120-519: Palaiyakkarars , or Poligar , Palegara (as the British referred to them) in Andhra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were the holders of a small kingdom as a feudatory to a greater sovereign. Under this system, palayam was given for valuable military services rendered by any individual. The word pālayam means domain, a military camp, or a small kingdom. This type of Palayakkarars system was in practice during
240-536: A RAP. In these cases, the permits must be pre-approved prior to arrival in Port Blair. On 26 December 2004, the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a 10-metre-high (33 ft) tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake , which is the longest recorded earthquake, lasting for between 500 and 600 seconds. Strong oral traditions in the area warned of the importance of moving inland after
360-433: A Restricted Area Permit (RAP), foreign visitors must still show their passport at Immigration at Port Blair Airport and Seaport for verification. Citizens of Afghanistan, China and Pakistan, or other foreign nationals whose origin is any of these countries, are still required to obtain a RAP to visit Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Similarly, citizens of Myanmar who wish to visit Mayabunder or Diglipur must also apply for
480-400: A desire to build social networks for the purposes of domestic and foreign trade, as well as for obtaining grazing rights in the face of competition; in the uplands, the endowment of the buildings was often associated with the construction and continued maintenance of reservoirs and enabled a different type of networking based on political hierarchies. The strengthening of those hierarchies, which
600-458: A feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke the Telugu language where nothing of that nature had previously existed. The unification of the distinct upland and lowland cultures was their most significant political achievement, achieved through a process of binding many locally powerful figures in allegiance to the empire. The area of land under Kakatiya control reached its zenith around
720-821: A few smaller Burmese islands are closer, including the three Coco Islands. The Ten Degree Channel separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands to the south. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island ( Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)). The geology of the Andaman islands consists essentially of Late Jurassic to Early Eocene ophiolites and sedimentary rocks ( argillaceous and algal limestones ), deformed by numerous deep faults and thrusts with ultramafic igneous intrusions . There are at least 11 mud volcanoes on
840-460: A force that bristled with technology previously unknown in the area, including trebuchet -like machines. Prataparudra had to submit once more , with his obeisance on this occasion being arranged by the sultanate to include a very public display whereby he bowed towards Delhi from the ramparts of Orugallu. The amount of his annual tribute was changed, becoming 100 elephants and 12,000 horses. The new arrangements did not last long. Taking advantage of
960-502: A number of animals, many of them endemic. Andaman & Nicobar islands are home to 10% of all Indian fauna species. The islands are only 0.25% of the country's geographical area, but has 11,009 species, according to a publication by the Zoological Survey of India . The island's endemic mammals include The banded pig ( Sus scrofa vittatus ), also known as the Andaman wild boar and once thought to be an endemic subspecies,
1080-699: A number of tribes, including the Jarawa and Sentinelese . While some of the islands can be visited with permits, entry to others, including North Sentinel Island , is banned by law. The Sentinelese are generally hostile to visitors and have had little contact with any other people. The Indian government and coast guard protect their right to privacy. In the 13th century, the name of Andaman appears in Late Middle Chinese as ʔˠan dɑ mˠan ( 晏陀蠻 , pronounced yàntuómán in modern Mandarin Chinese ) in
1200-437: A quake and is credited with saving many lives. In the aftermath, more than 2,000 people were confirmed dead and more than 4,000 children were orphaned or had lost one parent. At least 40,000 residents were rendered homeless and were moved to relief camps. On 11 August 2009, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands, causing a tsunami warning to go into effect. On 30 March 2010, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck near
1320-404: A repository for political prisoners . The Cellular Jail at Port Blair, when completed in 1910, included 698 cells designed for solitary confinement; each cell measured 4.5 by 2.7 m (15 by 9 ft) with a single ventilation window 3 metres (10 ft) above the floor. The Indians imprisoned here referred to the island and its prison as Kala Pani ("black water"), named for kala pani ,
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#17327733718471440-668: A revolution in Delhi that saw the Khalji dynasty removed and the Punjab-born Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq installed as sultan, Prataparudra again asserted his independence in 1320. Tughlaq sent his son, Jauna Khan , to defeat the defiant Kakatiya king in 1321. Khan's army was riven with internal dissension due to rumours of the king's death, which caused many officers to leave the army. This caused the siege on this occasion to last much longer — six months, rather than
1560-487: A similar account of how their ancestor Madhavavarman obtained military strength by the grace of the Jain goddess Yakshesvari. Andaman Islands The Andaman Islands ( / ˈ æ n d ə m ə n / ) are an archipelago , made up of 200 islands, in the northeastern Indian Ocean about 130 km (81 mi) southwest off the coasts of Myanmar 's Ayeyarwady Region . Together with the Nicobar Islands to their south,
1680-514: A subordinate but, as was Alauddin's plan, he was not removed as ruler of the area but rather forced thereafter to pay annual tribute to Delhi. It was probably at this time that the Koh-i-Noor diamond passed from Kakatiya ownership to that of Alauddin, along with 20,000 horses and 100 elephants. In 1311, Prataparudra formed a part of the sultanate forces that attacked the Pandyan empire in
1800-459: A timber company and released when the company went bankrupt. This population has been subject to research studies. Endemic or near endemic birds include The islands' many caves , such as those at Chalis Ek are nesting grounds for the edible-nest swiftlet , whose nests are prized in China for bird's nest soup . The islands also have a number of endemic reptiles , toads and frogs , such as
1920-417: A visit to the settlement (8 February 1872), by a Pathan from Afghanistan , Sher Ali Afridi . In the same year, the two island groups Andaman and Nicobar , were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. From the time of its development in 1858 under the direction of James Pattison Walker, and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost
2040-667: A year to suppress the rebellion completely. After a long and expensive campaign the British East India Company finally defeated the rebelling Polygars, some of whom were executed while others were banished to the Andaman Islands . Of the Polygars who submitted to the British, some of them were granted Zamindari status, which had only tax collection rights and disarmed them completely. Kakatiya Dynasty The Kakatiya dynasty ( IAST : Kākatīya)
2160-548: Is a corruption of Vrishni , the name of a clan from which some Rashtrakutas claimed descent. He notes that some chiefs of Rashtrakuta origin adopted the title "Viṭṭi-narayana", which means "as great as Narayana ( Krishna ) of the Vitti (Vrishni) family. Sastry further proposes that the term "Voddi", which appears in the phrase Voddi-kula ("Voddi family") in the Mangallu inscription may be same as "Viṣṭi". Sastry also believes that
2280-478: Is also little evidence that Kakatiya society paid much regard to caste identities, in the sense of jāti . Although occupation does appear to have been an important designator of social position, the inscriptions suggest that people were not bound to an occupation by birth. The population became more settled in geographic terms. The growth of an agricultural peasant class subsumed many tribal people who previously had been nomadic. The nexus of politics and military
2400-440: Is best to avoid swimming near mangrove areas or the mouths of creeks; swimming in the open ocean should be safe, but it is best to have a spotter around. As of 2011 , the population of the Andaman was 343,125, having grown from 50,000 in 1960. The bulk of the population originates from immigrants who came to the island since the colonial times, mainly of Bengali , Hindustani , Telugu , Tamil backgrounds. A small minority of
2520-405: Is irregular, usually dry during the north-east monsoons, and very wet during the south-west monsoons. The Middle Andamans harbour mostly moist deciduous forests . North Andamans is characterised by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers. The natural vegetation of the Andamans is tropical forest, with mangroves on the coast. The rainforests are similar in composition to those of
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#17327733718472640-715: Is known about this chief. Most of the Kakatiya records do not mention the Varna (social class) of the family, but the majority of the ones that do, proudly describe them as Shudra . Examples include the Bothpur and Vaddamanu inscriptions of Ganapati's general Malyala Gunda senani . The Kakatiyas also maintained marital relations with other Shudra families, such as the Kotas and the Natavadi chiefs. All this evidence indicates that
2760-611: Is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I). The spotted deer ( Axis axis ), the Indian muntjac ( Muntiacus muntjak ) and the sambar ( Rusa unicolor ) were all introduced to the Andaman islands, though the sambar did not survive. Interview Island (the largest wildlife sanctuary in the territory) in Middle Andaman holds a population of feral elephants , which were brought in for forest work by
2880-532: Is sturdier than teak and is widely used for furniture making. There are burr wood and buttress root formations in Andaman Padauk. The largest piece of buttress known from Andaman was a dining table of 13 ft × 7 ft (4.0 m × 2.1 m). The largest piece of burr wood was made into a dining table for eight. The Rudraksha ( Elaeocarps sphaericus ) and aromatic Dhoop-resin trees also are found here. The Andaman Islands are home to
3000-508: The Andaman cobra ( Naja sagittifera ), South Andaman krait ( Bungarus andamanensis ) and Andaman water monitor ( Varanus salvator andamanensis ). There is a sanctuary 72 km (45 mi) from Havelock Island for saltwater crocodiles . Over the past 25 years there have been 24 crocodile attacks with four fatalities, including the death of American tourist Lauren Failla. The government has been criticised for failing to inform tourists of
3120-495: The Andamanese languages , but they make up at least two independent families, and the dozen or so attested languages are either extinct or endangered. Most of the tribal people in Andaman and Nicobar Islands believe in a religion that can be described as a form of monotheistic animism . The tribal people of these islands believe that Puluga is the only deity and is responsible for everything happening on Earth. The faith of
3240-711: The Kalyani Chalukyas , who had usurped the power from the Rashtrakutas. The Kalyani Chalukya forces probably defeated and killed Gunda IV. His son Beta I (r. c. 1000-1052 CE) accepted the Kalyani Chalukya suzerainty and received from them the fief of Anumakonda (modern Hanamakonda), which later became the Kakatiya capital. He distinguished himself in the Chalukya campaigns against the Cholas, during
3360-656: The Kannada language that had prevailed until that point. Mahadeva succeeded Prataparudra I as king, reigning probably from 1195 to 1199. Just as the Yadava and Hoysala dynasties took control of linguistically related areas during the 13th century, so too did the Kakatiyas under the rule of Ganapati. He is also known as Ganapathi Deva and, according to Sastry, reigned between 1199 and 1262; Sircar gives regnal dates of 1199–1260. He significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during
3480-725: The Marudu brothers , Maruthanayagam , Dheeran Chinnamalai , and Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy were some notable Palaiyakkarar who rose up in revolt against the British rule in South India . Their wars against the British East India Company predates the Indian rebellion of 1857 in Northern India by many decades but is still largely given less importance by historians. The Polygar's role was to administer their Palaiyams (territories) from their fortified centres. Their chief functions were to collect taxes, maintain law and order , run
3600-424: The Telugu language . Kakatiya period also saw the construction of reservoirs for irrigation in the uplands called "tanks" many of which are still used today. They were egalitarian in nature and anyone, regardless of birth, could acquire the nayaka title that denoted the warrior status. They recruited peasants into the military which resulted in a new warrior class and provided social mobility. Kakatiya era also saw
3720-545: The Wu Bei Zhi . The oldest archaeological evidence for the habitation of the islands dates to the 1st millennium BC . Genetic evidence suggests that the indigenous Andamanese peoples share a common origin, and that the islands were settled sometime after 26,000 years ago, possibly at the end of the Last Glacial Period , when sea levels were much lower reducing the distance between the Andaman Islands and
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3840-604: The delta between the Godavari and Krishna rivers that feed into the Bay of Bengal . According to Rao and Shulman, the latter contained a high proportion of Brahmins while the former was the haunt of "peasants, artisans and warriors". Under the Kakatiyas, cultural innovation often began in the uplands, was refined in the lowlands and then recycled back into the Deccan. This bi-directional flow of cultural influences brought into being
3960-551: The goddess Kali did not allow their territory to be annexed by Aurangzeb . Their wars with the British East India Company after the demise of the Madurai Nayakas is often regarded as one of the earliest struggles for Indian independence . Many captured Palaiyakkarar commanders were either executed or banished to the Andaman Islands by the British. Puli Thevar , Veerapandya Kattabomman ,
4080-660: The independence movement . Most of the Andaman Islands became part of the Republic of India in 1950 and was declared as a union territory of the nation in 1956, while the Preparis Island and Coco Islands became part of the Yangon Region of Myanmar in 1948. In April 1998, American photographer John S. Callahan organised the first surfing project in the Andamans, starting from Phuket in Thailand with
4200-567: The 1230s when he launched a series of attacks outside the dynasty's traditional Telangana region and thus brought under Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers. The outcome in the case of all three dynasties, says historian Richard Eaton, was that they "catalysed processes of supralocal identity formation and community building". The Kakatiya capital at Orugallu, established in 1195,
4320-468: The 13th century CE during the rule of Ganapati Deva. By this time, South India and the Deccan were essentially under the aegis of four Hindu monarchies , of which the Kakatiyas were one. The four dynasties were in a constant state of warfare with each other, with the Kakatiyas eventually exercising control from close to Anagondi in the west to Kalyani in the north-east, and down to Kanei and Ganjam district in southern Orissa . A notable trend during
4440-618: The Andaman Islands. The Andaman Archipelago is an oceanic continuation of the Burmese Arakan Yoma range in the north and of the Indonesian Archipelago in the south. It has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,408 km (2,474 sq mi), with the Andaman Sea to the east between the islands and the coast of Burma. North Andaman Island is 285 kilometres (177 mi) south of Burma, although
4560-464: The Andaman archipelago, naming it Acetabularia jalakanyakae . "Jalakanyaka" is a Sanskrit word that means "mermaid". Andaman forests contain 200 or more timber producing species of trees, out of which about 30 varieties are considered to be commercial. Major commercial timber species are Gurjan ( Dipterocarpus spp.) and Padauk ( Pterocarpus dalbergioides ). The following ornamental woods are noted for their pronounced grain formation: Padauk wood
4680-402: The Andaman people have mostly avoided contact with the outside world. Their languages are a great reflection of this, with distinct linguistics that have strong morphological features – root words, prefix, suffixes – with very little relation to surrounding geographic regions. Figures from the end of the 20th century estimate there remain only approximately 400–450 ethnic Andamanese still on
4800-585: The Andamanese teaches that Paluga resides on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands' Saddle Peak . People try to avoid any action that might displease Paluga. People belonging to this religion believe in the presence of souls, ghosts, and spirits. They put a lot of emphasis on dreams. They let dreams decide different courses of action in their lives. Andamanese mythology held that human males emerged from split bamboo, whereas women were fashioned from clay. One version found by Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown held that
4920-462: The Andamans serve as a maritime boundary between the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Andaman Sea to the east. Most of the islands are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , a Union Territory of India , while the Coco Islands and Preparis Island are part of the Yangon Region of Myanmar . The Andaman Islands are home to the Andamanese , a group of indigenous people made up of
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5040-571: The Andamans, including a trip to the Nicobar Islands in 1999. In November 2018, John Allen Chau , an American missionary , traveled illegally with the help of local fishermen to the North Sentinel Island off the Andaman Islands chain group on several occasions, despite a travel ban to the island. He is reported to have been killed. Despite some relaxation introduced earlier in 2018 to the stringent visit permit system for
5160-533: The Asian mainland, with genetic estimates suggesting that the two main linguistic groups diverged around 16,000 years ago. Andamanese peoples are a genetically distinct group highly divergent from other Asians. Rajendra I took over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. He used the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a strategic naval base to launch an expedition against the Sriwijaya Empire . The Cholas called
5280-595: The British between 1798 and 1805. The war between the British and Veerapandiya Kattabomman is often classified as the First Polygar War (1799), while the Second Polygar War (1800–1805) against the British was fought by a much bigger coalition over the whole of western Tamil Nadu headed by Dheeran Chinnamalai and Maruthu Pandiyar , brother of the Sivaganga . A final Polygar War in 1847 against
5400-403: The British was fought by Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy at Kovelakuntla (Koilakuntla) The Polygars often had artillery and stubbornly resisted the storming of their hill forts. The British columns were exposed throughout the operations to constant harassing attacks and had usually to cut their way through almost impenetrable jungles while being fired on from under cover on all sides. It took more than
5520-684: The Chalukyas. Based on Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu inscription, which names Karikala Chola among the family's ancestors, epigraphist C.R.K. Charlu theorised that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the Telugu Chodas . However, no other Kakatiya record mentions Karikala, and unlike the Telugu Chodas, the Kakatiyas did not claim to belong to the Kashyapa - gotra . Therefore, Sastry dismisses Charlu's theory as untenable. The regnal years of
5640-696: The Deccan change from being regional kingdoms to transregional sultanates that survived until the arrival of the British East India Company in the 18th century. The Kakatiya kingdom attracted the attention of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji because of the possibility of plunder. The first foray into the Kakatiya kingdom was made in 1303 by Malik Chajju, the nephew of the Indian Muslim Wazir Nusrat Khan Jalesari of Delhi, and Fakhruddin Jauna , which
5760-476: The Great Andamanese attacked the British settlement, but they were outnumbered and soon suffered heavy casualties. Later, it was identified that an escaped convict named Dudhnath Tewari had changed sides and informed the British about the tribe's plans. In 1867, the merchantman Nineveh was wrecked on the reef of North Sentinel Island. The 86 survivors reached the beach in the ship's boats. On
5880-461: The Hindu mythological texts do not mention any such form of Durga, the worship of a goddess named Kakati is attested by several other sources. For example, Vallabharaya's Krida-bhiramamu mentions an image of Kakatamma ("Mother Kakati") in the Kakatiya capital Orugallu. The 16th century Shitap Khan inscription mentions the reinstallation of the image of goddess Jaganmatruka (mother of the universe) and
6000-540: The Hindu proscription against traveling across the open sea. Incarceration on the Andamans thus threatened prisoners with the loss of their caste , and resultant social exclusion; a 1996 film set on the island took that term as its title, Kaalapani . The number of prisoners who died in this camp is estimated to be in the thousands. Many more died of harsh treatment and the strenuous living and working conditions in this camp. The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island
6120-470: The Indian mainland. There are protected areas on Little Andaman , Narcondam , North Andaman and South Andaman, but these are mainly aimed at preserving the coast and the marine wildlife rather than the rainforests. Threats to wildlife come from introduced species including rats, dogs, cats and the elephants of Interview Island and North Andaman. Scientists discovered a new species of green algae species in
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#17327733718476240-461: The Kakatiya chief Beta I (son of Gunda IV) Garudamka -Beta, and "Garuda" here appears to refer to the family's emblem. In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the vahana of god Vishnu . The Rashtrakutas and some other dynasties of Deccan claimed descent from the Vrishni clan (associated with Vishnu's avatar Krishna ) and had adopted Garuda as their royal insignia. According to Sastry, this corroborates
6360-417: The Kakatiya emblem varaha with the Yadava symbols; this varaha may have been stuck on Mahadeva's coins to mark the Kakatiya victory. Rudrama was married to Virabhadra, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Nidadavolu who had been selected for that purpose by her father. Having no son as an heir, Rudrama abdicated in favour of her grandson when it became apparent that the expansionist sultan Alauddin Khalji
6480-481: The Kakatiyan army, but they were finally defeated. The demise of the Kakatiya dynasty resulted in confusion and anarchy under alien rulers for some time, before Musunuri Nayakas united the various Telugu clans and recovered Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate . Kakatiyas unified the distinct upland and lowland cultures of Telugu lands, which brought into being a feeling of cultural affinity between those who spoke
6600-478: The Kakatiyas as vassals. The 1163 Anumakonda inscription of Rudradeva alias Prataparudra I is the earliest known record that describes the Kakatiyas as a sovereign power. According to Sastry, Prataparudra I reigned between around 1158 – 1195, while Sircar gives the dates 1163–1195. He was also known as Rudra Deva, Kakatiya Rudradeva, Venkata, and Venkataraya He was the son of Prola II, who had made efforts to assert greater Kakatiya influence on territories in
6720-578: The Kakatiyas were of Shudra origin. A few copper-plate inscriptions of the Kakatiya family describe them as belonging to the Kshatriya (warrior) varna. These inscriptions primarily document grants to Brahmans , and appear to be inspired by the genealogies of the Imperial Cholas . For example, the Motupalli inscription of Ganapati counts legendary solar dynasty kings such as Rama among
6840-598: The Mangallu and the Bayyaram inscriptions, the Kakatiyas were not just Rashtrakuta vassals, but also a branch of the Rashtrakuta family. The 956 CE Mangallu inscription was issued by the Vengi Chalukya prince Dānārnava, at the request of the Kakatiya chief Gunda IV . The inscription names Gundyana's ancestors as Gundiya-Rashtrakuta ( Gunda III ) and Eriya-Rashtrakuta ( Erra ). This suggests that Gunda IV
6960-629: The Muslim armies. The Kannada text Kumara-Ramana-charita also provides information about Prataparudra's relations with the Kampili kingdom . Besides epigraphs and literature, the forts, temples and tanks constructed during the Kakatiya period are an important source of information about contemporary society, art and architecture. The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to a legendary chief or ruler named Durjaya . Many other ruling dynasties of Andhra also claimed descent from Durjaya. Nothing further
7080-649: The Tamil area, had themselves come from the Kallar , Maravar and Vatuka communities. Most palayakkars in western Tirunelveli and in Ramanathapuram were Maravar , those of Madurai, Tiruchi and Thanjavur Kallar , and those of eastern Tirunelveli, Dindigal and Coimbatore Nayak. The Palaiyakkarar of Madurai Country were instrumental in establishing administrative reforms by building irrigation projects, forts and religious institutions. The Palaiyakkarar who worshipped
7200-534: The Telangana region. Ganapati Deva (r. 1199–1262) significantly expanded Kakatiya lands during the 1230s and brought under Kakatiya control the Telugu-speaking lowland delta areas around the Godavari and Krishna rivers. Ganapati Deva was succeeded by Rudrama Devi (r. 1262–1289) who is one of the few queens in Indian history. Marco Polo , who visited India around 1289–1293, made note of Rudrama Devi's rule and nature in flattering terms. She successfully repelled
7320-645: The Vengi Chalukyas, and probably appointed Gunda III's son Erra as a governor there. Not much is known about Erra's son Betiya. As a Rashtrakuta vassal, Betiya's son Gunda IV (r. c. 955-995) helped the Vengi Chalukya prince Danarnava ascend the throne after a succession dispute. In 973 CE, after the collapse of the Rashtrakuta empire and the murder of Danarnava, he attempted to carve out an independent principality at Kuravi . The Mudugonda Chalukyas, whom he had displaced from Kuravi, sought help from
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#17327733718477440-419: The ancestors of Durjaya, the progenitor of the Kakatiya family. The Malkapuram inscription of Visvesvara Sivacharya, the preceptor of Kakatiya rulers Ganapati-deva and Rudrama-devi, also connects the Kakatiyas to the solar dynasty (Sūryavaṃsa). The term "Kshatriya" in these panegyric records appears to signify the family's warrior-like qualities rather than their actual varna. According to an interpretation of
7560-673: The ancestors of the Kakatiya family lived at Kandarapura (identified with modern Kandhar in Maharashtra ). However, no other evidence supports this tradition. Later, the Kakatiya capital Orugallu (present-day Warangal) was also called "Kakati-pura" ("Kakati town"), as attested by some inscriptions of the dynasty. Much of the information about the Kakatiya period comes from inscriptions, including around 1,000 stone inscriptions, and 12 copper-plate inscriptions. Most of these inscriptions document matters relating to religion, such as donations to Hindu temples. They are particularly abundant for
7680-412: The assistance of Southeast Asia Liveaboards (SEAL), a UK owned dive charter company. With a crew of international professional surfers, they crossed the Andaman Sea on the yacht Crescent and cleared formalities in Port Blair. The group proceeded to Little Andaman Island, where they spent ten days surfing several spots for the first time, including Jarawa Point near Hut Bay and the long right reef point at
7800-411: The attacks of Yadavas (Seuna) of Devagiri into the Kakatiyan territory. In 1303, Alauddin Khalji , the emperor of the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Kakatiya territory which ended up as a disaster for the Turks. But after the successful siege of Warangal in 1310, Prataparudra II was forced to pay annual tribute to Delhi. Another attack by Ulugh Khan (i.e. Tughluq) in 1323 saw stiff resistance by
7920-413: The book Zhu Fan Zhi by Zhao Rukuo . In Chapter 38 of the book, Countries in the Sea , Zhao Rukuo specifies that going from Lambri ( Sumatra ) to Ceylan, an unfavourable wind makes ships drift towards the Andaman Islands. In the 15th century, Andaman was recorded as "Andeman Mountain" (安得蠻山, pronounced āndémán shān in modern Mandarin Chinese) during the voyages of Zheng He in the Mao Kun map of
8040-513: The crocodile sanctuary and danger, while simultaneously promoting tourism. Crocodiles are not only found within the sanctuary, but throughout the island chain in varying densities. They are habitat restricted, so the population is stable but not large. Populations occur throughout available mangrove habitat on all major islands, including a few creeks on Havelock. The species uses the ocean as a means of travel between different rivers and estuaries, thus they are not as commonly observed in open ocean. It
8160-412: The development of a distinct style of architecture that improved and innovated upon the existing modes. Most notable examples are the Thousand Pillar Temple in Hanamkonda , Ramappa Temple in Palampet, Warangal Fort , Golconda Fort and Kota Gullu in Ghanpur . Studies of the inscriptions and coinage by the historian Dineshchandra Sircar reveal that there was no contemporary standard spelling of
8280-428: The dynastic period was the construction of reservoirs for irrigation in the uplands, around 5000 of which were built by warrior families subordinate to the Kakatiyas. This dramatically altered the possibilities for development in the sparsely populated dry areas. Many of these edifices, often called "tanks", including the large examples at Pakala and Ramappa, are still used today. Another notable architectural feature of
8400-523: The dynasty found its power to be on the wane; the royal gifting of lands formerly in the possession of nobles to people of lesser status did much to effect this dilution. Historian P.V.P. Sastry theorizes that the early Kakatiya chiefs were followers of Jainism . A story in the Siddhesvara-charita states that Madhavavarman, an ancestor of the Kakatiyas, obtained military strength by the grace of goddess Padmakshi . The 1123 Govindapuram Jain inscription of Polavasa, another family of feudatory chiefs, contains
8520-412: The dynasty relates to temples. Even before the arrival of the dynasty, there were large, well-established and well-endowed Hindu places of worship in the relatively populous delta areas; however, the temples of the uplands, which were smaller and less cosmopolitan in origin and funding, did not exist until the Kakatiya period. In the lowlands, where Brahmins were numerous, the temples had long benefited from
8640-606: The early Kakatiya chiefs followed Jainism , which was also patronized by the Rashtrakutas, thus strengthening the view that the two dynasties were connected (see Religion section below). The Kakatiyas seemed to have adopted the mythical bird Garuda as their royal insignia, as attested by the Ekamranatha temple inscription of Ganapati-deva, the Palampet inscription of the Kakatiya general Recharla Rudra , and Vidyanatha's Prataparudriya . The Bayyaram tank inscription calls
8760-535: The early members of the Kakatiya family are not certain. The earliest known Kakatiya chief is Venna or Vanna (r. c. 800-815), who claimed descent from Durjaya , legendary chieftain of ancient Andhra. According to Kakatiya inscriptions, he ruled from a town called Kakati, because of which his family was called Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati"). Not much is known about his successors Gunda I and Gunda II, who ruled during c. 815-865 CE. The Bayyaram tank inscription compares his successors - Gunda I, Gunda II, and Gunda III - to
8880-485: The eastern parts of the declining Western Chalukyan empire and who died in a battle fought against the Velanati Choda ruler Gonka II around 1157/1158 while doing so. It was during Prataparudra's reign, in 1163, that the Kakatiyas declared an end to their status as feudatory chiefs of the Chalukyas. It is notable that inscriptions were henceforth written using the Kakatiya chiefs' vernacular Telugu rather than
9000-450: The family name. Variants include Kakatiya , Kakatiyya , Kakita , Kakati and Kakatya . The family name was often prefixed to the name of the monarch, giving constructs such as Kakatiya-Prataparudra . Some of the monarchs also had alternate names; for example, Venkata and Venkataraya may have been alternate names of Prataparuda I, with the former appearing on a coin in the form Venkata-Kakatiya . According to Kakatiya inscriptions,
9120-522: The family's ancestry to Durjaya , a legendary chieftain of ancient Andhra, arrived at a town called Kakati during a hunting expedition, and set up his camp there. The modern identity of Kakati is uncertain: different historians have variously attempted to identify it with modern Kakati village in Karnataka and Kanker in Chhattisgarh . Siddheshvara-Charitra , a later literary work, states that
9240-424: The family's name derives from the name of a place called Kakati. However, Kumarasvami Somapithin, in his 15th-century commentary on Vidynatha's Prataparudra-Yashobhushanam or Prataparudriya states that the family was named after their tutelary goddess Kakati, a form of Durga . It is possible that the early Kakatiya chiefs resided at a place called Kakati, which had a shrine of their tutelary goddess. Although
9360-500: The few weeks that had previously been the case. The attackers were initially repulsed and Khan's forces retreated to regroup in Devagiri. Prataparudra celebrated the apparent victory by opening up his grain stores for public feasting. Khan returned in 1323 with his revitalised and reinforced army and, with few supplies left, Prataparudra was forced into submission after a five-month siege. The unprepared and battle-weary army of Orugallu
9480-938: The history of the Kakatiyas, published by the Government of Andhra Pradesh also constitutes one of the sources. Tamil stone inscription from Kakatiya king Prataparudra was found in Motupalli , Prakasam district in Andhra Pradesh. Information about the Kakatiya period also comes from Sanskrit and Telugu literary works written during Kakatiya and post-Kakatiya period. The most notable among these works include Prataparudriyam , Krida-bhiramamu , Panditaradhya-charitamu , Sivayogasaramu , Nitisara , Niti-sastra-muktavali , Nrutya-ratnavali , Pratapa-charita , Siddhesvara-charitra , Somadeva-rajiyamu , Palnativira-charitra , Velugotivari-vamsavali , and Velugotivari-vamsacharitra . Chronicles by Muslim authors such as Isami and Firishta describe Prataparudra's defeats against
9600-553: The island Ma-Nakkavaram ("great open/naked land"), found in the Thanjavur inscription of 1050 CE . European traveller Marco Polo (12th–13th century) also referred to this island as 'Necuverann' and a corrupted form of the Tamil name Nakkavaram would have led to the modern name Nicobar during the British colonial period. In 1789, the Bengal Presidency established a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island in
9720-501: The island, and as few as 50 speakers The Jangil are extinct. Most of the Great Andamanese tribes are extinct, and the survivors, now just 52, speak mostly Hindi . The Onge are reduced to less than 100 people. Only the Jarawa and Sentinelese still maintain a steadfast independence and refuse most attempts at contact; their numbers are uncertain but estimated to be in the low hundreds. The indigenous languages are collectively referred to as
9840-632: The islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). On 30 December 1943, during the Japanese occupation, Bose, who was allied with the Japanese, first raised the flag of Indian independence. General Loganathan , of the Indian National Army , was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. According to Werner Gruhl: "Before leaving
9960-403: The islands, North Sentinel Island was still highly protected from outside contact. Special permission to allow researchers and anthropologists to visit could be sought. Chau had no special clearance and knew that his visit was illegal. Although a less restrictive system of approval to visit some of the islands now applies, with non-Indian nationals no longer required to obtain pre-approval with
10080-399: The islands, the Japanese rounded up and executed 750 innocents ." At the close of World War II, the British government announced its intention to shut down the penal settlement. The government proposed to employ former inmates in an initiative to develop the island's fisheries, timber, and agricultural resources. In exchange, inmates would be granted return passage to the Indian mainland, or
10200-471: The islands. There are two volcanic islands, Narcondam Island and Barren Island , which have produced basalt and andesite . Barren Island is the only active volcano in the Indian sub-continent , with the latest eruption reported in December 2022, leading to the potential for geotourism . The climate is typical of tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea breezes. Rainfall
10320-411: The land. Often several new rainwater tanks were erected in the semi-arid tracts of western and southern Tamil Nadu. Their armed status was also to protect the civilians from robbers and dacoits who were rampant in those regions and from invading armies which often resorted to pillaging the villages and countryside. The Polygar Wars were a series of wars fought by a coalition of Palaiyakkarar's against
10440-429: The local judiciary , and maintain a battalion of troops for the king. They served as regional military and civil administrators. In turn they were to retain 1 ⁄ 4 of the revenue collected as tax, and submit the remaining to the king's treasury . The Polygars also at times founded villages, built dams, constructed tanks and built temples. Also the rulers taxed regions according to the cultivable and fertility of
10560-617: The lotus seat of the Kakatirajya, which had been destroyed by the Turushkas (Turkic people). According to one theory, Kakati was originally a Jain goddess (possibly Padmavati ) and later came to be regarded as a form of Durga. The Bayyaram tank inscription from the reign of Ganapati-deva states that the Kakatiya chief Venna (c. 9th century) resided at Kakati, because of which his descendants came to be known as Kakatishas ("lords of Kakati"). Ganapati-deva's Garavapadu charter traces
10680-459: The mainland increased (at first mostly prisoners and involuntary indentured labourers , later purposely recruited farmers), the Andamanese suffered a population decline due to the introduction of outside infectious diseases , land encroachment from settlers and conflict. The Andaman Islands are home to the Sentinelese people , an uncontacted tribe . Due to their isolated island location,
10800-420: The man-made Pakhal Lake . Rudrama Devi , also known as Rudramadevi, reigned around 1262–1289 CE (alternative dates: 1261–1295 CE) and is one of the few queens in Indian history. Sources disagree regarding whether she was the widow of Ganapati or his daughter. Marco Polo , who visited India probably sometime around 1289–1293, made note of Rudrama Devi's rule and nature in flattering terms. She continued
10920-666: The natives, which the survivors fought off, alarmed the British government . In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment , but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, because the rebellion led to the British holding a large number of prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison urgently necessary. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair using inmates' labour, avoiding
11040-656: The period 1175–1324 CE, which is the period when the dynasty most flourished and are a reflection of that. The probability is that many inscriptions have been lost due to buildings falling into disuse and also the ravages of subsequent rulers, most notably the Muslim Mughal Empire in the Telangana region. Inscriptions are still being discovered today but governmental agencies tend to concentrate on recording those that are already known rather than searching for new examples. A 1978 book written by P.V.P. Sastry on
11160-463: The planned fortification of the capital, raising the height of Ganapati's wall as well as adding a second earthen curtain wall 1.5 miles (2.4 km) in diameter and with an additional 150 feet (46 m)-wide moat. A fragmentary Kannada language inscription also states that the Kakatiya general Bhairava defeated the Yadava army probably in or after 1263 CE, which may be a reference to his repulsion of Mahadeva 's invasion. A coin of Mahadeva bears
11280-483: The population are the Andamanese — the aboriginal inhabitants ( adivasi ) of the islands. When they first came into sustained contact with outside groups in the 1850s, there were an estimated 7,000 Andamanese, divided into the Great Andamanese , Jarawa , Jangil (or Rutland Jarawa ), Onge , and the Sentinelese . The Great Andamanese formed 10 tribes of 5,000 people total. As the numbers of settlers from
11400-499: The reign of Someshvara I . Prola I (r. c. 1052-1076), the son of Beta I, participated in various Chalukya military campaigns, consolidated the Kakatiya control around Anumakonda by defeating local chiefs, and obtained Anumakonda as a hereditary fief. The Chalukya king granted his son Beta II (r. c. 996-1051) the Sabbi-1000 province (the historical Sabbi-nadu region with 1000 villages, centred around Vemulavada ). He
11520-472: The right to settle on the islands. J H Williams , one of the Bombay Burma Company's senior officials, was dispatched to perform a timber survey of the islands using convict labor. He recorded his findings in 'The Spotted Deer' (published in 1957 by Rupert Hart-Davis ). The penal colony was eventually closed on 15 August 1947 when India gained independence . It has since served as a museum to
11640-585: The rule of Pratapa Rudhra of Warangal in the Kakatiya kingdom . The system was put in place in Tamil Nadu by Viswanatha Nayak , when he became the Nayak ruler of Madurai in 1529, with the support of his minister Ariyanathar . Traditionally there were supposed to be 72 Palayakkarars. The majority of those Palaiyakkarar, who during the late 17th- and 18th-centuries controlled much of the Telugu region as well as
11760-454: The same family: The significance of the suffix "Rashtrakuta" in the names of the early Kakatiya chiefs is debated. According to one theory, the suffix only implies that these chiefs were Rashtrakuta's subordinates. This theory is based on the fact that the phrase Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah appears in several Rashtrakuta-era copper-plate inscriptions, and refers to the officers and subjects of the Rashtrakuta kingdom. According to another theory,
11880-494: The south, and he took advantage of that situation to quell some of his vassals in Nellore who had seen his reduced status as an opportunity for independence. Later, though, in 1318, he failed to provide the annual tribute to Delhi, claiming that the potential for being attacked on the journey made it impossible. The succeeding Sultan Mubarak Shah responded by sending another of his Gujarati generals, Khusrau Khan , to Orugallu with
12000-551: The southeast bay of Great Andaman . The settlement is now known as Port Blair (after the Bombay Marine lieutenant Archibald Blair who founded it). After two years, the colony was moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis . However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony and the government ceased operating it in May 1796. In 1824, Port Cornwallis
12120-466: The southwest tip of the island, named Kumari Point. The resulting article in Surfer Magazine , "Quest for Fire" by journalist Sam George, put the Andaman Islands on the surfing map for the first time. Footage of the waves of the Andaman Islands also appeared in the film Thicker than Water , shot by documentary filmmaker Jack Johnson . Callahan went on to make several more surfing projects in
12240-470: The suffix implies that the Kakatiyas were a branch of the Rashtrakuta family because the term Rashtrakuta-kutumbinah was used for officers employed by the Rashtrakuta administration, not feudatory chiefs: the early records of the Kakatiya chiefs describe them as samantas (feudatory chiefs). The Kazipet Darga inscription of Durgaraja states that his father Beta II was born in the family of Samanta Viṣṭi. Historian P.V.P. Sastry theorises that "Viṣṭi"
12360-513: The theory that the Kakatiyas were associated with the Rashtrakuta family. Sastry further speculates that the Kakatiyas may have adopted the Garuda symbol because of Jain influence: the yaksha of the Jain tirthankara Shantinatha is represented by the Garuda symbol. However, when the Kakatiyas switched their allegiance to the Chalukyas of Kalyani , they also adopted the varaha symbol used by
12480-508: The third day, they were attacked with iron-tipped spears by naked islanders. One person from the ship escaped in a boat and the others were later rescued by a British Royal Navy ship. For some time, sickness and mortality were high, but swamp reclamation and extensive forest clearance continued. The Andaman colony became notorious with the murder of the Viceroy Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo , on
12600-485: The three Ramas ( Parashurama , Dasharatha-Rama , and Balarama ). The c. 956 CE Mangallu inscription suggests that the Kakatiyas came to the Telugu -speaking region as commanders of the Rashtrakuta armies. The earliest of these was Venna's son Gunda III , who died during Krishna II 's invasion of the Vengi Chalukya kingdom around 895 CE. Krishna II captured the Kurravadi (possibly present-day Kuravi ) region from
12720-422: The vicinity of a salt swamp that seemed to have been the source of many of the earlier problems at Port Cornwallis. The Battle of Aberdeen was fought on 17 May 1859 between the Great Andamanese tribe and the British. Today, a memorial stands in Andaman water sports complex as a tribute to the people who died in the battle. Fearful of British intentions and with help from an escaped convict from Cellular Jail ,
12840-419: The west coast of Burma. Most of the forests are evergreen, but there are areas of deciduous forest on North Andaman, Middle Andaman , Baratang and parts of South Andaman Island . The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The Andaman forests are largely unspoiled, despite logging and the demands of the fast-growing population driven by immigration from
12960-559: Was a Telugu dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region in present-day India between 12th and 14th centuries. Their territory comprised much of the present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh , and parts of eastern Karnataka , northern Tamil Nadu , and southern Odisha . Their capital was Orugallu, now known as Warangal . Early Kakatiya rulers served as feudatories to Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas for more than two centuries. They assumed sovereignty under Prataparudra I in 1163 CE by suppressing other Chalukya subordinates in
13080-477: Was a Rashtrakuta general, and not a Vengi Chalukya subordinate, as assumed by some earlier historians. The Bayyaram tank inscription, which records the construction of the Dharma-kirti-samudra tank by Ganapati's sister Mailama (or Mailamba), provides another genealogical list. The similarities of names mentioned in the Mangallu and Bayyaram inscriptions lists suggest that both of these refer to
13200-609: Was a disaster due to the resistance of the Kakatiya army in the Battle of Upparapalli . In 1309 the Gujarati general, Malik Kafur , in an attempt to force Prataparudra into acceptance of a position subordinate to the sultanate at Delhi. Kafur organised a month-long siege of Orugallu that ended with success in February 1310. Prataparudra was forced to make various symbolic acts of obeisance designed to demonstrate his new position as
13320-425: Was a lack of consistency regarding the varna rank of Kakatiyas. In most of their inscriptions, no varna affiliation was specified. In the case of a few where it was specified, they were mostly recorded to have been Kshatriyas. A handful of the inscriptions however tried to portray them as Kshatriyas. Anyone, regardless of birth, could acquire the nayaka title to denote warrior statusKshatriy and this they did. There
13440-413: Was a significant feature of the era, and the Kakatiya recruitment of peasants into the military did much to create a new warrior class, develop social mobility and to extend the influence of the dynasty into areas of its kingdom that previously would have been untouched. The Kakatiya kings, and in particular the last two, encouraged an egalitarian ethos. The entrenched landed nobility that had existed before
13560-413: Was achieved in part by donating land for the temples and then attending worship, was necessary as the inland agrarian society grew rapidly in number and location. There is a disparity between the analysis of inscriptions, of which the work of Cynthia Talbot has been in the vanguard and the traditional works of Vedic Hinduism that described pre-colonial India in terms of a reverent and static society that
13680-486: Was encroaching on the Deccan and might in due course attack the Kakatiyas. The earliest biography of Rudrama Devi's successor, Prataparudra II , is the Prataparudra Caritramu , dating from the 16th century. His reign began in 1289 (alternative date: 1295) and ended with the demise of the dynasty in 1323. It is described by Eaton as the "first chapter in a larger story" that saw the style of polity in
13800-550: Was finally defeated, and Orugallu was renamed Sultanpur. It seems probable, from combining various contemporary and near-contemporary accounts, that Prataparudra committed suicide near the Narmada River while being taken as a prisoner to Delhi. The Kakatiya base was the city of Orugallu in the dry uplands of northern Telangana on the Deccan Plateau . From there they expanded their influence into Coastal Andhra ,
13920-473: Was not forgotten while Ganapati expanded his territory. He organised the building of a massive granite wall around the city, complete with ramps designed for ease of access to its ramparts from within. A moat and numerous bastions were also constructed. Ganapati was keen to bolster the dynasty's economy. He encouraged merchants to trade abroad, abolishing all taxes except for a fixed duty and supporting those who risked their lives to travel afar. He created
14040-531: Was reserved for extraordinarily troublesome prisoners and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century, it became a convenient place to house prominent members of India's independence movement. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were occupied by Japan during World War II . The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (Provisional Government of Free India) headed by Subhas Chandra Bose , who visited
14160-413: Was subject to the strictures of the caste system . Colonial British administrators found much that appealed to them in the latter works but the Kakatiya inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh, which depict a far wider range of society and events, suggest that the reality was far more fluid and very different from the idealised image. Caste itself seems to have been of low importance as a social identifier. There
14280-416: Was succeeded by his sons, first Durga-raja and then Prola II (r. c. 1116–1157). After the decline of the Rashtrakuta power, the Kakatiyas served as vassals of the Kalyani Chalukyas . After the decline of the Chalukya power in the 12th century, they assumed sovereignty by suppressing other Chalukya subordinates in the Telangana region. The 1149 Sanigaram inscription of Prola II is the last known record of
14400-604: Was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Burmese War . In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives and the islands had a reputation for cannibalism . The loss of the Runnymede and the Briton in 1844 during the same storm, while transporting goods and passengers between India and Australia, and the continuous attacks launched by
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