93-651: The Pensées ( Thoughts ) is a collection of fragments written by the French 17th-century philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal . Pascal's religious conversion led him into a life of asceticism , and the Pensées was in many ways his life's work. It represented Pascal's defense of the Christian religion , and the concept of " Pascal's wager " stems from a portion of this work. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum forbids its printing or reading, as it conflicts with
186-425: A linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein , for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ordinary language . Phenomenologists , such as Edmund Husserl , characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences . They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to
279-660: A spiritual vision of fire that convinces him of God's presence, which leads to him dedicating the rest of his life to theological and philosophical interests. 1656 – Portuguese-Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza is excommunicated from the Portuguese-Jewish community in Amsterdam after questioning rabbinic authority. 1660 – The Royal Society in the United Kingdom establishes after 12 natural philosophers at Gresham College decide to commence
372-662: A "Colledge for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning.” 1668 – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz took up a diplomatic position in Mainz , which exposed him to an extensive range of philosophical thought and would lead to a prolific era of philosophical production for him. 1670 – Pascal's wager is introduced, causing philosophers to analyze the rationality behind belief in God based on cost-benefit analysis . 1687 – Isaac Newton's Principia demonstrates that
465-607: A Platonicall Song of the Soul by Henry More Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Issac Newton Certamen Philosophicum Propugnatæ Veritatis Divinæ ac Naturalis Adversus J. Bredenburgi Principia by Isaac Orobio de Castro Disputatio theologica practica de conscientia by Johannes Clausberg Two Treatises of Government by John Locke Epistola de tolerantia by John Locke An Essay Concerning Human Understanding by John Locke Tenure of Kings and Magistrates by John Milton An Essay Towards
558-10588: A Real Character, and a Philosophical Language by John Wilkins The Nature of Bodies by Kenelm Digby On the Immortality of Reasonable Souls by Kenelm Digby Observations upon Experimental Philosophy by Margaret Cavendish Grounds of Natural Philosophy by Margaret Cavendish Philosophical Letters by Margaret Cavendish Some Reflections Upon Marriage by Mary Astell Animadversiones by Pierre Gassendi Exercitationes by Pierre Gassendi Syntagma philosophicum by Pierre Gassendi Dasbodh by Samarth Ramdas Les Passions de l'âme by René Descartes Discours de la Méthode by René Descartes Meditationes de Prima Philosophia by René Descartes L’Homme by René Descartes Meditationes de Prima Philosophia by René Descartes Considérations sur l'état présent de la controverse touchant le T. S. Sacrement de l'autel by Robert Desgabets Discours de la communication ou transfusion du sang by Robert Desgabets Critique de la critique de la Recherche de la vérité by Robert Desgabets Traité de l’indéfectibilité des créatures by Robert Desgabets Supplément à la philosophie de M. Descartes by Robert Desgabets Guide de la raison naturelle by Robert Desgabets Traité de l’union de l’âme et du corps by Robert Desgabets De legibus naturae by Richard Cumberland Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes De Cive by Thomas Hobbes De Corpore by Thomas Hobbes De Motu, Loco et Tempore by Thomas Hobbes The Horae Subsecivae by Thomas Hobbes Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Secunda De Homine by Thomas Hobbes Problematica Physica by Thomas Hobbes Of Liberty and Necessity by Thomas Hobbes and John Bramhall Births [ edit ] 1600 – Elizabeth Foxcroft , English theosophist . 1601 – Baltasar Gracián , Spanish Jesuit and Baroque prose writer and philosopher . 1602 – William Chillingworth , English churchman. 1602 – Bartholomew Mastrius , Italian Conventual Franciscan philosopher and theologian. 1602 – Athanasius Kircher , German Jesuit scholar and polymath . 1603 – Kenelm Digby , English courtier, diplomat, and natural philosopher . 1603/ 04 – Issac Cardoso , Sephardic Jewish physician, philosopher, and polemic writer. 1603/04 – Anandghan , Śvetāmbara Jain monk , mystical poet and hymnist. 1605 – Thomas Browne , English polymath. 1606 – Mulla Mahmud Jaunpuri , Indian natural philosopher and astronomer. 1607 – Francesco Sforza Pallavicino , Italian cardinal , philosopher, theologian , literary theorist , and church historian . 1607 – Anna Maria van Schurman , Dutch painter, engraver , poet, classical scholar , philosopher, and feminist writer. 1608 – Samarth Ramdas , Indian Hindu saint, philosopher, poet, writer, and spiritual master. 1609 – Kâtip Çelebi , Turkish polymath. 1610 – Robert Desgabets , French Cartesian philosopher and Benedictine prior . 1610 – Huang Zongxi , Chinese naturalist, political theorist, philosopher, and soldier. 1612 – Antoine Arnauld , French Catholic theologian, philosopher, and mathematician. 1614 – Henry More , English philosopher. 1614 – John Wilkins , English Anglican clergyman , natural philosopher, and author. 1614 – Franciscus Mercurius van Helmon , Flemish alchemist and writer. 1617 – Ralph Cudworth , English Anglican clergyman, Christian Hebraist , classicist , theologian, and philosopher. 1617 – Isaac Orobio de Castro , Portuguese Jewish philosopher, physician, and religious apologist . 1617 – Tito Livio Burattini , Italian inventor, architect, Egyptologist , scientist, instrument-maker, traveller, engineer, and nobleman. 1618 – Jacques Rohault , French philosopher, physicist, and mathematician. 1618 – John Smith , English philosopher, theologian, and educator. 1619 – Walter Charleton , English natural philosopher and writer. 1619 – Nathaniel Culverwell , English author and theologian. 1620 – Claude Frassen , French Franciscan Scotist theologian and philosopher. 1620 - François Bernier , French physician and traveller. 1622 – Johannes Clauberg , German theologian and philosopher. 1623 – Margaret Cavendish , English philosopher, poet, scientist, fiction writer, and playwright. 1623 – Blaise Pascal , French physicist , inventor, philosopher, and Catholic writer. 1623 – William Petty , English economist, physician, scientist, and philosopher. 1623 – Arnold Geulincx , Flemish philosopher, metaphysician , and logician . 1626 – Géraud de Cordemoy , French philosopher, historian, and lawyer. 1626 – Christiaan Huygens , Dutch mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor. 1625 – Francesco D'Andrea , Italian jurist and natural philosopher. 1627 – Robert Boyle , Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, alchemist , and inventor. 1627 – Hugh Binning , Scottish philosopher and theologian. 1627 – Itō Jinsai , Japanese Confucian philosopher. 1630 – Pierre Daniel Huet , French churchman, scholar, editor , and Bishop of Soissons . 1630 – Kaibara Ekken , Japanese Neo-Confucianist philosopher and botanist . 1631 – Richard Cumberland , English philosopher and Bishop of Peterborough . 1631 – Ann Conway , English philosopher. 1632 – John Locke , English philosopher and physician. 1632 – Baruch Spinoza , Dutch philosopher, theologian, author, and political scientist . 1632 – Louis de La Forge , French philosopher. 1632 – Pierre-Sylvain Régis , French philosopher. 1633 – Walda Heywat , Ethiopian philosopher. 1634 – Balthasar Bekker , Dutch minister, philosopher, and theologian. 1635 – Yan Yuan , Chinese classicist, essayist, and philosopher. 1636 – Joseph Glanvill , English philosopher and clergyman. 1637 / 38 – Richard Burthogge , physician, magistrate , and philosopher. 1638 – Nicolas Malebranche , French Oratorian Catholic priest and rationalist philosopher. 1642 – Isaac Newton , English polymath . 1644 – Simon Foucher , French polemic philosopher. 1646 – Elena Cornaro Piscopia , Italian philosopher. 1647 – Pierre Bayle , French philosopher, author, and lexicographer . 1649 – Samuel Bold , English clergyman and controversialist . 1649 – Samuel Johnson , English clergyman and political writer. 1650 – Michelangelo Fardella , Italian scientist and mathematician. 1655 – Christian Thomasius , German jurist and philosopher. 1657 – John Norris , English philosopher, theologian, and poet. 1657 – Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle , French author and philosopher. 1659 – Damaris Cudworth Masham , English writer, philosopher, theologian, and proto-feminist . 1659 – William Wollaston , English teacher, priest, scholar, theologian, and philosopher. 1661 – René-Joseph de Tournemine , French Jesuit philosopher and theologian. 1661 – Claude Buffier , French philosopher, historian, and teacher. 1662 – Francesco Bianchini , Italian philosopher and scientist. 1663 – Jean-Pierre de Crousaz , Swiss theologian and philosopher. 1665 – Ingeborg i Mjärhult , Swedish natural healer , natural philosopher, soothsayer and spiritual visionary. 1665 – Richard Bentley , English classical scholar, critic, and theologian. 1665 – Peter Browne , Irish Anglican priest. 1666 – Ogyū Sorai , Japanese historian, philologist, philosopher, and translator. 1666 – Guru Gobind Singh , Sikh Guru , warrior, poet, and philosopher. 1668 – Giambattista Vico , Italian philosopher, rhetorician, historian, and jurist. 1668 – Tommaso Campailla , Italian philosopher, physician, politician and poet. 1670 – Bernard Mandeville , Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist, satirist, writer and physician. 1671 – Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury , English peer, Whig politician, philosopher, and writer. 1671 – Luigi Guido Grandi , Italian monk, priest, philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and engineer. 1672 – Gershom Carmichael , Scottish philosopher. 1675 – Samuel Clarke , English philosopher and Anglican cleric. 1675 – Yves Marie André , French Jesuit mathematician, philosopher, and essayist . 1676 – Anthony Collins , English philosopher and essayist. 1676 – Pietro Giannone , Italian philosopher, historian, and jurist. 1677 – Antonio Schinella Conti , Italian writer, translator, mathematician, philosopher, and physicist. 1678 – Robert Greene , English philosopher. 1679 – Christian Wolff , German philosopher. 1679 – Firmin Abauzit , French philosopher. 1679 – Catharine Trotter Cockburn , English novelist, dramatist, and philosopher. 1679 – Anthony Collins , English philosopher and essayist. 1680 – Arthur Collier , English Anglican priest and philosopher. 1683 – John Theophilus Desaguliers , French-born English natural philosopher, clergyman, engineer and freemason . 1685 – George Berkeley , Anglo-Irish philosopher. 1686 – John Balguy , English divine and philosopher. 1689 – Montesquieu , French judge, man of letters , historian, and political philosopher . 1692 – Joseph Butler , English Anglican bishop, theologian, apologist, and philosopher. 1692 – Francesco Maria Zanotti , Italian philosopher and writer. 1694 – Francis Hutcheson , Irish philosopher. 1694 – Samuel von Pufendorf , German jurist , political philosopher , economist, and historian. 1696 – Voltaire , French Enlightenment writer, philosopher, satirist, and historian. 1696 – Henry Home, Lord Kames , Scottish writer, philosopher, and judge. 1698 – Alberto Radicati , Italian historian, philosopher and free-thinker . 1699 – Jacopo Stellini , Italian abbot , polymath writer, and philosopher. Deaths [ edit ] 1600 – Giordano Bruno , Italian philosopher , poet , alchemist , astronomer , cosmological theorist, and esotericist . 1624 / 25 – Ahmad Sirhindi , Indian Islamic scholar , Hanafi jurist, and member of
651-468: A darkness from which they can escape only through Jesus Christ, without whom all communion with God is cut off". He writes that it is an "astounding fact" that no "canonical" writer ever offers such proofs and this makes it "worthy of attention." Pascal considers atheists to strawman Christianity. He writes that "If this religion boasted of having a clear view of God, and of possessing it open and unveiled, it would be attacking it to say that we see nothing in
744-545: A doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms. Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called fallacies and are divided into formal and informal fallacies based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context. Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality , such as existence, objects and their properties , wholes and their parts , space and time , events , and causation . There are disagreements about
837-444: A great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis , reliance on common sense and intuitions , use of thought experiments , analysis of ordinary language , description of experience , and critical questioning . Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics , business , law , and journalism . It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies
930-702: A metaphysical foundation of ethics. The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of Chinese Marxism —which focused on class struggle , socialism , and communism —resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape. Another development was the emergence of New Confucianism , which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science. Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including
1023-468: A noticeable growth in the number of female philosophers , but they still remained underrepresented. Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the Islamic theological tradition . Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of
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#17327754791871116-460: A part of intellectual history , but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant. The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes myths , religious teachings , and proverbial lore. Influential traditions in
1209-612: A variety of arguments. Deductive arguments are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively valid if the truth of its premises ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a rule of inference , like modus ponens , which has the following logical form : " p ; if p then q ; therefore q ". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today". The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that
1302-494: Is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true . This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the Gettier problem . Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like
1395-510: Is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an infinite regress or circular reasoning . Foundationalists avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves. Another solution
1488-561: Is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term. Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true. Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as
1581-467: Is also concerned with the moral evaluation of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of morality are and how to live a good life. Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?" The main branches of ethics are meta-ethics , normative ethics , and applied ethics . Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about
1674-483: Is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life. For example, the Stoics saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve eudaimonia and flourish in life. As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines. Some theorists see it as
1767-451: Is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics. The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in analytic philosophy due to the works of Frege and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal truth conditions of sentences and those investigating circumstances that determine when it
1860-408: Is concerned with meaning , understanding , or the clarification of language. According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis , which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts. Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature. A further approach presents philosophy as
1953-579: Is different from Wikidata Philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek ) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence , reason , knowledge , value , mind , and language . It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions. Historically, many of the individual sciences , such as physics and psychology , formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in
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#17327754791872046-460: Is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia . The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects ( logic , ethics , physics , and metaphysics )", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge , reality , and existence , and
2139-475: Is presented by coherentists , who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person. Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of philosophical skepticism , which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it. Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right conduct . It
2232-418: Is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers , such as W. V. O. Quine , philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations. Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in
2325-439: Is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like generosity and honesty . Logic is the study of correct reasoning . It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad arguments . It
2418-468: Is the 1687 book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton . This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics. The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers
2511-565: Is the name given posthumously to fragments that Pascal had been preparing for an apology for Christianity, which was never completed. That envisioned work is often referred to as the Apology for the Christian Religion , although Pascal never used that title. Although the Pensées appears to consist of ideas and jottings, some of which are incomplete, it is believed that Pascal had, prior to his death in 1662, already planned out
2604-561: Is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality , existence, objects , and properties . Other subfields are aesthetics , philosophy of language , philosophy of mind , philosophy of religion , philosophy of science , philosophy of mathematics , philosophy of history , and political philosophy . Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods. Philosophers use
2697-587: Is true; for, after all, men before Jesus Christ did not know where they were, nor whether they were great or small. And those who have said the one or the other, knew nothing about it, and guessed without reason and by chance. They also erred always in excluding the one or the other.". He considers truth to be arrived at "not only by the reason, but also by the heart, and it is in this last way that we know first principles; and reason, which has no part in it, tries in vain to impugn them". Sceptics then who only engage by means of reason "labour to no purpose". The Pensées
2790-462: Is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?" Epistemology is primarily interested in declarative knowledge or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates practical knowledge , such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and knowledge by acquaintance , for example, knowing a celebrity personally. One area in epistemology is the analysis of knowledge . It assumes that declarative knowledge
2883-456: Is usually divided into formal and informal logic . Formal logic uses artificial languages with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context. Logic examines
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2976-556: Is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience. Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and judgments . Further topics include the essence of works of art and the processes involved in creating them. The philosophy of language studies the nature and function of language . It examines the concepts of meaning , reference , and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human thought and understanding. It
3069-3410: The Naqshbandī Sufi order. 1635 / 40 – Mulla Sadra , Persian Twelver Shi'i Islamic mystic, philosopher , theologian , and ‘Ālim . 1642 – Galileo Galilei , Italian polymath . 1644 – William Chillingworth , English churchman. 1649 – Caspar Schoppe , German catholic controversialist and scholar . 1651 – Nathaniel Culverwell , English author and theologian. 1652 – John Smith , English philosopher, theologian, and educator. 1653 – Hugh Binning , Scottish philosopher and theologian. 1657 – Kâtip Çelebi , Turkish polymath. 1658 – Baltasar Gracián , Spanish Jesuit and Baroque prose writer and philosopher . 1662 – Blaise Pascal , French mathematician and philosopher. 1665 – Kenelm Digby , English courtier, diplomat and natural philosopher . 1665 – Johannes Clauberg , German theologian and philosopher. 1667 – Francesco Sforza Pallavicino , Italian cardinal , philosopher, theologian, literary theorist , and church historian . 1672 – Jacques Rohault , French philosopher, physicist, and mathematician. 1672 – John Wilkins , English Anglican clergyman , natural philosopher, and author. 1673 – Margaret Cavendish , English philosopher, poet, scientist, fiction writer, and playwright. 1675 – Emanuele Tesauro , Italian philosopher, rhetorician, literary theorist, dramatist, Marinist poet, and historian. 1677 – Baruch Spinoza , Dutch philosopher. 1678 – Anna Maria van Schurman , Dutch painter, engraver , poet, classical scholar , philosopher, and feminist writer. 1678 – Robert Desgabets , French Cartesian philosopher and Benedictine prior . 1679 – Elizabeth Foxcroft , English theosophist . 1679 – Ann Conway , English philosopher. 1679 – Thomas Hobbes , English philosopher. 1680 – Athanasius Kircher , German Jesuit scholar and polymath . 1681 – Tito Livio Burattini , Italian inventor, architect, Egyptologist , scientist, instrument-maker, traveller, engineer, and nobleman. 1687 – Thomas Browne , English polymath . 1687 – Isaac Orobio de Castro , Portuguese Jewish philosopher, physician, and religious apologist . 1687 – Henry More , English philosopher. 1687 – William Petty , English economist, physician, scientist, and philosopher. 1688 – Ralph Cudworth , English Anglican clergyman, Christian Hebraist , classicist , theologian, and philosopher. 1688 – François Bernier , French physician and traveller. 1694 – Antoine Arnauld , French Catholic theologian, philosopher, and mathematician. 1695 – Huang Zongxi , Chinese naturalist, political theorist, philosopher, and soldier. 1696 – Simon Foucher , French polemic philosopher. 1698 – Franciscus Mercurius van Helmon , Flemish alchemist and writer. 1699 – Edward Stillingfleet , English Christian theologian and scholar. See also [ edit ] List of centuries in philosophy Age of Enlightenment References [ edit ] ^ Fitzgerald, Timothy (2007). Discourse on Civility and Barbarity . Oxford University Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-19-804103-0 . Retrieved 11 May 2017 . ^ "The Galileo Project | Galileo | Federico Cesi and
3162-527: The Quran . Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between reason and faith . Avicenna (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE)
3255-404: The mind-body problem in his publication, Meditations on First Philosophy . 1643 – Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and René Descartes correspond about their differing views on mind, soul, and immortality. 1649 – Christina, Queen of Sweden invites René Descartes to educate her in his philosophical views, particularly his insight into Catholicism. 1653 – Blaise Pascal has
3348-420: The "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter. An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities. This practice
3441-412: The 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate Christian doctrines . The Renaissance period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular Platonism . Humanism also emerged in this period. The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns
3534-489: The Accademia dei Lincei" . 2018-07-14. Archived from the original on 2018-07-14 . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2014). "Introduction". The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents . Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-1-62466-132-7 . ..one of the most common myths widely held about the trial of Galileo, including several elements: that he "saw"
3627-3049: The Discovery of the Mind-Body Problem" . The MIT Press Reader . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ Bohemia, Princess Elisabeth of; Descartes, René (2007-11-01). The Correspondence between Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and René Descartes . University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-20444-4 . ^ Eike Pies (1996). Der Mordfall Descartes : Dokumente, Indizien, Beweise (in German). Solingen : Brockmann. ISBN 978-3930132058 . ^ Theodor Ebert [in German] (2009). Der rätselhafte Tod des René Descartes (in German). Alibri Verlag. ISBN 978-3865690487 . ^ Paciaroni, Maurizio (2010). "Visual experiences of Blaise Pascal" . Frontiers of Neurology and Neuroscience . 27 : 160–167. doi : 10.1159/000311199 . ISBN 978-3-8055-9330-4 . ISSN 1660-4431 . PMID 20375529 . ^ "Spinoza's Excommunication" . web.mnstate.edu . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ National Museum of Australia, Acton Peninsula. "National Museum of Australia - The Royal Society of London" . www.nma.gov.au . Retrieved 2024-10-06 . ^ "Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy" . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ "Pascal's wager" . Oxford Reference . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ Janiak, Andrew (2021), "Newton's Philosophy" , in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University , retrieved 2024-10-07 ^ Fredro, Andrzej Maksymilian (1700). Monita politico-moralia et icon ingeniorum (in Latin). ^ Schurman, Anna Maria van (1641). Dissertatio, de ingenii muliebris ad doctrinam, & meliores litteras aptitudine Anna Maria aÌ€ Schurman accedunt quaedam epistolae, ejusdem argumenti . Nationale bibliotheek van Nederland Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Elzevir. ^ "Arnold Geulincx | Flemish Rationalist Philosopher | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ Geulincx, Arnold (1968). Methodus inveniendi argumenta, quae solertia quibusdam dicitur (in Latin). F. Frommann. ^ Geulincx, Arnold (1892). Opera philosophica (Geulincx, Arnold, 1624-1669) (in Latin). apud Martinum Nijhoff. ^ Spinoza, Benedictus de (2015-03-26). Court Traité Sur Dieu (in French). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1-5114-6608-0 . ^ Helmont, Franciscus Mercurius van (1682). A Cabbalistical Dialogue: In Answer to
3720-1436: The Laws of Nature | Online Library of Liberty" . oll.libertyfund.org . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ "Bibliography of Thomas Hobbes" . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ Saxonhouse, Arlene W. (1981). "Hobbes & the "Horae Subsecivae" " . Polity . 13 (4): 541–567. doi : 10.2307/3234640 . ISSN 0032-3497 . JSTOR 3234640 . ^ "Elementorum philosophiæ sectio secvnda de homine / Authore Thoma Hobbes ... - Yale University Library" . collections.library.yale.edu . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ Hobbes, Thomas (1682). Seven philosophical problems . Crook. ^ Hobbes, Thomas; Bramhall, John (1999-03-28). Hobbes and Bramhall on Liberty and Necessity . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59668-8 . Further reading [ edit ] Daniel Garber and Michael Ayers (eds). The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-century Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. 1998. First paperback edition. 2003. Volume 2 . Dan Kaufman (ed). The Routledge Companion to Seventeenth Century Philosophy. 2017. Google Books . Stuart Hampshire. The Master Philosophers: The Age of Reason: The 17th Century Philosophers. A Meridian Classic. New American Library. Meridian Books. Reprint. 1993. Google Books . Peter R Anstey (ed). The Oxford Handbook of British Philosophy in
3813-1242: The Natural Light from Descartes to Berkeley . Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-7294-0363-4 . ^ "Divine Dialogues | work by More | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Retrieved 2024-10-09 . ^ Dictionary of National Biography ; More, Henry (1614–1687) . ^ "Certamen philosophicum propugnatae veritatis divinae ac naturalis adversus Joh: Bredenburg; principia in fine annexa. Ex quibus quod religio rationi repugnat, demonstrare nititur. Quo in atheismi Spinosae barathro immersus jacet. Quod religio nil rationi | Lost Art Database" . www.lostart.de . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ Johannes, Clausberg (1646). Disputatio theologico-practica de conscientia (in Latin). typis Augustini Eissens. ^ Uzgalis, William (2024), "John Locke" , in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2024 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University , retrieved 2024-10-08 ^ Digby, Kenelm (1644). Two treatises in
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3906-965: The Opinion of a Learned Doctor in Philosophy and Theology that the World was Made of Nothing. As it is Contained in the Second Part of the Cabbala Denudata & Apparatus in Iib. Sohar, P. 308. &c. To which is Subjoyned a Rabbinical and Paraphrastical Exposition of Genesis I . Benjamin Clark in George-Yard in Lombard-street, bookseller. ^ William H. Trapnell (1988). The Treatment of Christian Doctrine by Philosophers of
3999-1378: The Philosophical Letters (1664)" . Digital Cavendish Project . 2014-11-05 . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ "Some Reflections Upon Marriage, Occasion'd by the Duke and Dutchess of Mazarine's Case; Which is Also Consider'd" . digital.library.upenn.edu . Retrieved 8 September 2018 . ^ Saul Fisher (31 May 2005). "Pierre Gassendi" . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 16 April 2013 . ^ Pierre Gassendi (1649). Animadversiones in decimum librum Diogenis Laertii: qui est De vita, moribus, placitisque Epicuri. Continent autem Placita, quas ille treis statuit Philosophiae parteis 3 I. Canonicam, …; - II. Physicam, …; - III. Ethicam (in Latin). Lyon: Guillaume Barbier. ^ "Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos | work by Gassendi | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ "The Project Gutenberg ebook of Meditationes de prima philosophia, by René Descartes" . www.gutenberg.org . Retrieved 2024-10-07 . ^ "Robert Desgabets > Notes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy/Winter 2019 Edition)" . plato.stanford.edu . Retrieved 2024-10-08 . ^ "A Treatise of
4092-1798: The Seventeenth Century. 2013. Google Books . Wiep Van Bunge . From Stevin to Spinoza: An Essay on Philosophy in the Seventeenth-Century Dutch Republic. Brill. Leiden, Boston, Koln. 2001. Google Books José R Maia Neto. Academic Skepticism in Seventeenth-Century French Philosophy: The Charronian Legacy 1601–1662. (International Archives of the History of Ideas 215). Springer. 2014. Google Books . G A J Rogers, Tom Sorell and Jill Kraye (eds). Insiders and Outsiders in Seventeenth-Century Philosophy. Taylor and Francis e-Library. 2009. Routledge. 2010. Google Books . Ross Harrison. Hobbes, Locke, and Confusion's Masterpiece: An Examination of Seventeenth Political Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. 2003. Google Books Tom Sorell, G A J Rogers, Jill Kraye (eds) Scientia in Early Modern Philosophy: Seventeenth-Century Thinkers on Demonstrative Knowledge from First Principles. (Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 24). Springer. 2010. Google Books . Susan James. Passion and Action: The Emotions in Seventeenth-century Philosophy. Clarendon Press. Reprinted 1999. Google Books . Jacqueline Broad. Women Philosophers of
4185-1293: The Seventeenth Century. Cambridge University Press. 2003. Google Books . Henry Hallam. Introduction to the Literature of Europe, in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. John Murray. Ablemarle Street, London. 1839. Volume 4. Chapter 3 ("History of Speculative Philosophy from 1650 to 1700"). Page 182 et seq. v t e History of the 17th century Timeline Decades 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1640s 1650s 1660s 1670s 1680s 1690s Topics Christianity Literature Philosophy Lists State leaders Lunar eclipses Solar eclipses [REDACTED] Category Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=17th_century_in_philosophy&oldid=1259839831 " Categories : Early modern philosophy Philosophy by century Hidden categories: CS1 German-language sources (de) CS1 interwiki-linked names CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 French-language sources (fr) Articles with short description Short description
4278-442: The basic limits of human understanding". Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of rational inquiry, such as the individual sciences , as its subdisciplines. For instance, natural philosophy was a major branch of philosophy. This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, chemistry , and biology . An example of this usage
4371-441: The beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as ethnophilosophy , négritude , pan-Africanism , Marxism, postcolonialism , the role of cultural identity, relativism , epistemological dualism , and the critique of Eurocentrism . Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in
4464-560: The color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects. Other metaphysical questions are whether the past fully determines the present and what implications this would have for the existence of free will . There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy. Aesthetics in
4557-461: The conclusion is true. One form is inductive reasoning . It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens. Another form is abductive reasoning . It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when
4650-614: The consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments. Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, deontology , and virtue ethics are influential schools of thought. Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is utilitarianism , which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters
4743-467: The dating, history and critical bibliography of each of Pascal's texts. 17th century in philosophy This is a timeline of philosophy in the 17th century . Events [ edit ] [REDACTED] Giordano Bruno being burned at stake , engraved by Camille Flammarion. 1600 – Giordano Bruno, Italian philosopher , poet , alchemist , astronomer , cosmological theorist, and esotericist
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#17327754791874836-568: The earth's motion (an observation still impossible to make even in the twenty-first century); that he was "imprisoned" by the Inquisition (whereas he was actually held under house arrest); and that his crime was to have discovered the truth. And since to condemn someone for this reason can result only from ignorance, prejudice, and narrow-mindedness, this is also the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion. ^ Reader, The MIT Press (2019-08-08). "Descartes and
4929-400: The emergence and application of formal logic , the focus on the role of language as well as pragmatism , and movements in continental philosophy like phenomenology, existentialism , and post-structuralism . The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at academic institutions . There was also
5022-482: The emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like Buddhism and Jainism . Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a permanent self and proposed a path to liberate oneself from suffering . Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), who emphasized non-violence as well as respect toward all forms of life. The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE and
5115-441: The exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation . Major branches of philosophy are epistemology , ethics , logic , and metaphysics . Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic
5208-407: The features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another. An important area in metaphysics is ontology . Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like being , becoming , and reality. It studies the categories of being and asks what exists on
5301-539: The history of philosophy include Western , Arabic–Persian , Indian , and Chinese philosophy . Other philosophical traditions are Japanese philosophy , Latin American philosophy , and African philosophy . Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE with the pre-Socratics . They attempted to provide rational explanations of the cosmos as a whole. The philosophy following them
5394-420: The importance of a strong state and strict laws. Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into new forms of Buddhism . Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of Xuanxue emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations. Neo-Confucianism developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought
5487-419: The indigenous Shinto religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination. Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following Edo period and prompted a greater focus on language and
5580-483: The interconnectedness of all things. Latin American philosophy during the colonial period , starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of scholasticism . Influential topics in the post-colonial period were positivism , the philosophy of liberation , and the exploration of identity and culture. Early African philosophy, like Ubuntu philosophy , was focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas. Systematic African philosophy emerged at
5673-551: The manifestation of cognitive virtues instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena. Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are perception , introspection , memory , inference , and testimony . According to empiricists , all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like innate knowledge , are not acquired through experience. The regress problem
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#17327754791875766-496: The modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western , Arabic–Persian , Indian , and Chinese philosophy . Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation . Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with
5859-596: The most fundamental level. Another subfield of metaphysics is philosophical cosmology . It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else. A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as souls and experiences ) and abstract entities (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns
5952-404: The most influential philosophers of the subsequent period. The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of Islamic modernism , which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity. One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of
6045-472: The natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of truth , belief , justification , and rationality . Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How
6138-504: The natural world. The Kyoto School emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness ( zettai-mu ), place ( basho ), and the self . Latin American philosophy in the pre-colonial period was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans. It has similarities to indigenous North American philosophy , which covered themes such as
6231-455: The nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and obligation . It also investigates whether ethical theories can be true in an absolute sense and how to acquire knowledge of them. Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies
6324-471: The nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment . It started around 900 BCE when the Vedas were written. They are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the self and ultimate reality as well as the question of how souls are reborn based on their past actions . This period also saw
6417-507: The one of which the nature of bodies, in the other, the nature of mans soule is looked into in way of discovery of the immortality of reasonable soules . ^ Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish Duchess of (2001-02-07). Margaret Cavendish: Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77675-2 . ^ Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish (1668). Grounds of natural philosophy: ... 1668 . Internet Archive. ^ "Letters in
6510-411: The order of the book and had begun the task of cutting and pasting his draft notes into a coherent form. His task incomplete, subsequent editors have heavily disagreed on the order, if any, in which his writings should be read. Those responsible for his effects, failing to recognize the basic structure of the work, handed them over to be edited, and they were published in 1670. The first English translation
6603-537: The orthodoxy of the Catholic Church . Pascal is sceptical of cosmological arguments for God's existence and says that when religious people present such arguments they give atheists "ground for believing that the proofs of our religion are very weak". He argues that the Bible actually cautions against such means. Scripture says that "God is a hidden God, and that, since the corruption of nature, He has left men in
6696-436: The philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of beauty and other aesthetic properties, like the sublime . Although it is often treated together with the philosophy of art , aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty. In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and nature ". A key question in aesthetics
6789-517: The posthumous fragments according to themes, recent research has prompted Sellier to choose entirely different classifications, as Pascal often examined the same event or example through many different lenses. Also noteworthy is the monumental edition of Pascal's Œuvres complètes (1964–1992), which is known as the Tercentenary Edition and was realized by Jean Mesnard [ fr ] ; although still incomplete, this edition reviews
6882-417: The precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages. Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including " Why is there something rather than nothing? "; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?" Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines
6975-400: The problem of identity . One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity. According to one view, entities have essential and accidental features . They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature. A central distinction in metaphysics is between particulars and universals . Universals, like
7068-428: The provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition. The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense. For example, Socrates stated that "
7161-436: The rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and mathematics . The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions. It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about
7254-488: The same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches. There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are sometimes linked under the general heading of value theory as they investigate normative or evaluative aspects. Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in
7347-410: The same way as the sciences. This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed. In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences". Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy
7440-563: The scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. The word philosophy comes from the Ancient Greek words φίλος ( philos ) ' love ' and σοφία ( sophia ) ' wisdom ' . Some sources say that the term was coined by the pre-Socratic philosopher Pythagoras , but this is not certain. The word entered the English language primarily from Old French and Anglo-Norman starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie
7533-598: The study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions. Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant , who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?" Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines. Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science. In this sense, philosophy
7626-469: The teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine. Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation . Many schools of thought emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were Confucianism and Daoism . Confucianism
7719-601: The unexamined life is not worth living " to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence. And according to Bertrand Russell , "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason." Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial and are studied in metaphilosophy . Some approaches argue that there
7812-1530: The universe operates around rational, discoverable laws, supporting the rise of empiricism and rationalism . Publications [ edit ] Monita Politico-Moralia et Icon Ingeniorum by Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro Dissertatio, de Ingenii Muliebris ad Doctrinam, & meliores Litteras Aptitudine by Anna Maria von Shurman Quaestiones Quodlibeticae by Arnold Geulincx Logica fundamentis suis restituta by Arnold Geulincx Methodus inveniendi argumenta by Arnold Geulincx De virtute by Arnold Geulincx Opera philosophica by Arnold Geulincx La logique, ou l'art de penser by Antonie Arnauld and Pierre Nicole Grammaire générale et raisonnée by Antonie Arnauld and Claude Lancelot Ethics by Baruch Spinoza Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione by Baruch Spinoza Principia philosophiae cartesianae by Baruch Spinoza Tractatus Theologico-Politicus by Baruch Spinoza Court Traité Sur Dieu by Baruch Spinoza Pensées by Blaise Pascal Trois discours sur la condition des grands by Blaise Pascal Discours sur les passions de l'amour by Blaise Pascal A Cabbalistical Dialogue by Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont Discours de Métaphysique by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Brevis Demonstratio Erroris Memorabilis Cartesii et Aliorum Circa Legem Naturae by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Divine Dialogues by Henry More Philosophical Poems by Henry More Psychodoia Platonica: or,
7905-441: The world which shows it with this clearness", however since "on the contrary, it says that men are in darkness and estranged from God, that He has hidden Himself from their knowledge" these arguments are not criticisms of Christianity For Pascal Christianity says God is found only by those "who seek Him with all their heart" but atheists do not do this and their arguments are not related to this process. Pascal writes that "Scepticism
7998-472: Was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed critique of philosophy and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight. Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned. Mulla Sadra (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of
8091-628: Was burned alive at Campo de' Fiori in Rome after being convicted of heresy . 1611 – The first Accademia dei Lincei is founded by Federico Cesi , which holds discussions that reject the traditional Aristotelian framework. 1620 – The establishment of Francis Bacon ’s scientific method prompts reevaluation of empirical evidence in philosophy. 1633 – The Roman Inquisition finds Galileo “vehemently suspect of heresy" after he defended heliocentricism , challenging traditional Aristotelian cosmology . 1641 – René Descartes formulates
8184-437: Was characterized by the emergence of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism : Nyāyá , Vaiśeṣika , Sāṃkhya , Yoga , Mīmāṃsā , and Vedanta . The school of Advaita Vedanta developed later in this period. It was systematized by Adi Shankara ( c. 700 –750 CE), who held that everything is one and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an illusion . A slightly different perspective
8277-660: Was defended by Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE), who founded the school of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity. He also helped to popularize the Bhakti movement , which taught devotion toward the divine as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE. The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought. Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902 CE) used
8370-511: Was founded by Confucius (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral virtues and explored how they lead to harmony in society. Daoism was founded by Laozi (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the Dao or the natural order of the universe. Other influential early schools of thought were Mohism , which developed an early form of altruistic consequentialism , and Legalism , which emphasized
8463-512: Was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the role of reason and sensory experience . Many of these innovations were used in the Enlightenment movement to challenge traditional authorities. Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by German idealism and Marxism . Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were
8556-400: Was made in 1688 by John Walker. Another English translation by W. F. Trotter was published in 1931 with an introduction by T. S. Eliot . Several attempts have been made to arrange the notes systematically; notable editions include those of Léon Brunschvicg , Jacques Chevalier , Louis Lafuma [ fr ] and (more recently) Philippe Sellier . Although Brunschvicg tried to classify
8649-449: Was shaped by Socrates (469–399 BCE), Plato (427–347 BCE), and Aristotle (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like how people should act , how to arrive at knowledge , and what the nature of reality and mind is. The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, Epicureanism , Stoicism , Skepticism , and Neoplatonism . The medieval period started in
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