This gave the royal military the opportunity to back their own preferred claimants to power, and generals like Ayasmanta and Lokissara would repeatedly seize the throne and install puppet rulers. Queen Lilavati 's tumultuous reigns are a notable example for this, having come to power thrice under various generals. This escalating power struggle put
12600-486: The setback, he captured Rajarata. Gajabahu, his army weakened, found himself in a battle against Manabharana as well. He later declared that he had passed over Rajarata to Parakramabahu of Dakkhinadesa. Manabharana was also defeated. Following the end of the Kalinga-Arya conflict, Parakramabahu I , unified the three principalities: Rohana , Malaya , and Rajarata ; declaring the islandwide Dakkhinadesa , he formed
12726-520: The south. After defeating and expelling Kalinga Magha from Polonnaruwa, Vijayabahu III moved the capital to Dambadeniya . He founded the House of Sri Sanga Bo . Buddhism continued to be the main religion in the Polonnaruwa era. Its monarchs enjoyed the exchange of religious jewels and other expensive items with the Theravada Buddhist kings of Siam , Burma , and Kampuchea . Prior to
12852-462: The supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it. Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya to Subharaja (60–67) are generally considered as the Vijayan dynasty. Pandukabhaya was the first ruler of the Anuradhapura kingdom belonging to this dynasty. The Vijayan dynasty existed until Vasabha of
12978-418: The survival of Hinduism with only a minor loss of influence. After this, the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana. Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to
13104-403: The throne. He called Nissanka Malla to visit the country and take the throne. Vijayabahu II was, however, killed by the invader Mahinda VI . Nissanka Malla assassinated Mahinda VI and justified his killing by claiming he was the rightful ancestor of Vijaya Singha . Starting from the era of Parakramabahu I, there was great interest in irrigation. He ordered: Let no water drop that falls from
13230-444: The time. Located within the ancient city of Polonnaruwa , it is the best preserved example of a vatadage in the country, and has been described as the "ultimate development" of this type of architecture. Abandoned for several centuries, excavation work at the Polonnaruwa Vatadage began in 1903. Built for the protection of a small stupa , the structure has two stone platforms decorated with elaborate stone carvings. The lower platform
13356-522: The use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters. Before the adoption of Buddhism by the royalty, there was no single organized religion or proper state religion but a wide variety of different belief systems were practiced some of which received royal patronage. These include worship of yakśas and yakśanis (female yakśas), Nāgās , ancestor worship ,
13482-521: The very last days of Parakramabahu I. This may have been due to an economic crisis caused by the burden. It is to be noted that the coinage of Polonnaruwa shows a great resemblance to that of RajaRaja I of the Chola kingdom. The Setu coins found in South India are also likely from the kingdom of Polonnaruwa, as the Chola or Pandya kingdoms had no reason to use these. Trade with the Chinese dynasties
13608-783: The village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom a group of ten villages, known as dasagam , was responsible for upholding justice in that area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death. During
13734-412: The whole country under the rule of the Anuradhapura kingdom. Other rulers could not maintain their rule over the whole island, and independent regions often existed in Ruhuna and Malayarata (hill country) for limited periods. During the final years of the Anuradhapura kingdom, rebellions sprang up and the authority of the kings gradually declined. By the time of Mahinda V (982–1017), the last king of
13860-425: The whole country was unified under the Anuradhapura kingdom. He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he defeated the South Indian invader Elara at the battle at Vijithapura , and ascended to the throne. The chronicle Mahavamsa describes his reign with much praise, and devotes 11 chapters out of 37 for his reign. He is described as both a warrior king and a devout Buddhist. After unifying
13986-414: Was at its peak during the Polonnaruwa period, and the Polonnaruwa Vatadage is considered to be its "ultimate development". Some of the most striking features of the structure are its elaborate stone carvings. The sandakada pahana (moonstone) at the northern entrance and the two muragalas (guard stone) at the eastern entrance are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features belonging to
14112-453: Was built by Nissanka Malla. However, according to the studies of Arthur Maurice Hocart , Nissanka Malla only renovated an already existing building and made some additions such as the entrance and outer porch. Wilhelm Geiger , who translated the ancient Mahavamsa , and historian H. W. Codrington both agree with this theory. A nearby stone inscription set by Nissanka Malla lists the Vatadage among his constructions. In this, he claims that it
14238-417: Was built by Parakramabahu I during his reign in the 12th century. The Culavamsa , an ancient chronicle, mentions that he built a circular stone shrine to hold the tooth relic of the Buddha. Archaeologist Harry Charles Purvis Bell believed that this shrine is the Polonnaruwa Vatadage. This is contradicted by several ancient sources of the island, including Rajavaliya and Poojavaliya , which mention that it
14364-416: Was built by one of his generals under his own direction. A unique feature of architecture of ancient Sri Lanka , vatadages were built for the protection of small stupas that had an important relic enshrined in them or were built on hallowed ground. If the Polonnaruwa Vatadage is the shrine built by Parakramabahu I, the relic of the tooth of the Buddha would have been enshrined within it. Another possibility
14490-403: Was called Chaturangani Sena (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen, spearmen and archers. When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The Commander-in-Chief of the army was usually a member of the nobility. The King and his generals led the army from the front during battles, mounted on elephants . The major cities of
14616-547: Was extensively high at the period, and coins belonging to the Song dynasty have been found throughout Polonnaruwa. Meanwhile, in its colonial territories in South India, the Kahapana currency was used. The ancient Sinhalese civilization was technologically advanced. The irrigation technology of Polonnaruwa was much similar to the Anuradhapura period ones but was even more advanced. James Emerson Tennent writes: they attain
14742-417: Was grown as a substitute for rice, particularly in the dry zone of the country. Surpluses of these products, mainly rice, were exported. The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are gemstones , spices , pearls and elephants , while ceramic ware , silks , perfumes and wines were imported from other countries. The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial centre as
14868-485: Was in possession of the tooth relic was identified to be the rightful ruler of the country. Therefore, it was often enshrined within the royal palace itself. Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura kingdom, all of which were launched from South India . The first invasion recorded in the history of the country is during the reign of Suratissa (247–237 BC), where he was overthrown by two horse dealers from South India named Sena and Guththika. After ruling
14994-575: Was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029. The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that
15120-403: Was ordained by Arahat Madinda, thus establishing the order of the monks in Sri Lanka. Similarly Lady Anula, a member of the royal family was ordained along with 400 other women. This was the origin of the order of the nuns. Subsequently Buddhism was established as the main religion of Sri Lanka. During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328), Sudatta, the sub king of Kalinga , and Hemamala brought
15246-474: Was organized in 1165. This was used for the invasion of Burma. Following the death of Kalinga Lokeshvara, his son Vira Bahu I took up power. However, he was killed by the military commander Tavuru Senavirat. A period of military rule was followed by the ascension of Vikramabahu I ; who was assassinated by a nephew of Kalinga Lokeshvara, Chodaganga . The military once again organized a coup and arrested Chodaganga. The military became more dominant, ousting
15372-570: Was the Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka and several overseas territories, from 1070 until 1232. The kingdom started expanding its overseas authority during the reign of Parakramabahu the Great . It had a stronghold in South India since its involvement in a civil war in the Pandya country. During this war, Pandya Nadu was seized as a province administered by
15498-464: Was the gama (village), under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda . A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by
15624-659: Was the duty of Badagarika , the king's treasurer. Culture in the Anuradhapura kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of buffalo and cattle, was uncommon. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded . Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields . Dairy products formed an important part of people's diets while Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from
15750-431: Was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions. Initially, the administration of justice at
15876-404: Was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries on Buddhism, known as Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama (406–428). Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country. The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya , Sri Lanka were painted during
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