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103-848: Following the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, the Crusaders established a Latin Empire to rule what had been Byzantine territory. Extensive looting took place in the fallen capital, and many relics and art treasures were shipped back to Western Europe. Seeking refuge in unconquered remnants of their empire, the Byzantine elite formed governments-in-exile at Nicaea , Trebizond , and Epirus . These new political entities continued to commission works of art, which however bore marks of limited resources and fragmented imperial authority. Craftsmen worked with less rare and expensive materials than before— an example

206-657: A podestà in 1178. Their choice first fell on one of the Este family. A fire devastated Padua in 1174. This required the virtual rebuilding of the city. The temporary success of the Lombard League helped to strengthen the towns. However, their civic jealousy soon reduced them to weakness again. In 1214–1216, Padua was involved in a conflict with Venice , which it lost. In 1236 Frederick II found little difficulty in establishing his vicar Ezzelino III da Romano in Padua and

309-525: A coherent light source. This technique was extensively employed by Cretan School artists and thus became a standard in post-Byzantine icon painting. Tempera paintings on wooden panels had always made up part of the corpus of Byzantine icons , but they proliferated in the Palaeologan period; the word "icon", formerly used to describe any image employed in a religious context, became increasingly associated with this kind of panel painting. The phenomenon

412-404: A multiplication of figures and scenes, by a new interest in perspective (however strangely rendered), and by a return to much earlier models such as illuminated manuscripts of the 10th century". These mannerisms appear with equal frequency in works of all sizes. Contemporary trends in church painting favored intricate narrative cycles, both in fresco and in sequences of icons; to serve this need,

515-681: A pin's point... set in wax on a wooden ground". Some incorporated luxury materials such as gold and vitreous enamel , but all micromosaics were rendered precious by the time and skill required to build them. They were collected by rich patrons in both Byzantine and Western lands. Starting in the period of the Latin Empire, breakaway Byzantine states sought to dignify themselves by building churches and palaces in their capital cities. Their varying demographics and resources produced distinctive regional styles of architecture: Epirus built grandiose monuments incorporating much spolia from Roman ruins, and

618-539: A school of philosophy directed by Nikephoros Blemmydes . Constantinople was recaptured in 1261 by Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1261–1282), founder of the Palaeologan Dynasty and former co-emperor of Nicaea. Amid triumphal ceremonies, he declared the Byzantine Empire restored and instituted a campaign of renovation in the capital. Made necessary by the damage done to the city under Latin rule,

721-759: A series of monumental gates. In 1797 the Venetian Republic came to an end with the Treaty of Campo Formio , and Padua, like much of the Veneto region, was ceded to the Habsburgs . In 1806 the city passed to the French puppet Kingdom of Italy until the fall of Napoleon , in 1814, when the city became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , part of the Austrian Empire . Austrian rule

824-478: Is a city and comune (municipality) in Veneto , northern Italy, and the capital of the province of Padua . The city lies on the banks of the river Bacchiglione , 40 kilometres (25 miles) west of Venice and 29 km (18 miles) southeast of Vicenza , and has a population of 214,000 (as of 2011 ). It is also the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua is sometimes included, with Venice and Treviso , in

927-632: Is considered a turning point in medieval history . Reports of Crusader looting and brutality horrified the Orthodox world; relations between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches were wounded for many centuries afterwards. The Massacre of the Latins ( Italian : Massacro dei Latini ; Greek : Σφαγή τῶν Λατίνων ), a massacre of the Roman Catholic or "Latin" inhabitants of Constantinople by

1030-464: Is estimated 2,000 were killed. The Crusaders, with poor leadership, also sacked churches , monasteries and convents . The altars of these churches were smashed and torn to pieces for their gold and marble by the warriors. The Venetians stole religious relics and works of art, which they later took to Venice. It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that

1133-625: Is not clear why this custom developed, since innovation and stylistic individuality continued to be discouraged in Orthodox art. Michael VIII ordered work in Hagia Sophia , which had been converted to a place of Catholic worship by the Latin emperors. The church was re-furnished for the performance of Orthodox rites, and a colossal mosaic of the Deesis , 5.2 meters in length and 6 meters wide,

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1236-475: Is the Brenta. The ending -ium signifies the presence of villages that have united themselves together. According to another theory, Patavium probably derives from Gaulish padi 'pine', in reference to the pine forests thereabouts. Padua claims to be among the oldest cities in northern Italy. According to a tradition dated at least to the time of Virgil 's Aeneid and to Livy 's Ab Urbe Condita , Padua

1339-523: Is the use of steatite in sculptures that would formerly have been made of ivory— and sponsorship came from a multitude of private patrons instead of being dominated by the emperor. One of the emperors of Nicaea, John III Doukas Vatatzes (r. 1222–1254), undertook projects to ensure the survival of traditional culture. He commissioned public libraries in all the cities of his possessions and ordered municipal leaders to allocate salaries to scholars of medicine, mathematics and rhetoric. In 1238, he also instituted

1442-529: Is the world's oldest, and its 14th-century frescoes , situated in buildings in the city centre. An example is the Scrovegni Chapel painted by Giotto at the beginning of 1300. Padua is home to one of the oldest universities in the world, the University of Padua , founded in 1222 and where figures such as Galileo Galilei and Nicolaus Copernicus taught or studied. In 1610, Galileo observed

1545-631: Is tragic that the assailants, who set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret." In 2004, while Bartholomew I , Patriarch of Constantinople , was visiting the Vatican , John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries, the pain and disgust?" This has been regarded by some as an apology to

1648-589: The scriptoria of the monastery of Panaghia Hodegetria in Constantinople remained active throughout the 14th century. Grand churches of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries continued to receive mosaic decoration , including the Deesis of Hagia Sophia. This work gives its figures a gentle and compassionate aspect, and uses tiny tesserae to achieve fine modeling on their faces, evocative of painting; despite its monumental size, it seems intended to possess

1751-665: The Chora Church . An artist, whose name is not preserved, was called away from a project in Thessaloniki to design Chora's frescos and mosaics, which emerged as one of the foremost achievements of Palaeologan art. David Talbot Rice points out that, contemporaneously, " Giotto was decorating the Arena Chapel at Padua . The Byzantine painter [working in Chora] had other ideas and a different outlook, but in his own way he

1854-707: The Despotate of the Morea , held by the Crusaders until 1262, showed a pronounced Western influence. The plan and decoration of Hagia Sophia , in diversely-populated Trebizond, mixed Byzantine, Western, Georgian , and Seljuk Turkish motifs. By contrast, Constantinople itself employed a conservative architectural style, showing strong continuity with previous centuries. The capital was short of funds, and obliged to concentrate upon repair work; most of its Palaeologan churches were enlargements of existing structures, usually in

1957-739: The Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus . The sack weakened the Byzantine Empire, which allowed neighbouring groups such as the Sultanate of Rum , and later the Ottoman Turks , to gain influence (see the Byzantine–Ottoman wars ). Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade , Pope John Paul II twice expressed sorrow for how the events transpired. In 2001, he wrote to Christodoulos , Archbishop of Athens , saying, "It

2060-602: The Hippodrome were sent back to adorn the façade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, where they remain. As well as being seized, works of considerable artistic value were destroyed for their material value. One of the most precious works to suffer such a fate was a large bronze statue of Hercules , created by the legendary Lysippos , court sculptor of Alexander the Great . Like so many other considerable artworks made of bronze,

2163-726: The Holy Apostles Church of Thessaloniki , the Porta Panagia church of Thessaly , and the katholikon and chapel of Saint Nicholas in the Vatopedi Monastery of Mount Athos . Micromosaic icons had been created by Byzantine artists at least since the twelfth century, but after 1204 there was a renewed interest in the art form which has left over 20 extant examples. Often less than 25 centimeters in height, these later icons were made as impressively small as possible, composed of tesserae "no bigger than

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2266-687: The Kingdom of Thessalonica , a vassal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea. Most of the Byzantine aristocracy fled the city. Amongst the ordinary people of the former empire there was no sympathy for the Byzantine elite, who were seen as having ruled the empire with increasing incompetence. The contemporary Byzantine historian and eyewitness Nicetas Choniates closed his account of

2369-848: The Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE) which has a population of around 2,600,000. Besides the Bacchiglione, the Brenta River , which once ran through the city, still touches the northern districts. Its agricultural setting is the Venetian Plain . To the city's south west lies the Euganaean Hills , which feature in poems by Lucan , Martial , Petrarch , Ugo Foscolo , and Percy Bysshe Shelley . Padua has two UNESCO World Heritage List entries: its Botanical Garden , which

2472-523: The Po River. In addition, the Indo-European root pat- may refer to a wide open plain as opposed to nearby hills. (In Latin this root is present in the word patera 'plate' and the verb patere 'to open'.) The suffix -av (also found in names of rivers such as Timavus and Tiliaventum ) is likely of Venetic origin, precisely indicating the presence of a river, which in the case of Padua

2575-528: The moons of Jupiter through a homemade telescope in Padua, marking the second phase of the Copernican Revolution . Today, the university has around 72,000 students and has a profound impact on the city's recreational, artistic and economic activities. The original significance of the Roman name Patavium ( Venetian : Padoa ) is uncertain. It may be connected with Padus , the ancient name of

2678-570: The 13th century, Padua outpaced Bologna, where no effort had been made to expand the revival of classical precedents beyond the field of jurisprudence, to become a center of early humanist researches , with first-hand knowledge of Roman poets that was unrivalled in Italy or beyond the Alps. However, the advances of Padua in the 13th century finally brought the commune into conflict with Can Grande della Scala , lord of Verona. In 1311 Padua had to yield to

2781-573: The Austrian Empire (nor previously had there been any), as in Venice or in other parts of Italy; while opponents of Austria were forced into exile. Under Austrian rule, Padua began its industrial development; one of the first Italian rail tracks , Padua-Venice, was built in 1845. In 1866 the Battle of Königgrätz gave Italy the opportunity, as an ally of Prussia , to take Veneto , and Padua

2884-454: The Byzantine Empire's territories were divided up among the Crusaders. Byzantine aristocrats also established a number of small independent splinter states—one of them being the Empire of Nicaea , which would eventually recapture Constantinople in 1261 and proclaim the reinstatement of the Empire. However, the restored Empire never managed to reclaim all its former territory or attain its earlier economic strength, and it gradually succumbed to

2987-466: The Empire with notable intellectuals. Nearby Abano was the birthplace, and after many years spent in Rome, the death place of Livy, whose Latin was said by the critic Asinius Pollio to betray his Patavinitas (q.v. Quintilian, Inst. Or. viii.i.3). Padua was also the birthplace of Thrasea Paetus , Asconius Pedianus , and perhaps Valerius Flaccus . Christianity was introduced in Padua and in most of

3090-772: The Gauls and then the Carthaginians. Men from Padua fought and died beside the Romans at Cannae . With Rome's northwards expansion, Padua was gradually assimilated into the Roman Republic . In 175 BC, Padua requested the aid of Rome in putting down a local civil war. In 91 BC, Padua, along with other cities of the Veneti, fought with Rome against the rebels in the Social War . Around 49 (or 45 or 43) BC, Padua

3193-601: The Greek Orthodox Church for the slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade. In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the capture of the city, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your cordial gesture for

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3296-496: The House of Habsburg was to receive Padua in addition to Verona and other territories. In 1509 Padua was held for just a few weeks by Imperial supporters. Venetian troops quickly recovered it and successfully defended Padua during its siege by Imperial troops. The city was governed by two Venetian nobles, a podestà for civil affairs and a captain for military affairs. Both of them were elected for sixteen months. Under these governors,

3399-640: The Paduan tradition was the Tuscan Petrarch . In 1387 John Hawkwood won the Battle of Castagnaro for Padua, against Giovanni Ordelaffi , for Verona . The Carraresi period finally came to an end as the power of the Visconti and of Venice grew in importance. Padua came under the rule of the Republic of Venice in 1405, and mostly remained that way until the fall of the republic in 1797. There

3502-630: The Pammakaristos Church, and the principal church of the Lips Monastery . The nobility commissioned mansions as well as churches, but the only secular building to survive from Palaeologan Constantinople is the so-called Palace of the Porphyrogenitus . The facades of late Byzantine buildings were often decorated with porticos , as were those of their contemporaries in Venice . Mango says that one of these cultures passed

3605-566: The Scaligeri of Verona. Jacopo da Carrara was elected lord ( signore ) of Padua in 1318, at that point the city was home to 40,000 people. From then till 1405, nine members of the Carraresi family , including Ubertino, Jacopo II, and Francesco il Vecchio, succeeded one another as lords of the city, with the exception of a brief period of Scaligeri overlordship between 1328 and 1337 and two years (1388–1390) when Giangaleazzo Visconti held

3708-535: The Spartan king Cleonimos around 302 BC. The Spartans came up the river but were defeated by the Veneti in a naval battle and gave up the idea of conquest. Still, later, the Veneti of Padua successfully repulsed invasions by the Etruscans and Gauls . According to Livy and Silius Italicus , the Veneti, including those of Padua, formed an alliance with the Romans by 226 BC against their common enemies, first

3811-520: The University. The city hosted also a major military command and many regiments. When Italy entered World War I on 24 May 1915, Padua was chosen as the main command of the Italian Army . The king, Vittorio Emanuele III , and the commander in chief , Cadorna, went to live in Padua for the period of the war. After the defeat of Italy in the battle of Caporetto in autumn 1917, the front line

3914-534: The Veneto region by Saint Prosdocimus . He is venerated as the first bishop of the city. His deacon, the Jewish convert Daniel , is also a saintly patron of the city. The history of Padua during Late Antiquity follows the course of events common to most cities of north-eastern Italy. Padua suffered from the invasion of the Huns and was savagely sacked by Attila in 450. A number of years afterward, it fell under

4017-402: The aristocrats who had sponsored them. His work gives some insight into the creative activity of his time and place, although it is also full of "clichés or the praises and lineage of his noble patrons". A tradition of polemic also existed during the time, exemplified by the historian Nikephoros Gregoras , who expanded the criticism of Aristotle in his dialogue Phlorentius. Gemistos Plethon

4120-593: The city in the northwest and used it as a base to attack the rest of the city, but while attempting to defend themselves with a wall of fire they ended up burning down even more of the city. Emperor Alexios V fled from the city that night through the Polyandriou (Rhegium) Gate and escaped into the countryside to the west. The Crusaders looted , pillaged, and vandalized Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient and medieval Roman and Greek works were either seized or destroyed. The famous bronze horses from

4223-460: The city of Padua. The end of the early Middle Ages in Padua was marked by the sack of the city by the Magyars in 899. It was many years after Padua recovered from this ravage. During the period of episcopal supremacy over the cities of northern Italy, Padua does not appear to have been either very important or very active. The general tendency of its policy throughout the war of investitures

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4326-463: The city. A small Commonwealth War Cemetery is located in the west part of the city, commemorating the sacrifice of these troops. After the war, the city developed rapidly, reflecting Veneto's rise from being the poorest region in northern Italy to one of the richest and most economically active regions of modern Italy. Padua experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ) characteristic of northern Italy, modified by

4429-574: The city. By the first week of April, the Crusaders had begun their siege from their encampment in the town of Galata across the Golden Horn from Constantinople. On 9 April 1204, the Crusader and Venetian forces began an assault on the Golden Horn fortifications by crossing the waterway to the northwest wall of the city, but, because of bad weather, the assault forces were driven back when

4532-427: The control of the Gothic kings Odoacer and Theodoric the Great . It was reconquered for a short time by the Byzantine Empire in 540 during the Gothic War . However, depopulation from plague and war ensued. The city was again seized by the Goths under Totila , but was restored to the Eastern Empire by Narses only to fall under the control of the Lombards in 568. During these years, many Paduans sought safety in

4635-468: The countryside and especially in the nearby lagoons of what would become Venice . In 601, the city rose in revolt against Agilulf , the Lombard king who put the city under siege. After enduring a 12-year-long bloody siege, the Lombards stormed and burned the city. Many ancient artifacts and buildings were seriously damaged. The remains of an amphitheater (the Arena ) and some bridge foundations are all that remain of Roman Padua today. The townspeople fled to

4738-406: The culmination of the Fourth Crusade . Crusaders sacked and destroyed most of Constantinople , the capital of the Byzantine Empire . After the capture of the city, the Latin Empire (known to the Byzantines as the Frankokratia , or the Latin occupation ) was established and Baldwin of Flanders crowned as Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople in Hagia Sophia . After the city's sacking, most of

4841-420: The curious buildings which sometimes form a backdrop for figures. The scholar Lyn Rodley refers to "lurching architectural forms that suggest distant, and none too committed, reference to the formulae of perspective drawing". In the mosaics and frescos of Chora Church, as well as certain other works from Constantinople, foreshortening is used for narrative purposes, making buildings lean toward the intended focus of

4944-402: The defender of property and order against revolution. The city was also the site of one of the largest fascist mass rallies, with some 300,000 people reportedly attending one speech by Benito Mussolini . New buildings, in typical fascist architecture , sprang up in the city. Examples can be found today in the buildings surrounding Piazza Spalato (today Piazza Insurrezione), the railway station,

5047-511: The domes of Hagia Sophia, which were repaired by Andronikos III . Manuel II (r. 1391–1425) created an institution called the Katholikon Mouseion in the early 15th century. It was located in a hospital and attached to the monastery of St. John Prodrome, whose rich library had at its disposal numerous teachers including Georges Chrysococè and Cardinal Bessarion , who later settled in Italy. The library welcomed many Italians who came to Constantinople to learn Greek language and culture. Also during

5150-441: The fall of the city with the following description of a column of aristocratic refugees, including the Patriarch, making their way to Selymbria : The peasants and common riff-raff jeered at those of us from Byzantium and were thick-headed enough to call our miserable poverty and nakedness equality...Many were only too happy to accept this outrage, saying "Blessed be the Lord that we have grown rich", and buying up for next to nothing

5253-446: The fashion for porticos to the other, but reserves judgement on which was the originator. Two–dimensional artworks from the Palaeologan period— including the aforementioned donor portraits— show people dressed in elaborate costumes, giving evidence for personal adornments which have otherwise disappeared. Thus, the scholar Aimilia Yeroulanou suggests that late Byzantine jewelry was more abundant and sophisticated than one would gather from

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5356-417: The form of "annexes enveloping earlier churches on three sides". This practice first appeared in Epirus and Thessaloniki before being adopted in Constantinople. The annexes in Thessaloniki may have been used for church ceremonies, while those in Constantinople housed lavish tomb monuments for the aristocrats who had sponsored their building. Among the refurbished buildings were Chora, the Church-Mosque of Vefa,

5459-414: The foundation of the center of the town to between the 11th and 10th centuries B.C. By the 5th century BC, Padua, rose on the banks of the river Brenta, which in the Roman era was called Medoacus Maior and probably until AD 589 followed the path of the present-day Bacchiglione ( Retrone ). Padua was one of the principal centers of the Veneti . The Roman historian Livy records an attempted invasion by

5562-407: The great and small councils continued to discharge municipal business and to administer the Paduan law, contained in the statutes of 1276 and 1362. The treasury was managed by two chamberlains; and every five years the Paduans sent one of their nobles to reside as nuncio in Venice, and to watch the interests of his native town. Venice fortified Padua with new walls, built between 1507 and 1544, with

5665-457: The hills and later returned to eke out a living among the ruins; the ruling class abandoned the city for the Venetian Lagoon , according to a chronicle. The city did not easily recover from this blow, and Padua was still weak when the Franks succeeded the Lombards as masters of northern Italy. At the Diet of Aix-la-Chapelle (828), the duchy and march of Friuli , in which Padua lay, was divided into four counties, one of which took its title from

5768-511: The impetus of the Palaeologan emperors, many politicians, scholars and writers took part in projects of literary revival and the expansion of knowledge. Among these were the judge and historian George Pachymeres (1242 – c. 1310), and four great philological scholars of the time of Andronikos II : Thomas Magistros , Demetrius Triclinios , Manuel Moschopoulos , and the theologian Maximus Planudes (c. 1255/1260 – c. 1305/1310). The scholar and statesman Nikephoros Choumnos (c. 1250/1255 – 1327)

5871-426: The money that was promised. In March 1204, the Crusader and Venetian leadership decided on the outright conquest of Constantinople in order to settle debts, and drew up a formal agreement to divide the Byzantine Empire between them. By the end of March, the combined Crusader armies were besieging Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V began to strengthen the city's defences while conducting more active operations outside

5974-410: The native humanist scholar Lovato Lovati placed near the tomb reads: This sepulchre excavated from marble contains the body of the noble Antenor who left his country, guided the Eneti and Trojans, banished the Euganeans and founded Padua. However, more recent tests suggest the sepulcher dates back to between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Nevertheless, archeological remains confirm an early date for

6077-430: The neighbouring cities, where he practised frightful cruelties on the inhabitants. Ezzelino was unseated in June 1256 without civilian bloodshed, thanks to Pope Alexander IV . Padua then enjoyed a period of calm and prosperity: the basilica of the saint was begun; and the Paduans became masters of Vicenza. The University of Padua (the second university in Italy, after Bologna) was founded in 1222, and as it flourished in

6180-419: The new part of City Hall, and part of the Bo Palace hosting the University. Following Italy's defeat in the Second World War on 8 September 1943, Padua became part of the Italian Social Republic , a puppet state of the Nazi occupiers. The city hosted the Ministry of Public Instruction of the new state, as well as military and militia commands and a military airport . The Resistenza, the Italian partisans ,

6283-436: The next century, they were engaged in wars with Venice and Vicenza for the right of water-way on the Bacchiglione and the Brenta. The city grew in power and self-confidence and in 1138, the government was entrusted to two consuls. The great families of Camposampiero , Este and Da Romano began to emerge and to divide the Paduan district among themselves. The citizens, in order to protect their liberties, were obliged to elect

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6386-423: The people deposed Alexios IV . He turned to the Crusaders for help, but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alexios Doukas , who declared himself Emperor on 5 February before executing Alexios IV on 8 February by strangulation. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to negotiate with the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzantine territory without payment, but they refused in order to avenge Alexios IV and receive

6489-454: The people who commissioned them. They were the late Byzantine art form most likely to partake of Western influences. The majority of scribes who worked on manuscript illumination remain anonymous: only 17 of the 22 manuscripts preserved by Theodore Hagiopetrites (a copyist who lived around 1300 in Thessalonica ) are signed. The production of books is rarer, probably because many copyists went into exile under Latin domination . Nevertheless,

6592-433: The personality of an icon. Large mosaics from Palaeologan Constantinople also survive in the Church-Mosque of Vefa , Chora Church, and the Pammakaristos Church . All three buildings feature a distinctive figural arrangement in the interiors of their domes, which have bust portraits of Christ Pantokrator or the Virgin Mary at their apexes. Ribs of masonry radiate out from the apexes, and the flutes , or flat surfaces between

6695-408: The pro-Crusader Alexios Angelos was crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine Empire. He attempted to pacify the city, but riots between anti-Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins broke out later that month and lasted until November, during which time most of the populace began to turn against him. On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II set off rioting in Constantinople in which

6798-469: The property that their fellow-countrymen were forced to offer for sale, for they had not yet had much to do with the beef-eating Latins and they did not know that they served a wine as pure and unmixed as unadulterated bile, nor that they would treat the Byzantines with utter contempt. Byzantine aristocratic refugees founded their own successor states , the most notable of these being the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Laskaris (a relative of Alexius III),

6901-406: The raids. On 26 April 1945, the partisans started the final insurrection against the Germans and Fascists; in the subsequent fighting, 224 partisans and 497 Germans were killed. 5,000 German troops, including three generals, surrendered to the partisans in Padua, and another 10,000 in the surrounding area; on 28 April New Zealand troops (2nd New Zealand Division) of the British Eighth Army entered

7004-481: The railway station (the target of most raids) and the northern district of Arcella, where 96% of all buildings were destroyed; overall, 950 homes were destroyed and 1,400 damaged. During one of these bombings, the Church of the Eremitani , with frescoes by Andrea Mantegna , was destroyed, considered by some art historians to be Italy's biggest wartime cultural loss. The Cathedral and the University also suffered damage. Some 2,000 inhabitants of Padua were killed by

7107-416: The reign of Manuel II, the scholar Demetrios Kydones wrote several texts such as the Discourses and Dialogues on the relationship between Christianity and Islam, on politics and on civil subjects such as marriage and education. He also made a treatise on the seven ecumenical councils , a poem on how to convert unbelievers, and a refutation of Catholic doctrine on the procession of the Holy Spirit. Under

7210-441: The renovation was also intended to symbolize the empire's recovery from the destitution and humiliation it had just undergone. The conception of the Palaeologan period as a cultural "renaissance" owes much to Michael's efforts to revive the glory of Constantinople; in Byzantine lands unconquered by the Crusaders, art production had never been so seriously disrupted as to require a period of "rebirth". Certain conditions established by

7313-440: The ribs, display full-length portraits of Christian prophets or ancestors of Jesus . This compositional motif, evidently dictated by "the preferences of high ecclesiastical circles in the Capital", required coordination between the churches' builders and iconographic planners, to ensure that a dome had the right number of flutes to accommodate the intended group of figures. Elsewhere in the Byzantine world, mosaics were installed in

7416-477: The rising Ottoman Empire over the following two centuries. The Byzantine Empire was left poorer, smaller, and ultimately less able to defend itself against the Seljuk and Ottoman conquests that followed. The actions of the Crusaders, therefore, accelerated the collapse of Christendom in the east, and in the long run helped facilitate the later Ottoman conquests of southeastern Europe. The sack of Constantinople

7519-520: The sack persisted after the recovery of Constantinople. The imperial boundaries had been permanently diminished, and the rulers of Trebizond and Epirus remained independent of the central government. In the aftermath of the Crusades there was unprecedentedly close contact between the Greek world and Western Europe, and Byzantine and Western artists borrowed each other's techniques. Fluency in multiple styles

7622-470: The sparse examples which survive. The pieces that were lost may have been similar to those made in Greek lands after the empire's fall: distinguished by "technical and aesthetic excellence rather than... the sumptuousness of the materials". The same secondary evidence leads David Talbot Rice to assert that the Byzantine silk industry survived into this period, and continued to produce garments decorated with

7725-559: The statue was melted down for its content by the Crusaders for surplus profit. Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication, the Crusaders systematically assaulted the city's holy sanctuaries, destroying or seizing all that was deemed remotely of value; little was spared, and the tombs of the emperors inside the Church of the Holy Apostles fell victim to such looting as well. Of the civilian population of Constantinople, it

7828-489: The time. As in many other areas in Italy, Padua experienced great social turmoil in the years immediately following World War I. The city was shaken by strikes and clashes, factories and fields were subject to occupation, and war veterans struggled to re-enter civilian life. Many supported a new political way, fascism . As in other parts of Italy, the National Fascist Party in Padua soon came to be seen as

7931-586: The towers along the wall. After a short battle approximately 70 Crusaders managed to enter the city. Some Crusaders were eventually able to knock holes in the walls large enough for a few knights at a time to crawl through; the Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from the sea, although there was extremely bloody fighting with the Varangians . The Crusaders captured the Blachernae section of

8034-471: The town. The period of the signoria is covered down to 1358 in the chronicle of Guglielmo Cortusi . The Carraresi period was a long period of restlessness, for the Carraresi were constantly at war. Under Carraresi rule the early humanist circles in the university were effectively disbanded: Albertino Mussato , the first modern poet laureate , died in exile at Chioggia in 1329, and the eventual heir of

8137-521: The traditional tapestry technique. He adds, however, that tapestry was gradually supplanted by decorations in embroidery , which did not require specialized equipment to produce. Sack of Constantinople In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The sack of Constantinople occurred in April 1204 and marked

8240-442: The traditional types of holy images, with large, portrait-type figures on solid backgrounds, were partially superseded by landscape scenes with comparatively small figures, often depicted in motion. The landscapes themselves are barren, perhaps intended to invoke the wilderness traditionally occupied by prophets and ascetic hermits. There are informal attempts at using foreshortening to create the illusion of three dimensions, notably in

8343-569: The tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800 years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of Pascha . "The spirit of reconciliation of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches." 41°01′00″N 28°58′37″E  /  41.0167°N 28.9769°E  / 41.0167; 28.9769 Padua Padua ( / ˈ p æ dj u ə / PAD -ew-ə ; Italian : Padova [ˈpaːdova] ; Venetian : Pàdova , Pàdoa or Pàoa )

8446-456: The troops that landed came under heavy archery fire in open ground between Constantinople's fortifications and the shore. On 12 April 1204 weather conditions finally favoured the Crusaders as the weather cleared and a second assault on the city was ordered. A strong north wind aided the Venetian ships near the Golden Horn to come close to the city wall, which enabled attackers to seize some of

8549-571: The usurper Andronikos Komnenos and his supporters in May 1182, affected political relations between Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire and led to the sack of Thessalonica by Normans. Although regular trade agreements were soon resumed between Byzantine and Latin States, some Westerners sought some form of revenge. Following the siege of Constantinople in 1203 , on 1 August 1203

8652-491: The viewer's attention. In depicting people, Palaeologan artists favored a "small-headed, wide-bodied, 'boneless' figure style". Kurt Weitzmann speaks of "over-elongated figures", placed in "swaying poses" and wearing draperies which "bulge slightly, giving the impression of detachment from the frail bodies underneath". Hard, geometrically patterned highlights are used to give figures the appearance of volume, albeit without interest in depicting realistic anatomical construction or

8755-699: The wealthiest city in Italy outside of Rome. The city became so powerful that it was reportedly able to raise two hundred thousand fighting men. However, despite its wealth, the city was also renowned for its simple manners and strict morality. This concern with morality is reflected in Livy's Roman History (XLIII.13.2) wherein he portrays Rome's rise to dominance as being founded upon her moral rectitude and discipline. Still later, Pliny, referring to one of his Paduan protégés' Paduan grandmother, Sarrana Procula, lauds her as more upright and disciplined than any of her strict fellow citizens (Epist. i.xiv.6). Padua also provided

8858-677: The worshipper and the mystery of the Christian service". By the 12th century, usage in this important and highly visible context had made panel paintings into a more prestigious art form, suitable for wealthy patrons to commission. Even quite large icons, four to six feet high or more and depicting figures greater than life size, began to be executed in tempera, rather than in the traditional media of fresco or mosaic. Small icons were also made in quantity, most often as private devotional objects. Much more personalized than their monumental counterparts, these often had inscriptions or portraits commemorating

8961-432: Was Imperial ( Ghibelline ) and not Roman ( Guelph ); and its bishops were, for the most part, of Germanic extraction. Under the surface, several important movements were taking place that were to prove formative for the later development of Padua. At the beginning of the 11th century, the citizens established a constitution, composed of a general council or legislative assembly and a credenza or executive body. During

9064-413: Was also annexed to the recently formed Kingdom of Italy . Annexed to Italy during 1866, Padua was at the centre of the poorest area of Northern Italy , as Veneto was until the 1960s. Despite this, the city flourished in the following decades both economically and socially, developing its industry, being an important agricultural market and having a very important cultural and technological centre like

9167-466: Was exiled by Manuel II to the Despotate of Morea , an important intellectual center; his lectures there revived Platonic thought in Western Europe. Plethon had offended the emperor by studying heretical and even pagan doctrines, and thus displaying an openness of mind "very similar to Renaissance humanism ". Cyril Mango describes "a distinctive new style" in Palaeologan painting, "marked by

9270-644: Was founded around 1183 BC by the Trojan prince Antenor . After the Fall of Troy , Antenor led a group of Trojans and their Paphlagonian allies, the Eneti or Veneti , who lost their king Pylaemenes to settle the Euganean plain in Italy. Thus, when a large ancient stone sarcophagus was exhumed in the year 1274, officials of the medieval commune declared the remains within to be those of Antenor. An inscription by

9373-579: Was installed in its south gallery. Among the other objects of Michael's patronage were the Blachernae Palace and several sections of the city defenses, along with public service projects. Private patrons sponsored restorations of Constantinople's churches, many of which were maintained for the next two centuries even as the residential portions of the city fell into neglect. Between 1316 and 1321, Theodore Metochites , deputy of Michael's successor Andronikos II , sponsored an extensive rebuilding of

9476-721: Was just a brief period when the city changed hands (in 1509) during the wars of the League of Cambrai . On 10 December 1508, representatives of the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire , and Ferdinand V of Castile concluded the League of Cambrai against the Republic. The agreement provided for the complete dismemberment of Venice's territory in Italy and for its partition among the signatories: Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I of

9579-420: Was just as great a genius". Andronikos II had Hagia Sophia's walls reinforced with buttresses in 1317. Late in his reign there was a decline in the empire's fortunes, and little building was undertaken in the capital after 1330. The optimism fostered by Michael VIII gave way in subsequent times to a sense that "the present generation had sinned and was inferior to its predecessors". In 1346 an earthquake damaged

9682-477: Was made a Roman municipium under the Lex Julia Municipalis and its citizens ascribed to the Roman tribe, Fabia . At that time the population of the city was perhaps 40,000. The city was reputed for its excellent breed of horses and the wool of its sheep. In fact, the poet Martial remarks on the thickness of the tunics made there. By the end of the first century BC, Padua seems to have been

9785-464: Was not elected as the new emperor, although the citizens seemed to consider him as such; the Venetians thought he had too many connections with the former empire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat , who had been married to Maria Comnena , daughter and for a time heir-apparent of Manuel I. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders on the throne. He was crowned Emperor in the Hagia Sophia as Baldwin I of Constantinople. Boniface went on to found

9888-488: Was one of the most important figures of the renaissance, while Theodore Metochites (1270–1332) was a philosopher and a patron of the arts and sciences, considered the most complete scholar of his time. He studied Classical antiquity , although not with the same intense interest as his contemporaries in Trecento Italy. The fourteenth-century poet Manuel Philes wrote pieces commemorating a wide variety of artworks and

9991-439: Was probably linked to new customs related to the templon , a screen used in churches to separate the congregation from the sanctuary where priests conducted rituals. The practice of affixing icons to this screen dated back to at least the 8th century. As part of a general increase of paintings in late Byzantine church interiors, more panels were added and the templon evolved into the iconostasis , "a solid wall of icons... between

10094-613: Was removed. In late October 1918, the Italian Army won the decisive Battle of Vittorio Veneto , and the Austrian forces collapsed. The armistice was signed at Villa Giusti , Padua, on 3 November 1918. During the war, the industry grew rapidly, and this provided Padua with a base for further post-war development. In the years immediately following World War I, Padua developed outside the historical town, enlarging and growing in population, even if labor and social strife were rampant at

10197-466: Was situated on the river Piave. This was just 50–60 km (31–37 mi) from Padua, and the city was now in range of the Austrian artillery. However, the Italian military command did not withdraw. The city was bombed several times (about 100 civilian deaths). A memorable feat was Gabriele D'Annunzio 's flight to Vienna from the nearby San Pelagio Castle air field. A year later, the threat to Padua

10300-470: Was their due and the Crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly between the Crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many Crusader knights. According to a prearranged treaty the empire was apportioned between Venice and the crusade's leaders, and the Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boniface

10403-522: Was unpopular with progressive circles in northern Italy, but the feelings of the population (from the lower to the upper classes) towards the empire were mixed. In Padua, the year of revolutions of 1848 saw a student revolt which on 8 February turned the University and the Caffè Pedrocchi into battlegrounds in which students and ordinary Paduans fought side by side. The revolt was however short-lived, and there were no other episodes of unrest under

10506-465: Was useful for catering to a more diverse group of patrons, but these borrowings were also motivated by interest in foreign artworks and a desire to learn from them. As in the era of exile, much Palaeologan art was funded by the aristocracy instead of the emperors. Pictorial works from this era feature an unprecedented number of non–imperial donor portraits . The Palaeologan period was also the first in which Byzantine painters regularly signed their works; it

10609-675: Was very active against both the new fascist rule and the Nazis. One of the main leaders of the Resistenza in the area was the University vice-chancellor, Concetto Marchesi. From December 1943 to the end of the war, Padua was bombed 24 times by Allied aircraft ; the heaviest raids were the ones on 16 and 30 December 1943 (each of which caused 300 victims), 7 February 1944 (300 victims), 11 March 1944 (over 300 tons of bombs dropped by 111 bombers), 22 and 23 March 1944, 20 April 1944 (180 victims), 22 February and 12 March 1945. The worst-hit areas were

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