Misplaced Pages

#698301

162-424: Phelan's work is primarily concerned with the investigation of performance as a live event. She argued that the ephemerality of performance is crucial to its force. While most of her initial work was rooted in feminist post-structuralism and psychoanalysis, her more recent work is concerned with media, photography, and visual arts. She has written on the selfie, and on Reagan and Warhol. Her most widely recognized essay

324-496: A dakṣiṇā , had a Svayaṃvara, but chose instead to live in the forest and embrace ascetism. Subhadrā's situation was also discussed in the context of Svayaṃvara, with Kṛṣṇa advising Arjuna to abduct (elope) her rather than rely on a traditional Svayaṃvara. Additionally, Devikā and Vijayā chose Yudhiṣṭhira and Sahadeva in their respective Svayaṃvara, while Bhīma won Valandharā 's hand in marriage at her Vīryaśulkā . The daughter of King Citrāngada of Kaliṅga , rejects

486-548: A Svayaṃvara in the traditional sense, this story reflects a different form of marriage, where the woman takes the initiative, showing a variation on the theme of marriage choice. Scholars note that Svayaṃvara is conspicuously absent from the traditional lists of eight marriage types in the Dharmaśāstra , such as the Manusmṛti , though a version of it is described in the texts. Brockington also comments that absence of Svayaṃvara in

648-419: A clear indication of his divine favor and destiny as the upholder of dharma. Following Rāma’s success, King Janaka was overjoyed and immediately offered Sītā to Rāma. However, Rāma, in adherence to the cultural norms of the time, sought the permission of his father, King Daśaratha of Ayodhyā, before accepting Sītā as his wife. Once Daśaratha gave his consent, the marriage was arranged with great ceremony, marking

810-494: A condition that a widow's right to property should cease on remarriage, and the Leonine Constitutions at the end of the 9th century made third marriages punishable. The same constitutions made the benediction of a priest a necessary part of the ceremony of marriage. Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal status based on Confucian law . In Imperial China,

972-466: A crime in which the victim bore no guilt and a capital crime. The rape of a woman was considered an attack on her family and father's honour, and rape victims were shamed for allowing the bad name in her father's honour. As a matter of law, rape could be committed only against a citizen in good standing. The rape of a slave could be prosecuted only as damage to her owner's property. The first Roman emperor , Augustus , framed his ascent to sole power as

1134-486: A divorced husband could easily remarry another woman, provided that his first wife had borne him no offspring. Female deities, such as Inanna , were widely worshipped. The Akkadian poet Enheduanna , the priestess of Inanna and daughter of Sargon , is the earliest known poet whose name has been recorded. Old Babylonian law codes permitted a husband to divorce his wife under any circumstances, but doing so required him to return all of her property and sometimes pay her

1296-498: A dowry from the husband, which she could administer as her personal property, the Qur'an made women a legal party to the marriage contract . While in customary law, inheritance was often limited to male descendants, the Qur'an included rules on inheritance with certain fixed shares being distributed to designated heirs, first to the nearest female relatives and then the nearest male relatives. According to Annemarie Schimmel "compared to

1458-409: A fine. Most law codes forbade a woman to request her husband for a divorce and enforced the same penalties on a woman asking for divorce as on a woman caught in the act of adultery . Some Babylonian and Assyrian laws, however, afforded women the same right to divorce as men, requiring them to pay the same fine. The majority of East Semitic deities were male. In ancient Egypt, women enjoyed

1620-461: A grand public event but rather a legal provision that allows a maiden the right to choose her husband if her father or guardian fails to arrange her marriage within a specified period after she reaches puberty. This period, as outlined in various Smṛtis such as the Manusmṛti and Yājñavalkya Smṛti , is generally three years or three menstrual cycles. Sternbach explains that this provision underscores

1782-503: A historical context, Muhammad "can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women's rights." Women's rights were protected already by the early Medieval Christian Church: one of the first formal legal provisions for the right of wives was promulgated by council of Adge in 506, which in Canon XVI stipulated that if a young married man wished to be ordained, he required the consent of his wife. The English Church and culture in

SECTION 10

#1732776508699

1944-558: A husband and eventually becoming a mother. That was the core purpose set out both culturally and religiously across Medieval Europe. Rape was also seen in medieval England as a crime against the father or husband and a violation of their protection and guardianship of the women whom they look after in the household. Women's identities in the Middle Ages were also referred through their relations with men they associated with, such as "his daughter" or "so and so's wife". Despite all this,

2106-583: A husband's transferring property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. French married women suffered from restrictions on their legal capacity which were removed only in 1965. In the 16th century, the Reformation in Europe allowed more women to add their voices, including the English writers Jane Anger , Aemilia Lanyer , and

2268-464: A later addition, is structurally essential to the epic, setting the stage for the conflicts and alliances that drive the narrative. Damayantī ’s Svayaṃvara is another prominent instance in the Mahābhārata . Her story is distinct within the epic because it involves not just one, but two Svayaṃvaras , illustrating that Svayaṃvaras could be held more than one time for a bride. Textual references in

2430-496: A lesser degree than their children. This archaic form of manus marriage was largely abandoned by the time of Julius Caesar , when a woman remained under her father's authority by law even when she moved into her husband's home. This arrangement was one of the factors in the independence Roman women enjoyed. Although women had to answer to their fathers in legal matters, they were free of his direct scrutiny in their daily lives, and their husbands had no legal power over them. When

2592-468: A man. They were simultaneously disparaged as too ignorant and weak-minded to practice law, and as too active and influential in legal matters—resulting in an edict that limited women to conducting cases on their own behalf instead of others'. But even after this restriction was put in place, there are numerous examples of women taking informed actions in legal matters, including dictating legal strategy to their male advocates. Roman law recognized rape as

2754-565: A married man did not commit adultery when he had sex with a prostitute, slave , or person of marginalized status ( infamis ) . Most prostitutes in ancient Rome were slaves, though some slaves were protected from forced prostitution by a clause in their sales contract. A free woman who worked as a prostitute or entertainer lost her social standing and became infamis , "disreputable"; by making her body publicly available, she had in effect surrendered her right to be protected from sexual abuse or physical violence. Stoic philosophies influenced

2916-479: A place or purpose, Ambā returns to Hastināpura, only to be refused by Bhīṣma, who tells her that she cannot marry Vicitravīrya after having declared her love for another man. This event leads Amba to vow revenge against Bhīṣma, which becomes a significant subplot in the Mahābhārata . The Svayaṃvaras of the Kāśī princesses, particularly Ambā, are pivotal in the Mahābhārata . Ambā's confusion about whether her Svayaṃvara

3078-440: A prestigious family was essential because such alliances legitimised claims to land, political power, and further connections. The svayaṃvara ceremony, although appearing to grant the woman agency in choosing her husband, was structured to fit patriarchal norms; it was essentially a ritual in which the woman was ‘gifted’ in marriage. This ceremony underscored the role of the kṣatriya as a primary giver of gifts. According to scholars,

3240-493: A professed religious life, and of due provision for the wife. The church also supported the political power of those who were friendly toward the clergy. The appointment of mothers and grandmothers as tutors was sanctioned by Justinian. The restrictions on the marriage of senators and other men of high rank with women of low rank were extended by Constantine , but it was almost entirely removed by Justinian . Second marriages were discouraged, especially by making it legal to impose

3402-503: A return to traditional morality , and attempted to regulate the conduct of women through moral legislation . Adultery , which had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex act ( stuprum ) that occurred between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. Therefore, a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but

SECTION 20

#1732776508699

3564-544: A rigorous contest to determine Draupadī’s future husband. The central challenge involves a massive bow that must be strung and used to shoot an arrow at a revolving target while looking at its reflection in water kept beneath—a task requiring extraordinary strength, precision, and focus. The event attracts princes and warriors from across the land, including the Kauravas , Karṇa , and the Pandavas (who are in disguise). Among

3726-453: A series of misfortunes that lead Nala to abandon Damayantī, she is left heartbroken and alone. Believing Nala to be dead, and faced with the prospect of life without him, Damayantī decides to organize another Svayaṃvara . However, this time, the purpose is not merely to find a new husband but to uncover whether Nala is still alive. The conditions she sets for this Svayaṃvara are such that only Nala, disguised as Bahuka, can fulfill them. During

3888-468: A strong philosophical basis. Roman law, similar to Athenian law, was created by men in favor of men. Women had no public voice and no public role, which only improved after the 1st century to the 6th century BCE. Freeborn women of ancient Rome were citizens who enjoyed legal privileges and protections that did not extend to non-citizens or slaves . Roman society , however, was patriarchal , and women could not vote, hold public office , or serve in

4050-399: A woman in such a position was called frilla . There was no distinction made between children born inside or outside of marriage: both had the right to inherit property after their parents, and there were no "legitimate" or "illegitimate" children. These liberties gradually disappeared after the introduction of Christianity, and from the late 13th century, they are no longer mentioned. During

4212-433: A woman's father died, she became legally emancipated ( sui iuris ) . A married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. Under classical Roman law , a husband had no right to abuse his wife physically or compel her to have sex. Wife beating was sufficient grounds for divorce or other legal action against

4374-604: A young sage, was chosen by Princess Kamadhyu during her svayaṃvara ceremony. However, envious suitors attacked the couple as they returned to Vimada’s home. Vimada then invoked the Ashvins, who intervened to save them. Chatterjee suggests that this instance of svayaṃvara bears a striking resemblance to those found in the epics. The Mahābhārata , with its extensive narrative scope, features numerous instances of Svayaṃvara , predominantly associated with female protagonists of noble lineage. Svayaṃvara appears approximately 23 times in

4536-528: Is "The Ontology of Performance," originally published in Unmarked: the politics of performance (1993). This biographical article about a women's rights activist is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This biography of an American academic is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Women%27s rights activist Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed

4698-556: Is a matrimonial tradition in ancient Indian society where a bride, usually from Kṣatriya (warrior) caste, selects her husband from a group of assembled suitors either by her own choice or a public contest between her suitors. This practice is mainly featured in the two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa , though its prevalence and portrayal vary significantly between them. Origins of Svayaṃvara can be traced back to

4860-471: Is driven by love and personal conviction. Secondly, the involvement of the gods in her first Svayaṃvara underscores the theme of divine intervention in human affairs, a common motif in the Mahābhārata; but unlike other instances, the gods are treated as antagonists in her story. Thirdly, the second Svayaṃvara demonstrates Damayantī's resourcefulness and determination. Faced with the possibility of losing her husband forever, she takes active steps to uncover

5022-406: Is not an evolution from an earlier concept of self-choice granted to women, but rather a distinct form that developed during the epic period of Hinduism , possibly having Indo-European roots. Hopkins also believes that the svayaṃvara may have supplanted an earlier kṣatriya practice of bride abduction, a custom that could occur with or without the bride’s consent. According to Hartmut Scharfe, if

Peggy Phelan - Misplaced Pages Continue

5184-474: Is not list as a form of marriage in the Dharmaśāstra , a collection of Sanskrit texts on law and conduct. Due to this, Svayaṃvara is sometimes regarded as the ninth form of Hindu marriage. The term Svayaṃvara is derived from Sanskrit , where it is composed of two parts: "s vayam " (स्वयम्) meaning "self" and "v ara " (वर) meaning "choice" or "desire." Therefore, the term literally translates to "self-choice". The term "Svayaṃvara" specifically refers to

5346-520: Is not only integral to the plot but also symbolizes unity and shared responsibility among the brothers. The significance of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara extends far beyond the mere act of marriage. It acts as a pivotal catalyst for the myriad conflicts that propel the Mahābhārata' s narrative. This event intensifies the resentment of the Kauravas and Karṇa towards the Pandavas, laying the groundwork for

5508-580: Is presented differently in various parts of the Rāmāyaṇa , leading to inconsistencies. Specifically, Robert Goldman points out that while Sītā herself refers to her marriage as a Svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, the earlier Bālakāṇḍa presents the event with different details, with the Bālakāṇḍa focusing more on the heroic aspect of the contest and the Ayodhyākāṇḍa presenting a more romanticized and dhārmic version of

5670-455: Is seen as an early and exceptional form, possibly reflecting an older tradition of more genuine female autonomy in marriage choices. This episode may reflect the Dharmaśāstra influence, where Svayaṃvara becomes a regulated means to ensure matrimonial compliance, diverging from the valor-centric Kṣatriya tradition. The Harivaṃśa is a significant Sanskrit text that serves as an appendix to

5832-458: Is that of safeguarding the household property created by men. According to Aristotle, the labour of women added no value because "the art of household management is not identical with the art of getting wealth, for the one uses the material which the other provides". Contrary to Plato's views, the Stoic philosophers argued for equality of the sexes, sexual inequality being in their view contrary to

5994-511: Is to go free, without any payment of money" ( Exodus 21:10–11 ). The Qur'an , which Muslims believe was revealed to Muhammad over the course of 23 years, provided guidance to the Islamic community and modified existing customs in Arab society . The Qur'an prescribes limited rights for women in marriage , divorce , and inheritance . By providing that the wife, not her family, would receive

6156-550: The Dharmashastras , and a third form which, aligning with the societal ideals of the kṣatriya class, saw the svayaṃvara evolve into a competitive event, where the bride's choice was frequently influenced by a contest of skill or valour among suitors. Brockington adds a subsequent phase that developed after the contest style, placing greater emphasis on the bride's agency and romantic ideals, as well as Dharmashastra's ordinance to marry. The Sanskrit Dharmashastras ,

6318-409: The oikos headed by the male kyrios . Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or another male relative. Once married, the husband became a woman's kyrios . As women were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the kyrios would do so on their behalf. Athenian women could only acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry, and inheritance, though her kyrios had

6480-582: The Ādiparvan (Book of Beginnings) and the Udyogaparvan (Book of Effort). The Kāśī princesses are expected to choose their husbands in their joint ceremony. Bhīṣma , the grand-uncle of the Kuru princes, attends the Svayaṃvara on behalf of his younger brother Vicitravīrya , who is too young and inexperienced to win a bride in combat. At the Svayaṃvara , Bhīṣma overpowers all the suitors and forcibly takes

6642-665: The Ādiparvan (the first book of the Mahābhārata ), 15 times in the Vanaparvan , 6 times in the Udyogaparvan , 3 times in the Dronaparvan , 2 times in the Sāntiparvan , and 1 time each in the Sabha , Bhīṣmaparvan , and Anusāsanaparvans . Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara is the most famous instance in the Mahābhārata . Textual references in the Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of this event. The Ādiparvan describes

Peggy Phelan - Misplaced Pages Continue

6804-469: The Ādiparvan of the Mahābhārata and the Araṇyakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa , both of which experienced substantial expansion during the later epic phase. Thus, according to John L Brockington, "the term seems to belong not so much to the earliest, heroic phase of the epics' development as to the next, more aesthetically and even romantically motivated phase and in fact to have become much less common by

6966-581: The Ṛg Veda , the oldest Hindu scripture, and suggests that the custom may have roots in the Indo-European tradition due to its similarity to the tale of Penelope and her many suitors in the Greek poem Odyssey . Alternatively, scholar Heramba Chatterjee Shashtri posits that Svayaṃvara possibly emerged from the Gāndharva form of marriage prevalent in ancient India. The Gāndharva marriage, which

7128-992: The Hellenistic period in Athens, the philosopher Aristotle thought that women would bring disorder and evil, therefore it was best to keep women separate from the rest of the society. This separation would entail living in a room called a gynaikeion , while looking after the duties in the home and having very little exposure to the male world. This was also to ensure that wives only had legitimate children from their husbands. Athenian women received little education, except home tutorship for basic skills such as spinning, weaving, cooking, and some knowledge of money. Although Spartan women were formally excluded from military and political life, an extremely small " upper crust " enjoyed considerable status as mothers of Spartan warriors. As men engaged in military activity, women took responsibility for running estates. Following protracted warfare in

7290-550: The Mahābhārata provide a detailed account of Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara . The episodes involving her first Svayaṃvara , her interactions with the gods, and her recognition of Nala are found in the Vana Parva (Mbh. 3.51-62), while the second Svayaṃvara and her reunion with Nala are described in the later sections of the same parva (Mbh. 3.68-72). The first Svayaṃvara of Damayantī is organized by her father, King Bhīma, after he becomes aware of her deep affection for Nala,

7452-697: The Mahābhārata , providing additional details about the lives of the Yādava dynasty and the divine aspects of the Kṛṣṇa's life. It expands upon and complements the main narrative of the Mahābhārata by offering enriched stories and supplementary episodes, thus playing a crucial role in the development of the epic's overarching themes and characters. In the Harivamśa , the portrayal of Svayaṃvara reveals an evolving narrative that emphasizes female autonomy. The text provides accounts of two significant Svayaṃvaras involving members of

7614-672: The Republic of China was overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao Zedong , and the People's Republic of China was founded in the same year. In May 1950 the People's Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made marriage legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the legal age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women. This

7776-485: The Svayaṃvara of Sāvitrī, along with Damayantī, as one of the more unusual and poignant instances of this practice, primarily because it closely adheres to the literal meaning of Svayaṃvara—self-choice—rather than the more common contest-based selection of a husband seen in other instances. In the story, when Savitrī, the renowned daughter of King Aśvapati of Mādra , reaches marriageable age, no suitor comes forward to ask for her hand, intimidated by her divine qualities and

7938-459: The Svayaṃvara through hearsay, introduces a personal and emotional dimension, shifting from traditional heroic ideals to a more individualistic and romantic view. Brockington views this Svayaṃvara as a transitional phase in the portrayal of Svayaṃvaras , contrasting with Draupadī’s focus on martial prowess. The narrative of the Kāśī princesses— Ambā , Ambikā , and Ambālikā —particularly appears in

8100-445: The bow of Śiva to win Sītā . The third type, Śauryaśulka Svayaṃvara , involved a contest or challenge for the bride’s hand, exemplified by Arjuna’s marriage to Draupadī . Svayamvara was conducted after a royal girl reached puberty, or attained maidenhood. In Sanskrit literature, the svayamvara follows a highly structured sequence, as outlined by Linguist Stephanie Jamison: While

8262-671: The city states of ancient Greece, they enjoyed a certain freedom of movement until the Archaic age . Records also exist of women in ancient Delphi , Gortyn , Thessaly , Megara , and Sparta owning land, the most prestigious form of private property at the time. However, after the Archaic age, legislators began to enact laws enforcing gender segregation, resulting in decreased rights for women. Women in Classical Athens had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of

SECTION 50

#1732776508699

8424-481: The svayamvara was also a potential source of conflict and violence in many cases, often placing the bride’s family in a precarious situation. Rejected suitors were sometimes hostile, and tales of retaliatory violence are prominent in epic and classical poetry. For example, after Indumatī’s svayamvara in Kālidāsa’s Raghuvaṃśa , suitors ambush the newlyweds, leading to a dramatic confrontation resolved only by

8586-430: The Ṛg Veda contains indirect references to Svayaṃvara through specific words and phrases that indicate the presence of this institution. One of the key terms she discusses is " vrá -", which she proposes might be a syncopated form of a feminine noun corresponding to the masculine "varū-", meaning "suitor" or "chooser." This term could refer to a "female chooser," implying a woman who selects her husband, which aligns with

8748-426: The " Three Obediences " promoted daughters to obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands, and widows to obey their sons. Women could not inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law also featured seven different types of divorces. A wife could be ousted if she failed to birth a son, committed adultery, disobeyed her parents-in-law, spoke excessively, stole,

8910-499: The 15th century the terminology "witchcraft" was definitely viewed as something feminine as opposed to prior years. Famous witchcraft manuals such as the Malleus Maleficarum and Summis Desiderantes depicted witches as diabolical conspirators who worshipped Satan and were primarily women. Culture and art at the time depicted these witches as seductive and evil, further fuelling moral panic in fusion with rhetoric from

9072-467: The 19th century. For the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding. Foot-binding involved the alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about four inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty in movement, thus greatly limiting the activities of women. Due to the social custom that men and women should not be near each other,

9234-471: The 4th century BC, Spartan women owned approximately between 35% and 40% of all Spartan land and property. By the Hellenistic Period, some of the wealthiest Spartans were women. Spartan women controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. But despite relatively greater freedom of movement for Spartan women, their role in politics

9396-673: The Christian Middle Ages, the Medieval Scandinavian law applied different laws depending on the local county law, signifying that the status of women could vary depending on which county she was living in. The 16th and 17th centuries saw numerous witch trials , which resulted in thousands of people across Europe being executed, of whom 75–95% were women (depending on time and place). The executions mostly took place in German-speaking lands, and during

9558-572: The Christianization of Europe, there was little space for women's consent for marriage and marriage through purchase (or Kaufehe ) was actually the civil norm, as opposed to the alternative marriage through capture (or Raubehe ). However Christianity was slow to reach other Baltic and Scandinavian areas with it only reaching King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark in the year 950 AD. Those living under Norwegian and Icelandic laws used marriages to forge alliances or create peace, usually without

9720-487: The Church still emphasized the importance of love and mutual counselling within marriage and prohibited any form of divorce so the wife would have someone to look after her. In overall Europe during the Middle Ages, women were inferior to men in legal status. Throughout medieval Europe, women were pressured to not attend courts and leave all legal business affairs to their husbands. In the legal system, women were regarded as

9882-512: The Church. The origin of the female "witch" myth traces back to Roman mythical night creatures known as Strix, who were thought to appear and disappear mysteriously in the night. They were also believed by many to be of transformed women by their own supernatural powers. This Roman myth itself is believed to originate from the Jewish Sabbath which described non-supernatural women who would suspiciously leave and return home swiftly during

SECTION 60

#1732776508699

10044-563: The Garden of Eden. Women's inferiority also appears in much medieval writing; for example, the 1200 AD theologian Jacques de Vitry (who was rather sympathetic to women over others) emphasized female obedience towards their men and described women as slippery, weak, untrustworthy, devious, deceitful and stubborn. The church also promoted the Virgin Mary as a role model for women to emulate by being innocent in her sexuality, being married to

10206-586: The Icelandic Grágás and the Norwegian Frostating laws and Gulating laws. The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as odalkvinna , all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man. In the absence of male relatives, an unmarried woman with no son could, furthermore, inherit not only property, but also the position as head of the family from a deceased father or brother. A woman with such status

10368-700: The Kṣatriya right to seize brides by force over the Svayaṃvara’s intended purpose. This reflects the tension between dharma and heroic ideals, with Bhīṣma’s actions having significant consequences for Amba, who later seeks revenge and becomes Śikhaṇḍī, playing a crucial role in Bhīṣma's death. Vanita Ruth discusses how Amba’s story illustrates the limitations of women’s agency and the tragic outcomes of male-dominated decisions and emphasizes how women were often treated as prizes in political and familial strategies. In addition to

10530-527: The Middle Ages regarded women as weak, irrational, vulnerable to temptation, and constantly needing to be kept in check. This was reflected on the Christian culture in England through the story of Adam and Eve where Eve fell to Satan's temptations and led Adam to eat the apple. This belief was based on St. Paul , that the pain of childbirth was a punishment for this deed that led mankind to be banished from

10692-487: The Vedas, state that actual historical records of Svayaṃvara customs are rare, and they contend that by the early Common Era it functioned more as a literary device in the epics than as a commonly practiced tradition. In the epic narratives of the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa (c. 500 BCE–500 CE), the Svayaṃvara is depicted as a knightly, splendid, and festive ceremony, which, according to Indologist Edward W. Hopkins ,

10854-503: The Vedic period and few scholars suggest that it emerged from the Gāndharva marriage tradition , diverging from more ritualistic and arranged forms of marriage, and developed as a narrative device within the epics to highlight the heroism and valor of protagonists, aligning with the Kṣatriya ethos of competition and martial prowess. Despite being closely associated with the epics, Svayaṃvara

11016-514: The Yādava dynasty. Rukmiṇī 's Svayaṃvara, found in Appendix 20, though unconventional, involved her being abducted by Kṛṣṇa, whom she had already chosen in her heart. Rukmi’s daughter (Rukmiṇī's niece) held a Svayaṃvara where she selected Pradyumna , Kṛṣṇa's son, as her husband. In contrast to the Mahābhārata , Svayaṃvara in the Rāmāyaṇa is less frequent, with the term appearing six times in

11178-440: The absence of their brothers, do certain trades without their husbands, and widows could receive dower. In areas governed by Roman-based written laws, women were under male guardianship in matters involving property and law , with fathers overseeing daughters, husbands overseeing wives and uncles or male relatives overseeing widows. Throughout Europe, women's legal status centered around their marital status while marriage itself

11340-513: The allowance for a girl to choose her husband in the Manusmṛti to be a significant contradiction within a legal code otherwise intent on enforcing female dependence, and raises the question of why such independence would be granted under a system aimed at preserving women’s dependence. Professor Arti Dhand clarifies this question through the concepts of pravṛtti dharma and nivṛtti dharma . In this framework, pravṛtti dharma encourages active participation in worldly life, placing high importance on

11502-446: The authority of their husbands by transferring the authority to their male relatives. A wife's property and land also could not be taken by the husband without her family's consent but neither could the wife. This meant a woman could not transfer her property to her husband without her family or kinsman's consent either. In Swedish law, a woman would also only get half that of her brother in inheritance. Despite these legal issues, Sweden

11664-402: The basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others, they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against

11826-418: The bow by the "breadth of a hair". Arjuna, disguised as a Brahmin (priest caste), then takes up the challenge. Despite his incognito appearance, Arjuna's inherent skill and divine favor enable him to accomplish the task with ease. He successfully strings the bow and hits the target, winning Draupadī's hand in marriage. The victory of Arjuna, a Kṣatriya warrior disguised as a Brahmin, sparks outrage among

11988-439: The bridegroom’s strategic use of a magic arrow. Scholars also observe that, despite its literal meaning, most svayaṃvaras did not provide complete freedom of choice to the bride. According to Shakambari Jayal, svayaṃvara may have allowed for some degree of preference rather than full autonomy in choosing a spouse. According to Schmidt, despite the ceremony’s premise of self-choice, it is apparent in many literary accounts that

12150-437: The choice was sometimes predetermined or at least heavily influenced by the family. In agreement with Schmidt, Jamison warns that the term "svayamvara" misleadingly suggests the girl has independent control, whereas her autonomy is significantly restricted. The father manages the proceedings, including inviting suitors and determining their eligibility. Few svayamvaras genuinely allow for free choice; instead, they typically follow

12312-711: The college was enabled in Guangzhou, China, by a large donation from Edward A.K. Hackett (1851–1916) of Indiana, US. The college was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese women's social status. During the Republic of China (1912–49) and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally bought and sold into slavery under the guise of domestic servants. These women were known as Mui Tsai . The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution . However, in 1949

12474-432: The competitors, Karṇa, known for his unmatched archery skills, steps forward to attempt the challenge. However, Draupadī, who is granted a degree of choice in the matter, rejects Karṇa, citing his low birth as a sūta (charioteer), though this scene is not universally agreed upon in various recensions of the text. There are variations regarding Karṇa's participation; many renditions of the text describe him failing to string

12636-403: The concept of Svayaṃvara . For example, Jamison analyzes the phrase " svayaṃ sā varūte " (she chooses for herself) as a possible underlying expression in the Ṛg Veda . Although this formula does not appear overtly in the text, Jamison argues that it might exist in a more subtle, encoded form, suggesting that the concept of a maiden choosing her own husband was known in Vedic society. One of

12798-511: The concept of choice (central to Svayaṃvara ) was so embedded in the culture that it could be creatively manipulated by the poets. Jamision also cites that the passage the wedding of Sarañyu , mentioned in Rigveda 10.17.1, is a clear example of Svayaṃvara . James Talboys Wheeler also recognised the presence of Svayaṃvaras in the Ṛg Veda, citing the example of Svayaṃvara of Sūryā and Vimada. Ancient scholar Sāyaṇa explains that Vimada,

12960-430: The cultural values of the time, particularly the emphasis on strength and valor in choosing a husband, as well as the father’s role in arranging marriages. The bow of Śiva, central to the contest, symbolizes the weight of dharma, which Rāma, as an avatar of Vishnu , is destined to uphold. Textual references from the Rāmāyaṇa underscore the significance of this event. Sītā, when recounting her marriage to Anasūyā later in

13122-476: The development of Roman law. Stoics of the Imperial era such as Seneca and Musonius Rufus developed theories of just relationships . While not advocating equality in society or under the law, they held that nature gives men and women equal capacity for virtue and equal obligations to act virtuously, and that therefore men and women had an equal need for philosophical education. These philosophical trends among

13284-473: The early Vedic period enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of life. Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. Rigvedic verses suggest that women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their own husbands in a practice called swayamvar or live-in relationship called Gandharva marriage . Although most women lacked political and equal rights in

13446-617: The entire epic four in Ayodhyākāṇḍa , and one each in the Bālakāṇḍa and the Yuddhakāṇḍa . The Rāmāyaṇa emphasizes the moral and divine aspects of marriage, contrasting with the more martial and heroic portrayal in the Mahābhārata . Sītā’s Svayaṃvara is a critical event in the Rāmāyaṇa , narrated in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa of the text. Organized by King Janaka of Mithilā , the Svayaṃvara

13608-448: The epic svayaṃvara reflects an authentic tradition among kṣatriyas , it may have served as a mechanism for alleviating political pressures associated with marriage alliances. In a social class where marriages were commonly arranged to secure political alliances, often with limited consideration for the preferences of the bride, the svayaṃvara allowed the woman a degree of autonomy in choosing her husband. Alternatively, she might yield to

13770-434: The epic authors do not classify it as a "svayaṃvara." The portrayal of svayaṃvara in the Rāmāyaṇa , particularly regarding Sītā , shifts to a more religious and moral framework, emphasising the divinity of the protagonist Rāma . The concept of svayaṃvara continued to evolve in later Indian literature, often highlighting the bride’s autonomy or divine intervention. Stories such as those of Damayantī and Rukmiṇī , written in

13932-469: The epic, refers to it as a Svayaṃvara, emphasizing the traditional elements of choice and valor that defined the event (Rām. 2.110.47-52). Additionally, the description of the bow and the challenge it posed is detailed in the Bālakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa , where Janaka explicitly states that Sītā will marry only the man who can string the bow (Rām. 1.65-70). Scholars note that the account of Sītā’s Svayaṃvara

14094-401: The event, Damayantī recognizes Nala despite his disguise, and it restores their marriage and reaffirms their bond. Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara is significant for several reasons. It is one of the rare instances in the Mahābhārata where the bride’s personal choice is crucial to the marriage. Unlike other Svayaṃvaras that emphasize the suitors' valor or the father's decision, Damayantī’s choice

14256-525: The events as they are narrated in the Bālakāṇḍa, indicating that the Rāmāyaṇa may have undergone textual evolution, with later additions or modifications affecting the consistency of the narrative. Another instance is the Svayaṃvara of the daughters of King Kuśanābha , mentioned in the Balakāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa . When approached by the god Vāyu , the daughters refuse his advances, stating that their father will arrange their Svayaṃvara. This episode emphasizes

14418-411: The events. The word Svayaṃvara is never used in the Bālakāṇḍa; instead, the term "vīryaśulka" (prize of heroism) is repeatedly used to describe Sītā. This term contrasts with Sītā’s later description of her marriage as a Svayaṃvara in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, where the emphasis is on her being given away by her father, Janaka. Goldman argues that Sītā's recounting in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa does not align perfectly with

14580-589: The evidence is too indirect and that the Ṛg Veda does not provide a clear picture of the Svayaṃvara as an established institution. He suggests that the Ṛg Vedic poets may have been more concerned with cosmic and symbolic themes than with depicting real social institutions. Schmidt proposed that though svayamvara is not present in the Vedas, but the custom reflects an older Indic custom with Indo-European parallels, particularly in Zoroastrian Iran. However, scholars such as Stephanie W. Jamison , suggest that

14742-651: The exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men and boys. Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include the right to bodily integrity and autonomy , to be free from sexual violence , to vote , to hold public office, to enter into legal contracts, to have equal rights in family law , to work , to fair wages or equal pay , to have reproductive rights , to own property , and to education . Women in ancient Sumer could buy, own, sell, and inherit property. They could engage in commerce, and testify in court as witnesses. Nonetheless, their husbands could divorce them for mild infractions, and

14904-527: The failed expectations of the Svayaṃvara and Śālva’s inability to win play significant roles in Amba’s misfortune, highlighting the limited autonomy of the princesses, who are portrayed as passive in their destinies. Scholarly assessments characterize this event as a violent assertion of power rather than a genuine Svayaṃvara where the bride has true choice. Bhīṣma’s actions disrupt the conventional contest among suitors, and he justifies his actions by prioritizing

15066-496: The family business or to acquire literacy skills that enabled them to work as scribes and secretaries. The woman who achieved the greatest prominence in the ancient world for her learning was Hypatia of Alexandria , who taught advanced courses to young men and advised the Roman prefect of Egypt on politics. Her influence put her into conflict with the bishop of Alexandria , Cyril , who may have been implicated in her violent death in

15228-488: The father's role in deciding marriage, with the daughters showing obedience to patriarchal norms. This Svayaṃvara does not actually result in a contest but underscores the theme of parental control over marriage choices, contrasting with the supposed freedom of choice implied in the Svayaṃvara tradition. In the same section, the Rāmāyaṇa tells the tale of Somadā, a Gandharvī who persuades the sage Cūlina to marry her. While not

15390-458: The formal ceremony of selecting a groom in the Sanskrit epics. It's important to note that in certain significant instances where the bride chooses a husband independently, without a formal ceremony, the term "Svayaṃvara" is not used—such as in the case of Sāvitrī choosing Satyavan. The term appears 52 times in the Mahābhārata and only 6 times in the Rāmāyaṇa . The term is predominantly used in

15552-429: The husband. Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women in ancient Rome could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business. Some acquired and disposed of sizable fortunes, and are recorded in inscriptions as benefactors in funding major public works. Roman women could appear in court and argue cases, though it was customary for them to be represented by

15714-454: The idea of Svayaṃvara . The Ṛg Vedic poets often engage in formulaic play and metonymy, where different elements are substituted within a familiar formula. For example, in some hymns, the "chariot" of the Aśvins is chosen instead of the suitors themselves, indicating the close association between the vehicle and the husband in the wedding ritual. This kind of metonymic substitution suggests that

15876-430: The influence of local cultural contexts and the specific narrative priorities of diverse communities. For instance, some South Indian versions might place greater emphasis on divine intervention and Kṛṣṇa's role, whereas northern recensions may highlight different aspects. In certain versions, the focus might be on Draupadī’s autonomy and the implications of her marriage to the five Pandavas, while others might concentrate on

16038-660: The king of Nishadha . Damayantī, having heard of Nala's virtues and character through messengers, falls in love with him even before meeting him. Nala, equally enchanted by the descriptions of Damayantī, also desires to marry her. King Bhīma invites kings and princes from across the land to participate in the Svayaṃvara . Among the suitors are not only human princes but also several gods who have disguised themselves as Nala to win Damayantī’s hand. The gods include Indra , Agni , Varuṇa , and Yama , who, despite their divine status, are unable to sway Damayantī’s heart away from Nala. When

16200-462: The later phase of the epic era, illustrate a shift towards individual agency and romantic ideals. Svayamvara remained as a significant plot device in many classical and mediaeval literature such as Kālidāsa ’s Raghuvaṃśa and Chand Bardai 's Prithviraj Raso . Scholars tend to classify the self-choice ceremony in the Hindu literature into two broad categories: According scholar Vettam Mani ,

16362-401: The law books of Hinduism , such as the Manusmṛti (c. 1st century CE), permit a girl to choose her own husband if her father fails to arrange her marriage within three years after her first menses. Although this is very different from the ritualised and grand customs termed as "Svayaṃvaras," many scholars consider it as a sub-type of the custom, granted to girls of all castes. Jamison finds

16524-584: The laws of nature. In doing so, they followed the Cynics , who argued that men and women should wear the same clothing and receive the same kind of education. They also saw marriage as a moral companionship between equals rather than a biological or social necessity and practiced these views in their lives as well as their teachings. The Stoics adopted the views of the Cynics and added them to their own theories of human nature, thus putting their sexual egalitarianism on

16686-469: The list has led to the classification of it as the ninth form of marriage. P.V. Kane and Heramba Chatterjee suggest that the Svayaṃvara may have been a later addition to the canon of marriage practices, possibly arising from less formalized traditions like the Gāndharva marriage , a form of marriage recognized in Smṛti literature that is based on mutual consent and affection. Ludwik Sternbach explains that

16848-639: The military. Women of the upper classes exercised political influence through marriage and motherhood. During the Roman Republic , the mothers of the Gracchus brothers and of Julius Caesar were noted as exemplary women who advanced the careers of their sons. During the Imperial period , women of the emperor's family could acquire considerable political power and were regularly depicted in official art and on coinage. The central core of Roman society

17010-586: The minimum age for girls was 12, while it was 14 for boys. The rate of Wergild suggested that women in these societies were valued mostly for their breeding purposes. The Wergild of woman was double that of a man with the same status in the Aleman and Bavarian legal codes. The Wergild of a woman meanwhile was triple that of a man with the same status in Salic and Repuarian legal codes for women of child-bearing age, which constituted from 12 to 40 years old. One of

17172-466: The mistreatment of women during this time. He was well known for advocating for marital equality among the sexes in his work during the 17th century. According to a study published in the American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities, the condition for women during Locke's time were as quote: Swayamvar Svayaṃvara ( Sanskrit : स्वयंवर lit.   ' self-choice ' )

17334-529: The most Germanic codes from the Lombard tradition legislated that women be under the control of a male mundoald , which constituted her father, husband, older son or eventually the king as a last resort if she had no male relatives. A woman needed her mundold's permission to manage property but still could own her own lands and goods. Certain areas with Visigothic inheritance laws until the 7th century were favorable to women while all other laws were not. Before

17496-454: The most compelling pieces of evidence for the Svayaṃvara in the Ṛg Veda is found in the marriage of Sūryā, the daughter of the Sun. This myth, which is prominently featured in the Ṛg Vedic marriage hymn (X.85), serves as a divine model for human marriage and is often interpreted as reflecting a Svayaṃvara scenario. In this hymn, Sūryā is depicted as choosing her husband from among the gods, with

17658-453: The mythological and ritual symbolism of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara , interpreting it as a key event that reinforces Draupadī’s central role in the cosmic and dharmic order of the epic. M.J. Kashalikar adds that different cultural and religious retellings, such as Jain texts , portray the Svayaṃvara with variations, reflecting diverse interpretations of her role. V.S. Sukthankar notes that few aspects of Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara , although potentially

17820-787: The next phase again (that of the Śānti and Anusāsana parvans of the Mahābhārata and the Bāla and Uttara kāṇḍas of the Rāmāyaṇa ), with its more moral and religious emphasis". The origins of the Svayaṃvara are somewhat ambiguous, with scholars tracing the practice back to the early Vedic period (c. 1500–1100 BCE). Historian Hanns-Peter Schmidt suggests that its origins may lie in ancient Indic customs with parallels in Indo-European tradition , as seen in Zoroastrian Iran . In support of this, linguist Stephanie W. Jamison notes several indirect references to Svayaṃvara in

17982-551: The night. Authors of the Malleus Maleficarum strongly established the link between witchcraft and women by proclaiming a greater likelihood for women to be addicted to "evil". The authors and inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprengerh justified these beliefs by claiming women had greater credulity, impressionability, feeble minds, feeble bodies, impulsivity and carnal natures which were flaws susceptible to "evil" behavior and witchcraft. These sorts of beliefs at

18144-448: The ordinary Svayaṃvara in Smṛti literature is not a formalized or celebrated event as seen in epics but rather a legal provision that grants a maiden the right to choose her husband under specific circumstances. distinguishing it from the more celebrated and dramatic Svayaṃvaras depicted in ancient Indian epics. Sternbach identifies an "ordinary Svayaṃvara" within the Smṛti texts, which is not

18306-542: The ordinary Svayaṃvara is closely linked to this concept, reflecting similar values of personal choice and agency. However, the Smṛtis emphasize that this autonomy is exercised within limits, ensuring that the marriage conforms to societal norms. Sternbach further discusses how the Smṛtis provide practical guidelines on how a woman should proceed with her choice if she finds herself in this situation, including instructions on approaching

18468-400: The other suitors, particularly the Kauravas and Karṇa. Upon returning to their mother Kuntī with Draupadī, Arjuna and his brothers inadvertently place her in a situation where she becomes the common wife of all five Pandavas. This unusual marital arrangement, while rooted in a misunderstanding, is sanctioned by divine and scriptural reasoning within the epic. Draupadī’s marriage to the Pandavas

18630-450: The outcome of a skill-based competition, which relieved her father of the responsibility of choosing a suitor, thereby avoiding potential conflicts with powerful neighbouring rulers. In the epics, the grand Svayaṃvaras function as significant narrative devices leading to the marriages of several female protagonists. Brockington asserts that the original svayaṃvaras in these epics are centred on valour, such as Draupadi’s svayaṃvara, which

18792-399: The political ramifications of the Svayaṃvara , especially in relation to the Kauravas. Scholars like J.L. Brockington and V.S. Sukthankar emphasize that Draupadī's Svayaṃvara is a quintessential example of the Kṣatriya ideal of heroism and valor. The contest where Arjuna wins Draupadī’s hand by hitting a target reflects the epic’s emphasis on martial prowess. Alf Hiltebeitel highlights

18954-574: The practical concerns of ensuring timely marriages and the importance of procreation in ancient Indian society, which viewed remaining unmarried as socially and religiously undesirable. In terms of conditions and restrictions, Sternbach notes that while the ordinary Svayaṃvara grants the maiden some autonomy, her choice is still governed by societal expectations. The Smṛtis require that the chosen husband be of equal caste and rank, blameless in character, and suitable in terms of family background, age, health, and other qualities. This ensures that even though

19116-614: The pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law , to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work." For Arab women , Islam included the prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood. Women generally gained greater rights than women in pre-Islamic Arabia and medieval Europe . Women were not accorded such legal status in other cultures until centuries later. According to Professor William Montgomery Watt , when seen in such

19278-426: The preparation for the Svayaṃvara , the gathering of suitors, and the specific details of the contest (Mbh. 1.174-185). Draupadī herself refers to the event in later parts of the epic, indicating its lasting importance in her life and the broader story (Mbh. 2.62.4a). Draupadī is the daughter of King Drupada of Pāñcāla . King Drupada organizes a Svayaṃvara to find a suitable husband for his daughter. He sets up

19440-425: The previously listed more famous instances, several other instances of Svayaṃvara are attested in the Mahābhārata . Kuntī participated in a Svayaṃvara arranged by her father, where she chose Pāṇḍu as her husband out of the crowd of suitors. Devakī , the mother of Kṛṣṇa , had a Svayaṃvara that is mentioned in the epic, though details are sparse. Mādhavī , after being passed among various kings by Galava to fulfill

19602-420: The prince of Ayodhyā , at the Svayaṃvara marked a turning point in the event. Accompanied by his brother Lakṣmaṇa and the sage Viśvāmitra , Rāma stepped forward at Viśvāmitra’s encouragement. To the astonishment of everyone present, Rāma effortlessly lifted the bow, strung it, and broke it in half, thereby winning Sītā's hand in marriage. This act was not only a demonstration of Rāma’s physical strength but also

19764-405: The procreative potential of men and women. As Dhand explains, pravṛtti dharma seeks to maximise the reproductive capacity of individuals, revealing a driving logic behind the svayaṃvara: a practical emphasis on ensuring women’s marital and reproductive roles are fulfilled, particularly when their parents have neglected to arrange a timely marriage. Many scholars, though accepting its existence in

19926-614: The property of men so any threat or injury to them was the duty of their male guardians. In Irish law, women were forbidden to act as witnesses in courts. In Welsh law, women's testimony could be accepted towards other women but not against men, but Welsh laws, specifically The Laws of Hywel Dda , also reflected accountability for men to pay child maintenance for children born out of wedlock, which empowered women to claim rightful payment. In France, women's testimony had to corroborate with other accounts or it would not be accepted. Although women were expected to not attend courts , this however

20088-537: The prophetess Anna Trapnell . English and American Quakers believed that men and women were equal. Many Quaker women were preachers. Despite relatively greater freedom for Anglo-Saxon women , until the mid-19th century, writers largely assumed that a patriarchal order was a natural order that had always existed. This perception was not seriously challenged until the 18th century when Jesuit missionaries found matrilineality in native North American peoples. The philosopher John Locke opposed marital inequality and

20250-531: The right to dispose of a woman's property. Athenian women could only enter into a contract worth less than the value of a " medimnos of barley" (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. Women were excluded from ancient Athenian democracy , both in principle and in practice. Slaves could become Athenian citizens after being freed, but no woman ever acquired citizenship in ancient Athens. In classical Athens women were also barred from becoming poets, scholars, politicians, or artists. During

20412-435: The rights to purchase, own, sell, and inherit property. The Bible guarantees women the right to sex with their husbands and orders husbands to feed and clothe their wives. Breach of these Old Testament rights by a polygamous man gave the woman grounds for divorce: "If he marries another woman, he must not deprive the first one of her food, clothing and marital rights. If he does not provide her with these three things, she

20574-412: The rivalry that ultimately leads to the great Kurukṣetra war . Moreover, Draupadī’s Svayaṃvara underscores profound themes of fate, dharma , and divine intervention in human affairs. Her marriage to the Pandavas is not just a personal union but a fulfillment of a destiny intricately shaped by her past life and divine will. The Svayaṃvara also varies significantly across different recensions, reflecting

20736-506: The ruling elite are thought to have helped improve the status of women under the Empire. Rome had no system of state-supported schooling, and education was available only to those who could pay for it. The daughters of senators and knights seem to have regularly received a primary education (for ages 7 to 12). Regardless of gender, few people were educated beyond that level. Girls from a modest background might be schooled in order to help with

20898-414: The same rights under the law as a man, however rightful entitlements depended upon social class . Landed property descended in the female line from mother to daughter, and women were entitled to administer their own property. Women in ancient Egypt could buy, sell, be a partner in legal contracts , be executors in wills and witnesses to legal documents, bring court action, and adopt children. Women during

21060-456: The scripture Devī Bhāgavatapurāṇa classifies Svayaṃvara into three types. The first, Icchā Svayaṃvara , allowed the bride complete freedom to choose her husband based on her preference. It involved an assembly at which the bride-to-be simply chooses between her suitors, with Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara being a prime example. The second type, Savyavasthā Svayaṃvara , required the suitor to meet specific qualifications, such as Rāma drawing

21222-450: The stories about shieldmaidens are unconfirmed, but some archaeological finds such as the Birka female Viking warrior may indicate that at least some women in military authority existed. A married woman could divorce her husband and remarry. It was also socially acceptable for a free woman to cohabit with a man and have children with him without marrying him, even if that man was married;

21384-445: The suitor Duryodhana (antagonist of the epic) by walking past him. Despite her clear refusal, Duryodhana, driven by pride and with help from Karṇa , forcibly abducts her. This event is notable as it is the only instance in the Mahābhārata where a bride is taken against her will. Although not explicitly termed as Svayaṃvara, academics comment that the narrative of Sāvitrī 's marriage closely aligns with its principles. They discuss

21546-440: The svayamvara was not a marriage itself, it marked the woman’s selection of a partner, and additional rites often followed to formalize the union. Draupadi’s svayamvara with the Pandavas in the Mahābhārata and Indumati’s in Kālidāsa’s Raghuvaṃśa both culminate in kanyādāna -style weddings. This suggests that, in many contexts, svayamvara served as a preliminary selection process that required subsequent marriage rites to formalize

21708-554: The three princesses back to Hastināpura . This action aligns with the Rākṣasa form of marriage, where a bride is taken by force after defeating her other suitors. Upon their return, Ambā, the eldest sister, reveals that she was already in love with Śālva, the king of Saubha, and had intended to marry him. Hearing this, Bhīṣma, adhering to his vow of celibacy, allows Ambā to go to Śālva. However, when Ambā reaches Śālva, he rejects her, citing his dishonor in being defeated by Bhīṣma. Left without

21870-413: The time comes for her to make her choice, Damayantī, guided by her unwavering love, identifies Nala among the disguised gods. Her devotion is so strong that even the gods, recognizing her steadfast love and purity, bless the union instead of opposing it. Thus, Damayantī chooses Nala as her husband. The second Svayaṃvara occurs under much different circumstances and is unique in the epic's context. After

22032-402: The time could send female hermits or beggars to trials just for offering remedies or herbal medicine. This set of developed myths eventually lead to the 16–17th century witch trials which found thousands of women burned at the stake. By 1500, Europe was divided into two types of secular law. One was customary law, which was predominant in northern France, England and Scandinavia, and the other

22194-575: The truth and restore her marriage, showing both agency and resilience. This second Svayaṃvara also adds depth to her character, portraying her not just as a passive recipient of fate but as an individual capable of shaping her destiny. Scholars describe it as a Svayaṃvara true to its literal meaning, where the bride enjoys full autonomy without paternal influence. They have noted that Damayantī’s Svayaṃvara exemplifies this ideal, with Thomas Parkhill discussing its romanticized narrative. Parkhill highlights that Damayantī’s love for Nala, established before

22356-451: The twin Aśvins being her primary suitors. Jamison points out that the repeated references to Sūryā's choice, the involvement of the Aśvins, and the emphasis on the chariot (a key element in the wedding) suggest a ritualized form of Svayaṃvara . She also notes that the Ṛg Veda uses the verb " vṛṇīta " (chooses) in contexts that imply a maiden’s active selection of her husband, further supporting

22518-526: The union in line with social expectations. Scholars observe that the svayamvara format appears to be restricted to royal daughters of the Kshatriya caste. However, a few instances of inter-caste unions are recorded, though these often led to conflict and disapproval. Historian Romila Thapar notes that svayamvaras were frequently seen as status symbols among royal families, who used them to enhance their social standing. Thapar argues that marriage into

22680-405: The union of two of the most revered figures in Hindu tradition. The Svayaṃvara of Sītā holds significant importance in the Rāmāyaṇa for several reasons. Firstly, it highlights Rāma’s role as a divinely ordained hero, whose actions are guided by higher powers. His victory in the contest is portrayed as not just a feat of strength but as a fulfillment of his destiny. Secondly, the event reinforces

22842-461: The virtue she possessed. Her father, concerned by this, instructs her to find a husband herself—a directive that perfectly aligns with the etymological essence of the term "Svayaṃvara". Savitrī travels on a chariot alone in search of a suitable match, which is unusual given the strict societal norms for women. Finally she finds her match in Satyavan, the son of a blind, exiled king. This Svayaṃvara

23004-490: The vīryaśulka model, where suitors compete in tests of valor set by the father, culminating in the girl selecting a "winner." This process resolves the father's concerns but leaves little room for the daughter’s independent decision-making. The Ṛg Veda , being one of the oldest and most enigmatic texts in Indian literature, provides limited direct evidence for Svayaṃvara . Some scholars, such as Hanns-Peter Schmidt, argue that

23166-423: The woman is exercising her right to choose, her choice aligns with and reinforces the established social hierarchy. The ordinary Svayaṃvara thus serves as a corrective measure, allowing a woman to marry if her guardian fails in his duties, but still within a controlled framework that upholds social order. Sternbach also draws a connection between the ordinary Svayaṃvara and the Gāndharva vivāha . He suggests that

23328-687: The women of China were reluctant to be treated by male doctors of Western Medicine. This resulted in a tremendous need for female doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927) was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (USA) to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women (夏葛女子醫學院),

23490-566: The women's say or consent. However divorce rights were permitted to women who suffered physical abuse but protections from harm were not given to those termed "wretched" women such as beggars, servants and slave women. Having sex with them through force or without consent usually had no legal consequence or punishment. During the Viking Age , women had a relatively free status in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, illustrated in

23652-457: The year 415 at the hands of a Christian mob. Since Byzantine law was essentially based on Roman law, the legal status of women did not change significantly from the practices of the 6th century. But the traditional restriction of women in public life as well as the hostility against independent women still continued. Greater influence of Greek culture contributed to strict attitudes about women's roles being domestic instead of being public. There

23814-552: Was Roman-based written law, which was predominant in southern France, Italy, Spain and Portugal. Customary laws favoured men more than women. For example, inheritance among the elites in Italy, England, Scandinavia and France was passed on to the eldest male heir. In all of the regions, the laws also gave men substantial powers over the lives, property and bodies of their wives. However, there were some improvements for women as opposed to ancient custom; for example, they could inherit in

23976-454: Was also a growing trend of women who were not prostitutes, slaves or entertainers to be entirely veiled. Like previous Roman law, women could not be legal witnesses, hold administrations or run banking but they could still inherit properties and own land. As a rule, the influence of the church was exercised in favor of the abolition of the disabilities imposed by the older law upon celibacy and childlessness, of increased facilities for entering

24138-481: Was an essential part of countryside land reform as women could no longer legally be sold to landlords. The official slogan was "Men and women are equal; everyone is worth his (or her) salt". Both before and during biblical times, the roles of women in society were severely restricted. Nonetheless, in the Bible, women are depicted as having the right to represent themselves in court, the ability to make contracts, and

24300-402: Was based on mutual consent and romantic choice, might have provided the conceptual foundation for the Svayaṃvara . This contrasts with other forms of marriage prevalent in ancient India, such as Arranged Marriage or Sacrificial Marriage. Shashtri further proposes that the development of svayaṃvaras unfolded in three phases—an early form akin to the gāndharva marriage, a second form endorsed by

24462-428: Was designed to find a suitable husband for Sītā , Janaka's daughter, who was renowned for her beauty, virtue, and divine origin. The challenge set for the suitors was to string and break a colossal bow, Pināka , which had once belonged to Lord Śiva . This bow was so formidable that none of the assembled princes and warriors from various kingdoms could even lift it, let alone string and break it. The arrival of Rāma ,

24624-498: Was encouraged by the state. By 27–14 BCE the ius tritium liberorum ("legal right of three children") granted symbolic honors and legal privileges to a woman who had given birth to three children and freed her from any male guardianship. In the earliest period of the Roman Republic, a bride passed from her father's control into the "hand" (manus) of her husband. She then became subject to her husband's potestas , though to

24786-493: Was given to bouts of jealousy, or suffered from an incurable or loathsome disease or disorder. But there were also limits for the husband – for example, he could not divorce if she observed her parents-in-law's mourning sites, if she had no family to return to, or if the husband's family used to be poor and since then had become richer. Confucian thinking relegated women in China to subordinate roles and foot binding left them homemakers. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in

24948-417: Was largely ahead and much superior in its treatment towards women than most European countries. Medieval marriages among the elites were arranged in a way that would meet the interests of the family as a whole. Theoretically a woman needed to consent before a marriage took place and the Church encouraged this consent to be expressed in present tense and not future. Marriage could also take place anywhere and

25110-472: Was meant for free choice or as a contest of strength leads to her later resentment and tragic conflict with Bhīṣma. Unlike Ambikā and Ambalikā, who do not object to marrying Bhīṣma's brother, Vichitravīrya, Ambā voices her objections only after reaching Bhīṣma's home. This discrepancy turns the Svayaṃvara into a focal point for assigning blame, with Amba grappling with responsibility—whether it lies with herself, her father, Bhīṣma, or Śālva. The text suggests that

25272-442: Was not always true. Sometimes, regardless of expectations, women did participate and attend court cases and court meetings. But women could not act as justices in courts, be attorneys or members of a jury, or accuse another person of a felony unless it was the murder of her husband. For the most part, the best thing a woman could do in medieval courts was to observe the legal proceedings taking place. Swedish law protected women from

25434-416: Was referred to as ringkvinna , and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family clan, such as the right to demand and receive fines for the slaughter of a family member, unless she married, by which her rights were transferred to her husband. After the age of 20, an unmarried woman, referred to as maer and mey , reached legal majority, had the right to decide her place of residence, and

25596-483: Was regarded as her own person before the law. An exception to her independence was the right to choose a marriage partner, as marriages were normally arranged by the clan. Widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women. Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses ( gydja ) and oracles ( sejdkvinna ); within art as poets ( skalder ) and rune masters ; and as merchants and medicine women. They may also have been active within military office:

25758-663: Was the pater familias or the male head of the household who exercised his authority over all his children, servants, and wife. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. Similar to Athenian women, Roman women had a guardian or as it was called "tutor" who managed and oversaw all her activity. This tutelage had limited female activity but by the first century to sixth century BCE, tutelage became very relaxed and women were accepted to participate in more public roles such as owning and managing property or acting as municipal patrons for gladiator games and other entertainment activities Childbearing

25920-457: Was the biggest factor in restricting women's autonomy. Custom, statute and practice not only reduced women's rights and freedoms but prevented single or widowed women from holding public office on the justification that they might one day marry. According to English Common Law , which developed from the 12th century onward, all property which a wife held at the time of marriage became a possession of her husband. Eventually, English courts forbade

26082-435: Was the same as Athenian women. Plato acknowledged that extending civil and political rights to women would substantively alter the nature of the household and the state. Aristotle , who had been taught by Plato, denied that women were slaves or subject to property, arguing that "nature has distinguished between the female and the slave", but he considered wives to be "bought". He argued that women's main economic activity

26244-466: Was written in the early epic phase of the Mahābhārata , where Arjuna , disguised as a brāhmaṇa, wins her hand through an extraordinary display of archery skill. Brockington also observes that the story of Sāvitrī, where her father is unable to find her a husband, leading her to choose one herself, closely aligns with the practices outlined in the Dharmashastra . However, despite this similarity,

#698301