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44-646: The northern part of Para is one of the oldest cultivated areas of Suriname, and has been home to sugar and tobacco plantation since the 17th century which were mainly located along the Suriname River and the Para Creek . The southern part of the district contained wood plantations, and is still in use by logging companies. In 1968, the District was established, and named after the Para Creek. In 1983,

88-623: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​ , FAO, FAO. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​ , FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

132-609: A faculty at the Federal University of Paraná , in Curitiba. Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology , ecology , botany , genetics , soil science , climatology , hydrology , economics and forest management . Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs. In India, forestry education

176-536: A high marginal product of labor realized through the increasing number of enslaved people. Plantings of the Pará rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis ) are usually called plantations. Oil palm agriculture rapidly expands across wet tropical regions and is usually developed at a plantation scale. Fruit orchards are sometimes considered to be plantations. These include tobacco , sugarcane , pineapple , bell pepper , and cotton , especially in historical usage. Before

220-508: A lack of natural regeneration. The tree species used in a plantation are also an important factor. Where non-native varieties or species are grown, few native faunas are adapted to exploit these, and further biodiversity loss occurs. However, even non-native tree species may serve as corridors for wildlife and act as a buffer for native forests, reducing edge effect . Once a plantation is established, managing it becomes an important environmental factor. The most critical aspect of management

264-469: A major role in the economy of Para. The main roads and airport have resulted in companies moving into Para. Agriculture is mainly focused on cassava , asparagus bean and pineapples . Tourism has seen a steady growth over the 20th and 21st centuries. There are several holiday resorts in the district, and White Beach in Oost is becoming a main attraction. Para is divided into 5 resorts ( ressorten ): In

308-455: A mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species , building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire . The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau , Hesse , in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at

352-507: A natural forest is cleared for a planted forest, then a reduction in biodiversity and loss of habitat will likely result. In some cases, their establishment may involve draining wetlands to replace mixed hardwoods that formerly predominated with pine species. If a plantation is established on abandoned agricultural land or highly degraded land, it can increase both habitat and biodiversity. A planted forest can be profitably established on lands that will not support agriculture or suffer from

396-455: A region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species. The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity . More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems , may impact

440-667: A tool of environmental restoration . Sugar plantations were highly valued in the Caribbean by the British and French colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the use of sugar in Europe rose during this period. Sugarcane is still an important crop in Cuba. Sugar plantations also arose in countries such as Barbados and Cuba because of the natural endowments that they had. These natural endowments included soil conducive to growing sugar and

484-929: Is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people. For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area, wood is the most important renewable resource , and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year. Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.  Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high. Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$ 1.25 per day. Over

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528-644: Is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities. In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters . In Canada

572-624: Is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry. The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner 's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood 's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn 's Sylva (1662). [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

616-520: Is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families , but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species . Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in

660-431: Is practiced in plantations and natural stands . The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning. Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including:

704-436: Is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands , incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems , and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture , which deals with the art and practice of forest management. Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University . It integrates

748-482: Is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles. In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation. Silvology ( Latin : silva or sylva , "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek : -λογία , -logia , "science of" or "study of")

792-431: Is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management. Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires , pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation , poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material. About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this

836-420: Is the rotation period. Plantations harvested on more extended rotation periods (30 years or more) can provide similar benefits to a naturally regenerated forest managed for wood production on a similar rotation. This is especially true if native species are used. In the case of exotic species, the habitat can be improved significantly if the impact is mitigated by measures such as leaving blocks of native species in

880-646: The American Civil War . The mild temperate climate , plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the Southeastern United States allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white elite . When Newfoundland was colonized by England in 1610, the original colonists were called "planters", and their fishing rooms were known as "fishing plantations". These terms were used well into

924-721: The Roman Empire , which produced large quantities of grain, wine, and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture proliferated with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonialism . Tree plantations, in the United States often called tree farms , are established for the commercial production of timber or tree products such as palm oil , coffee , or rubber . Teak and bamboo plantations in India have given good results and an alternative crop solution to farmers of central India, where conventional farming

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968-560: The Southern United States from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the pens for livestock . Until the abolition of slavery , such plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labor of enslaved people. Plantations are an important aspect of the history of the Southern United States , particularly before

1012-655: The Spanish Inquisition established Jodensavanne in the 17th century, but it was destroyed in 1832 by a fire . Jodensavanne was an internment camp for suspected Nazi supporters from the Dutch East Indies during the Second World War . Para is home to several indigenous villages from the Carib and Arawak tribes. The main part of the economy is the bauxite mining . Gold also plays

1056-776: The University of Giessen , in Hesse-Darmstadt . In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid ( Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes ), founded in 1844. The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville , North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate . Another early school

1100-511: The airstrip at Zanderij , was upgraded to a major airport. In 1936, a road, currently named Indira Gandhiweg, had been built parallel to the railway line to connect Paramaribo with Onverwacht, which was extended to the airport. In the 1960s, the Avobakaweg was constructed to provide access to the south of the country. The ruins of the city of Jodensavanne are in Para district. Jews fleeing

1144-410: The biosphere , and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science , craft , and technology . A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester . Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry. All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others. Forestry

1188-497: The company store . In Brazil, a sugarcane plantation was termed an engenho ("engine"), and the 17th-century English usage for organized colonial production was "factory." Such colonial social and economic structures are discussed at Plantation economy . Sugar workers on plantations in Cuba and elsewhere in the Caribbean lived in company towns known as bateyes . Plantation complexes were common on agricultural plantations in

1232-691: The effects of climate change . Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone. Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture , forest protection , and forest regulation . This includes management for timber, aesthetics , recreation , urban values, water , wildlife , inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products , plant genetic resources , and other forest resource values . Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or

1276-662: The 2004 census, Para had 18,749 inhabitants. This rose in the 2012 census to 24,700 inhabitants, a 31.1% increase. Plantation Plantations are farms specializing in cash crops, usually mainly planting a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Plantations, centered on a plantation house , grow crops including cotton , cannabis , coffee , tea , cocoa , sugar cane , opium , sisal , oil seeds , oil palms , fruits, rubber trees and forest trees. Protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations are located. In modern use,

1320-525: The 20th century. The following three plantations are maintained by the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador as provincial heritage sites: Other fishing plantations: [REDACTED] Media related to Plantations at Wikimedia Commons Forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry

1364-1211: The Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs. In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area . The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide. In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes ; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded. These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats . This system

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1408-590: The District was quadrupled in size. The district used to be accessible only by boat. The discovery of gold in Brokopondo and Sipaliwini lead to the construction of the Lawa Railway and growth of the villages next to the railway line. The railway line was decommissioned in 1986. During World War II American troops were stationed in Suriname. The existing airport at Zorg en Hoop was insufficient, and

1452-650: The genetic diversity of trees. The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype ) will determine its performance (its phenotype ) at a particular site. Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases . Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity

1496-539: The low wages typically paid to plantation workers are the basis of plantation profitability in some areas. In more recent times, overt slavery has been replaced by para-slavery or slavery-in-kind , including the sharecropping system , and even that has been severely reduced. At its most extreme, workers are in " debt bondage ": they must work to pay off a debt at such punitive interest rates that it may never be paid off. Others work unreasonably long hours and are paid subsistence wages that (in practice) may only be spent in

1540-440: The past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science , there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture . Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose

1584-597: The plantation or retaining corridors of natural forest. In Brazil, similar measures are required by government regulation. Plantation owners extensively used enslaved Africans to work on early plantations (such as tobacco, rice, cotton, hemp, and sugar plantations) in the American colonies and the United States, throughout the Caribbean, the Americas, and in European-occupied areas of Africa. In modern times,

1628-411: The provision of timber , fuel wood, wildlife habitat , natural water quality management , recreation , landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes , biodiversity management, watershed management , erosion control , and preserving forests as " sinks " for atmospheric carbon dioxide . Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of

1672-528: The rise of cotton in the American South, indigo and rice were also sometimes called plantation crops. Probably the most critical factor a plantation has on the local environment is the site where the plantation is established. In Brazil, coffee plantations would use slash-and-burn agriculture, tearing down rainforests and planting coffee trees that depleted the nutrients in soil. Once the soil had been sapped, growers would move on to another place. If

1716-435: The study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology . Dendrology ( Ancient Greek : δένδρον , dendron , "tree"; and Ancient Greek : -λογία , -logia , science of or study of ) or xylology ( Ancient Greek : ξύλον , ksulon , "wood") is the science and study of woody plants ( trees , shrubs , and lianas ), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There

1760-459: The term usually refers only to large-scale estates. Before about 1860, it was the usual term for a farm of any size in the southern parts of British North America , with, as Noah Webster noted, "farm" becoming the usual term from about Maryland northward. The enslavement of people was the norm in Maryland and states southward. The plantations there were forced-labor farms. The term "plantation"

1804-482: Was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains. Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to

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1848-648: Was the New York State College of Forestry , established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898. Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America. In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa , Minas Gerais , in 1962, and moved the next year to become

1892-465: Was used in most British colonies but very rarely in the United Kingdom itself in this sense. There it was used mainly for tree plantations , areas artificially planted with trees, whether purely for commercial forestry , or partly for ornamental effect in gardens and parks, when it might also cover plantings of garden shrubs. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of

1936-627: Was widespread. But due to the rising input costs of agriculture, many farmers have done teak and bamboo plantations, which require very little water (only during the first two years). Teak and bamboo have legal protection from theft. Bamboo, once planted, gives output for 50 years till flowering occurs. Teak requires 20 years to grow to full maturity and fetch returns. These may be established for watershed or soil protection. They are established for erosion control, landslide stabilization, and windbreaks. Such plantations are established to foster native species and promote forest regeneration on degraded lands as

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