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100-401: Possible Peru has its roots in an earlier political party, Possible Country, which was founded by the economist Alejandro Toledo in 1994. País Possible garnered 3% of the popular vote in the 1995 presidential election. In the 2000 presidential election , Toledo ran as a candidate from Possible Peru. After coming in second to Alberto Fujimori in the initial round of voting, Toledo withdrew as

200-434: A Decentralization and Regionalization Commission with developing proposals. In 2002, a constitutional amendment was approved which established three levels of government: local, regional, and national. Over the next few years, the congress gradually passed on resources and responsibilities to the regional and municipal governments including food programs, social development projects, and health and education programs. He divided

300-503: A U.S. District Court approved the extradition of Toledo, ruling that evidence presented in the case against Toledo were "sufficient to sustain the charges of collusion and money laundering" under the U.S. Peru Extradition Treaty. On 23 April 2023, Toledo was extradited from the US to Peru. Toledo was born into an impoverished peasant Quechuan family. He was the eighth oldest of sixteen brothers and sisters, seven of whom died in childhood. He

400-543: A brief time, but returned to Peru in 1936 and started his professional career as an architect designing private homes. In 1937, he started a magazine called El Arquitecto Peruano ("Peruvian Architect"), which dealt with interior design, general urbanism and housing problems the country was facing. This also gave way to the Architects Association of Peru and the Urbanism Institute of Peru. As

500-433: A candidate and requested that his supporters cast blank ballots in the second round run-off that was to be held because both candidates failed to receive more than 50% of the vote and Fujimori was subsequently re-elected in the run-off. After Fujimori was sworn in for his third term, Toledo led his supporters in organizing a protest against Fujimori's alleged corruption, which became popularly known as Four Suyos March , in

600-530: A duel a Pradista congressman who refused to retract insulting statements in an open letter; the duel took place, with minor scratches on both sides. In 1959, the Prado government's refusal to authorize the permits for the Accion Popular annual convention led to another confrontation: Belaúnde led the opening of the convention in defiance of the prohibition, and the Prado government arrested and jailed him in

700-662: A far-reaching social safety net that included food programs serving 35 percent of the population, and work programs offering temporary employment to unskilled workers. The Cooperative Fund for Social Development funded projects to construct and improve schools, health clinics, rural roads, water and sanitation systems, and electric grids. Toledo placed food and infrastructure programs under the Ministry for Women and Social Development and urged that municipalities implement decentralization. Social safety-net spending in Peru remained well below

800-764: A group of protesters towards Congress. The massive demonstration was peaceful at first, but violence broke out and a powerful explosion led to the death of six people. It was later discovered by the Peruvian judiciary that the explosion had been planned and carried out by the National Intelligence Service , run by Vladimiro Montesinos , who had already been indicted on corruption and bribery charges. Montesinos fled to Venezuela , where he hid for several months before being captured and brought back to Peru. The charges against Montesinos ranged from bribery to drug trafficking to arranging death squads. But it

900-468: A key to sustainability and economic growth. Advocates of indigenous rights have also criticized some of Toledo's efforts to jump-start the economy through investments, such as his support for the Camisea natural gas project and other projects that involved exploring or developing natural resources. These critics claim that companies buy land at unreasonable prices, force indigenous people off of land that

1000-442: A modern social democratic context, placing itself squarely between the pro-oligarchy right-wing and the radicalism of the left-wing APRA and communist parties. He would go on to travel extensively throughout the country, fleshing out the ideological principles of Acción Popular, while leading the opposition. During this period Belaúnde's traditionalism would manifest itself in dramatic flourishes, most notoriously when he challenged to

1100-800: A nationwide computer network of learning systems. During his campaign, Toledo had promised to double teachers’ salaries, but ran into problems when the teachers unions successfully opposed an initiative to tie salary increases to improved skills and performance standards. In 2002, Toledo declared an emergency in education, stating four objectives to respond to it: Throughout his administration, enrollment rates in primary and secondary education remained high and private-school enrollment increased, but overall literacy and test scores improved only slightly. In an interview on his last day in office, Toledo expressed frustration that his administration had not done more to improve education. During his first year in office, Toledo replaced previous health-insurance programs aimed at

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1200-435: A new agency for indigenous and Afro-Peruvian affairs, CONOPA (Commission for Amazonian, Andean, and Afro-Peruvian Peoples). The agency was meant to establish a development agenda for indigenous communities, provide representation of indigenous interests within the government, and lead the way for multicultural constitutional reforms. Some critics viewed these actions as a state co-optation of indigenous identity, mockingly dubbing

1300-600: A partial scholarship and working part-time pumping gas. Starting in 1970 he attended Stanford University , where he received a MA in education and a M.A. in Economics of Human Resources and, in 1993, a PhD in human resources from the graduate school of education . From 1981 to 1983, Toledo directed the Institute for Economic and Labor Studies in Lima, a subdivision of the Ministry of Labor and Social Development. During

1400-467: A promising beginning, Belaúnde's popularity eroded under the stress of inflation, the War on Housing's continuation, economic hardship, and terrorism : per capita income declined, Peru's foreign debt burgeoned, and violence by leftist insurgents (notably Shining Path ) rose steadily during the internal conflict in Peru , which was launched the day before Belaúnde was elected in 1980. He was president during

1500-604: A reference to the four suyu (district) in which the Inca Empire or Tawantin Suyu was divided. The protest turned violent, with six people being killed on 28 July inside a bank on fire. In response to growing allegations of corruption within his administration, Fujimori resigned as president in November 2000. At the legislative elections held on 8 April 2001, the party won 26.3% of the popular vote and 45 out of 120 seats in

1600-410: A regional level. The first regional and local elections, held in November 2002, required that 15% of the candidates in regions with an indigenous presence must have indigenous backgrounds. However, decentralization has been viewed critically by some, who claim that in dividing up regions, administrators have at times ignored the distinctive cultural and historical factors that define different areas. In

1700-480: A result, Belaúnde also became a government public-housing consultant throughout the country and abroad. In 1943, Belaúnde began teaching architecture and urban planning at Escuela Nacional de Ingenieros of Lima and later became the dean of the Civil Engineering and Architecture department. Belaúnde also directed the construction, along with other professors and students, of the faculty of architecture of

1800-463: A round one Fujimori plurality and possible majority. Fujimori had a projected lead of 48.73% to 41.03% later that evening. Fujimori was closing in on the 50% mark which would give him a victory in the first round, with no runoff necessary. Allegations of electoral fraud were made, and were not far-fetched. On the day preceding the election, Transparencia, the national election observation organization, reported that it had received information concerning

1900-588: A speaker at conferences in different countries on economics, social inclusion, and democracy, as well as a leader of his political party, the defunct Possible Peru. In 2006, he founded the Global Center for Development and Democracy, an organization advocating sustainable democracies, and between 2009 and 2010 he was a visiting professor at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University , and as professor of Foreign Policy at

2000-552: A speech to the Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Latin America conference, Toledo expressed disappointment at the growing disparity between the incomes of indigenous people and other citizens. Despite the growth achieved by the Peruvian economy, the poverty gap has widened between the upper and lower classes. Toledo mentions the reintegration of the indigenous populations into the Peruvian social and political system as

2100-509: A website with capabilities to hack into the ONPE ( Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales ) computer system. Eduardo Stein also claimed that ONPE had made no provisions for OAS technicians to monitor the vote count system in real time. Toledo claimed that a fraud had been perpetrated; other opposition candidates agreed and joined protests led by Toledo. Though "the U.S. State Department had supported Fujimori and his economic policies, it described

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2200-510: Is a Peruvian former politician who served as President of Peru , from 2001 to 2006. He gained international prominence after leading the opposition against president Alberto Fujimori , who held the presidency from 1990 to 2000. On October 21, 2024 he was sentenced to 20 years in prison for taking $ 35 million dollars in bribes to award the Brazilian company Odebrecht with a highway contract. He pursued his undergraduate and graduate education at

2300-698: Is historically theirs, and exploit natural resources in ways that are harmful to communities and the environment. Peru is one of the largest producers of gold, silver, and zinc in Latin America, and some critics complain about the priority the Peruvian government gives to mining as opposed to industries like fishing and agriculture, with which indigenous peoples are more familiar. They note that mining companies may bring new jobs to rural areas, but that they are not jobs for which natives are well qualified. Despite unprecedented, strong, and consistent economic growth under his leadership, Toledo dealt with much labor unrest during his presidency as workers demanded higher wages and

2400-523: Is how Leaders are Born"). Belaúnde's 1956 candidacy was ultimately unsuccessful, as the dictatorship-favored right-wing candidacy of Manuel Prado took first place. Claiming irregularities, he prepared to lead the opposition, and in July 1956 in Chincheros, Cuzco , founded the center-right Acción Popular party, claiming the mantle of recapturing indigenous Inca traditions of community and cooperation in

2500-635: The Brookings Institution . On 16 July 2019, Toledo was arrested in the United States for an extradition order to Peru, as reported by the Peruvian Public Ministry. On 8 August, attorney Graham Archer, requested a request for release on bail before judge Thomas Hixson. On 12 September, the judge ruled his request for reconsideration inadmissible. On 19 March 2020, he was released on bail. On 28 September 2021,

2600-636: The Congress of the Republic . Its presidential candidate at the elections of the same day, Alejandro Toledo , won 36.5% of the vote and went on to win the second round on 3 June 2001 with 53.1%. Toledo was elected in 2001 as Fujimori's replacement, receiving 53.1% of the popular vote. Shortly after becoming president, Toledo made a strategic alliance with the Independent Moralizing Front , led by Fernando Olivera . In 2004, Toledo

2700-703: The Matsé genocide  [ es ] , the Belaúnde administration targeted the Matsés after two loggers were killed, with the Peruvian armed forces using USA-made fighter planes dropping napalm on the indigenous groups armed with bows and arrows, killing hundreds. He also advanced the ambitious Santiago Antunez de Mayolo and Chira Piura irrigation projects, and the Tinajones, Jequetepeque, Majes, Chavimochic, Olmos, Chinecas hydroelectric projects. Belaúnde also oversaw

2800-654: The National University of Engineering in 1955. Belaúnde's political career began in 1944 as cofounder of the National Democratic Front party which elected José Bustamante as president in 1945; he served in the Peruvian Congress until a coup by General Manuel Odría in 1948 interrupted democratic elections. Belaúnde returned to the political arena in 1956, when the outgoing Odría dictatorship called for elections and he led

2900-599: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). He led the 1989 UNDP/ILO mission for the evaluation of: "Impact of Macroeconomic Policies on Growth, Employment and Salaries", in six Central American countries. Toledo has also been a full time professor at ESAN Graduate School of Business , one of Peru's leading business schools, serving as its Director since 1986 to 1991 and remains in ESAN University as licensed professor. From 1991 to 1994, he

3000-718: The United Kingdom , Belaúnde declared that Peru was ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed. This included a number of fighter planes from the Peruvian Air Force , ships , and medical teams. Belaúnde's government proposed a peace settlement between the two countries, but the Argentine military junta rejected it and the British launched an attack on the Argentinian forces deployed around

3100-588: The United States , where he first attended the University of Miami (where his father was also teaching), and in 1935 transferred to the University of Texas at Austin , where he obtained his degree as an architect. He would later become pro-American and became very proficient in the English language, with some referring to him as "Fred Blundy". He later moved to Mexico and worked as an architect for

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3200-464: The University of San Francisco and Stanford University . He originally joined the technical and academic field, from where he participated as an analyst on politics and economics on some occasions. He entered politics when he founded the Possible Peru party, participating for the first time in the 1995 Peruvian general election . In 2000, he managed to become the largest opposition leader to

3300-624: The Alcatraz-like island prison of El Frontón off the Lima coast. The imprisonment lasted 12 days, during which Belaúnde engaged in a failed attempt to escape by swimming to freedom; the Prado government, facing unrelenting public pressure, was forced to release him and drop all charges. Belaúnde ran for president once again in the general elections of 1962 , this time with his own party, Acción Popular . The results were very tight; he ended in second place, following Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre ( APRA ), by less than 14,000 votes. Since none of

3400-600: The Congress. Fujimori then flew to Japan, where he submitted his resignation and claimed Japanese citizenship . After the fall of Fujimori, the newly elected president of the Peruvian Congress , Valentín Paniagua , became interim president and oversaw the already planned new elections on 29 May 2001. Toledo won after a close run-off election against former President Alan García of the APRA party, with 52.23% of

3500-551: The Directorate against Terrorism reported that the Shining Path , a terrorist movement which has been active since the eighties, was organizing along new fronts and infiltrating protests, blocking highways, and organizing student marches. The government reacted by reestablishing five counterinsurgency bases, which soon assisted in destroying six Shining Path camps. But terrorist activity continued and in 2003, Toledo declared

3600-549: The Ecoteva case trial. On March 12, 2017, Marcial Ayaipoma announced that Possible Peru will be liquidated by not passing the electoral fence, as mandated by the Law of Political Parties. Possible Peru was dissolved in 2017 following its poor results at the 2016 general election , garnering 1.2% at national level. Possible Peru's presidential candidate for the 2006 election , Rafael Belaúnde Aubry  [ es ] , along with

3700-531: The Latin American average under Toledo even as it covered a larger percentage of the population, which means that outlays were insufficient to lift many people up out of poverty. Toledo inherited an educational system which had been plagued for decades by mediocrity, low completion rates, inadequate resources, and inequality between genders, classes, and races. Toledo launched Project Huascaran, which enabled primary and secondary-school classrooms to connect

3800-505: The National Accord of 22 July 2002. In the accord, seven political parties and seven social organizations agreed upon a framework that would guide policy for the next twenty years. The accord set forth twenty-four policy goals divided into four categories: democracy and the rule of law, equity and social justice , economic competitiveness, and an institutional framework of efficiency, transparency, and decentralization . Initially,

3900-436: The Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Pérez Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Belaúnde by a more comfortable but still narrow five percent margin. During Belaúnde's first term in office, he spurred numerous developmental projects. Belaúnde held a doctrine called " The Conquest of Peru by Peruvians ", which promoted

4000-484: The Peruvian people to gain knowledge of their ancestry. He also brought serious attention to bilingual education in indigenous schools, creating a new and well-staffed division within the Ministry of Education devoted to the issue. This effort gives advocates greater autonomy and opportunity to influence policy and work toward institutionalizing bilingual education. Toledo's efforts at decentralization sought to give indigenous groups greater influence upon policy-making on

4100-494: The Possible Peru party, due to her political inexperience. Belaúnde Aubry was until recently leader of another party, Acción Popular , which was founded by his father and former president, Fernando Belaúnde Terry , and was invited by Possible Peru to represent the party in the elections. Alejandro Toledo Alejandro Celestino Toledo Manrique ( Spanish: [aleˈxandɾo toˈleðo] ; born 28 March 1946)

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4200-409: The accord opened up dialogue in Peru's political arena, but within a year, the public considered it to be less effective than had been hoped. Touting his heritage throughout his campaign, Toledo continued the efforts begun by Paniagua, who had brought together experts and indigenous leaders to discuss the needs of indigenous people throughout the country. Toledo's inauguration ceremony on Machu Picchu

4300-585: The agency the "Karp Commission". However, Oxfam 's Martin Scurrah points out the agency's good work, noting that in addition to promoting a chapter on indigenous rights in the new constitution, Eliane Karp has "intervened on numerous occasions in support of or in defense of indigenous initiatives." As president, Toledo made it a priority to try to recover ancient Incan artifacts from Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History . Some art historians claimed that such artifacts, found at Machu Picchu, could help

4400-540: The bar very high for his administration. Shortly after coming to office Toledo met with IMF officials and promised that he would raise $ 700 million in 2002, and almost one billion dollars in 2003, by selling state assets. To compound his problems, President Toledo faced a devastating earthquake in his first year in office. This natural disaster left much of Peru morally and fiscally devastated. With many homes and businesses destroyed, economic ills were exacerbated. In November 2001, Toledo opened talks which concluded in

4500-631: The candidates managed to get the constitutionally-established minimum of one third of the vote required to win outright, selection of the President would fall to Congress; the long-held antagonistic relationship between the military and APRA prompted Haya de la Torre to make a deal with former dictator Odría, who had come in third, which would result in Odría taking the Presidency in a coalition government. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted

4600-547: The causes that led Possible Peru to the debacle was the arrogance of Alejandro Toledo. Later, Possible Peru supported the candidacy of Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , despite the fact that Possible Peru lost the registration by failing to pass the electoral threshold. On May 12, 2016, Carmen Omonte was withdrawn from the Lavajato Commission by her own ex-party Possible Peru. At the same time, Judge Abel Concha decided to lift Alejandro Toledo's bank secrecy, this being part of

4700-469: The coca farmers gave most of their crops to drug traffickers who then paid the Shining Path to operate within certain regions. Recognizing the drug trade as a threat to regional security, Toledo sought to create a common Andean approach to the drug war. He saw that revenue from drug trafficking funded terrorist activities, but also that U.S. insistence on the eradication of coca crops failed to address

4800-419: The demonstrators and armed solely with a Peruvian flag, he crossed alone the gap separating the demonstrators from the police to deliver an ultimatum to the police chief that his candidacy be accepted. The government capitulated, and the striking image of Belaúnde walking by himself with the flag was featured by the news magazine Caretas the following day, in an article entitled "Así Nacen Los Líderes" ("This

4900-519: The establishment of the Peruvian National Bank (Banco de la Nación). To alleviate poverty, Belaúnde also promoted a program of "social interest" homes in Lima and other cities, which benefited dozen thousands of families. Legal recognition was also given to hundreds of indigenous Indian communities, the hospital network was expanded into uncovered areas, and improvements were made in social security coverage. However, his administration

5000-696: The expansion of investigations into government, including investigations into allegations that the Fujimori administration had stolen billions from government coffers. Racial-ethnic themes also echoed throughout the campaign. Toledo was running to become Peru's first indigenous president. He referred to himself as El Cholo throughout his campaign, and many indigenous Peruvians hoped that as president he would bring greater attention to issues of importance to them. Toledo's background, engaging manner, and informal attitude made him an attractive candidate to both indigenous and non-indigenous Peruvians. Just minutes after

5100-655: The exploitation of resources in the Amazon rainforest and other outlying areas of Peru through conquest , stating "only by turning our vision to the interior, and conquering our wilderness as the United States once did, will South America finally achieve true development". These included the Carretera Marginal de la Selva , a highway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with then isolated northern regions of Amazonas and San Martín . In 1964 in an incident called

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5200-543: The extremist guerrilla group Shining Path, 30% by the Peruvian Military and police forces, and the rest were by rural or peasant self-defense militias. These investigations were financed by a portion of the US$ 360 ;million discovered in foreign accounts which had been stolen by Fujimori officials. Toledo wasted no time in pursuing suspected terrorists, arresting 199 of them in 2002 alone. In late 2001,

5300-418: The first of several states of emergency due to the terrorist threat. Toledo walked a thin line in responding to both U.S. pressure to severely limit coca-production and protests by coca farmers against the eradication of coca production in poor, rural areas, where the majority of the population is involved in that business. The presumed link between the Shining Path and narcotics trafficking was unclear, because

5400-490: The fulfillment of campaign promises. The crisis underlined a basic flaw in Peru's economy as pointed out by The Economist , which noted that "some 70% of output falls within the grey or informal " economy, and thus escapes tax. Tax-collections, at below 12.1% of GDP, are stagnant, with most coming from a handful of large, formal companies. Evasion is widespread, particularly among better-paid independent professionals." Tax collections by Toledo's government could simply not cover

5500-481: The government of Alberto Fujimori , before whom in the midst of a controversial and bumpy process, lost the election for a second time. After a transition stage, he participated for the third time in the 2001 Peruvian general election against Lourdes Flores of National Unity and Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party ; he competed with the latter in the second round, winning with 53.1% of

5600-404: The improvement of energy efficiency, and to commit to future agreements that would increase cross border investment by eliminating double taxation. Fernando Bela%C3%BAnde Terry Fernando Sergio Marcelo Marcos Belaúnde Terry (October 7, 1912 – June 4, 2002) was a Peruvian politician who twice served as President of Peru (1963–1968 and 1980–1985). Deposed by a military coup in 1968 , he

5700-461: The initial stage of the vote count, supporters gathered in the streets around Toledo's hotel room. An enthusiastic Toledo walked out onto the balcony of his room wearing a red headband, reminiscent of ancient Inca warriors. He optimistically speculated that a first round victory might be within his grasp but still urged his supporters to wait for the results of the quick count. The second wave of quick count results reversed earlier projections, projecting

5800-432: The installation to Peru forced his cabinet to resign on October 1. A further cause of anger was the fact that the document of agreement was given by Belaúnde to the press with the final page (page 11) missing and signatures were squeezed at the bottom of page 10. The missing page became a cause célèbre and was later shown on television containing the contribution that Belaúnde had promised to pay. The military's ideology at

5900-503: The islands. In response to Chile's support of Britain, Belaúnde called for Latin American unity. In domestic policy, he continued with many of the projects that were planned during his first term, including the completion of what is considered his most important legacy, the Carretera Marginal de la Selva , a much-needed roadway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with then isolated northern regions of Amazonas and San Martín . After

6000-426: The lowest of any South American president at the time. Toledo did implement some of his plans for investment in social infrastructure and institutions. The amount of paved roads increased by 20% during his presidency; medical attention to the poor doubled in rural areas, and public sector salaries increased (school teachers' pay rose by 87%) and over 100,000 new homes were built for poor Peruvians. By 2004, Peru had

6100-488: The majority of its urban population living in slums. Toledo's administration sought to improve access to affordable housing through subsidies, loans, down payments, land titling, and encouraging financial institutions to reach further down-market. Most of these efforts were grouped under the Fondo Mivivienda, which was a program started in 1999. Under Toledo's predecessor, Fujimori, the governing authority in Peru

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6200-448: The market program that had been put in place, while also mitigating inequality issues attributed to it. He promised to pursue democratic reforms and reinvigorate Peru's social infrastructure. During the campaign, he promised to raise the wages of civil servants, which had been stagnant under Fujimori, and to create 400,000 jobs a year through programs designed to encourage agriculture, tourism, and small business. Toledo repeatedly called for

6300-400: The most remote places. His Juntos program awarded a monthly benefit to poor families who agreed to get vaccinations and screenings, attend school, and obtain birth registration documents. The Toledo administration also provided financial incentives to young doctors who were willing to spend the first few years of their practices in remote areas. Peru faced a major housing deficit in 2001, with

6400-548: The national elections of 1985, Belaúnde's party, Acción Popular , was defeated by APRA candidate Alan García . However, as established in the 1979 Constitution, he would go on to serve in the Peruvian Senate as Senador Vitalicio (" senator for life "), a privilege for former Presidents abolished by the 1993 Constitution. Belaúnde’s political outlook was centre-right , pro-American , and conservative . The Guardian described him as "a 19th century politician, with

6500-401: The oil industry and the redistribution of land from owners of large holdings to the campesinos of Peru. In April 1980, with Peru's economy in deep depression, the military administration permitted an election for the restoration of constitutional rule. Belaúnde won a five-year term, polling an impressive 45 percent of the vote in a 15-man contest. One of his first actions as president was

6600-456: The opposition to his program came from, and most of the difficulty in implementing his proposals was owing to, politicians and bureaucratic agencies who were accustomed to a centralized form of government. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which had been implemented by interim president Paniagua, was tasked with examining largescale acts of violence and atrocities committed within Peru between 1980 and 2000, to assess responsibility and pave

6700-471: The party he founded in 1994, Perú Posible , gained popularity and influence over the next few years. Toledo declared his intent to run again in the 2000 election and despite a constitutional controversy about his eligibility to serve a third term, Fujimori also announced his candidacy. Despite being a relatively low-profile politician, Toledo suddenly found himself the leader of the opposition to Fujimori's presidency. Toledo promised to uphold and strengthen

6800-470: The peak of the Lost Decade , in which unemployment rose above 50% and homelessness rose above 30%. Regarding Shining Path, Belaúnde personally did not pay too much attention to this: insurgent movements were already active during his first term, but without much support. In addition, some government officials and insurgents were subsequently accused of human rights violations , and a state of emergency

6900-481: The polls closed at 4:00 pm on 9 April 2000, major news networks rushed to announce that Toledo had garnered more votes than Fujimori. These announcements were based on projections from Peru's top polling firms, which base their numbers on exit polls. The prominent pollsters quickly modified projections based on samples of actual vote counts from selected polling places, better known as the "quick count". Shortly after receiving news of Toledo's encouraging performance in

7000-457: The poor with a more comprehensive free insurance program, Seguro Integral de Salud (SIS). The program aimed to provide Peruvians without health insurance with improved access to health care. By the end of his term, SIS covered more than 11 million Peruvians living on the outskirts of cities or in rural areas. However, about a third of the country remained without health coverage. The program has been immensely popular. President García expanded

7100-496: The popular vote. His administration was characterized by macroeconomic boom, promoting foreign investment, the signing of free trade agreements, and the implementation of various investment projects in infrastructure and human development. At the same time, Toledo suffered a governance crisis, scandals in his personal life, and allegations of corruption against his inner circle, signs that hit his popularity until he fell to 8% of popular approval. Subsequently, he would try to regain

7200-564: The presidency in the 2011 Peruvian general election , placing fourth. He later placed eighth in the 2016 Peruvian general election . Following his presidency, he served as a distinguished resident member of the Center for Advanced Study and Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University , and as visiting professor at the Center for Democracy, Development and Law Enforcement at the Freeman Spogli Institute. Toledo has been

7300-533: The problem. Alternative crop programs were also being resisted by coca farmers who depended on the coca trade for their livelihood. At a meeting of the 19-member Rio group in May 2003, Toledo proposed developing a joint strategy to deal with drug trafficking, but pressure from Washington, which preferred bilateral efforts, helped kill the notion. The Toledo administration was unusually active in foreign policy. Its major goals were promoting democracy outside Peru, addressing

7400-647: The problems of the last 30 years, which included an enormous increase in relative poverty." Toledo's inability to fulfill many of these promises created widespread dissatisfaction. His approval ratings were consistently low throughout his presidency, sometimes sinking into single digits. Toledo also promised open market free trade reforms, which reflected Peru's business interests while also promising to review Fujimori's privatization programs. Specifically, Toledo promised not to privatize any of Peru's public utilities. This promise, combined with lofty promises of reduced unemployment and poverty, caused Peru's rank and file to set

7500-519: The program, which has been praised by neoliberal reformers for extending coverage to indigenous people and women. They also note that it has addressed with considerable success the fact that Peruvian women's healthcare costs are much higher than men's owing to higher rates of illness and reproductive issues. The legislature continues to build upon SIS, using it as a basis for what many hope will someday be universal healthcare coverage for all Peruvians. Toledo also attempted to improve access to healthcare in

7600-540: The results of the 2000 elections as "invalid". Since no candidate had received a majority of the vote, a runoff was required, but Toledo refused to participate in a second round against Fujimori and withdrew from the race on 26 May 2000, two days before the runoff. He unsuccessfully petitioned to have the election annulled, and lobbied international organizations and foreign government to deny recognition to Fujimori's government. On 28 July 2000, Peruvian Independence Day , Fujimori began his third term as president. Toledo led

7700-546: The return of several newspapers to their respective owners. In this way, freedom of speech once again played an important part in Peruvian politics. Gradually, he attempted to undo some of the most radical effects of the agrarian reform initiated by Velasco, and reversed the independent stance that the Military Government of Velasco had with the United States. At the outbreak of the 1982 Falklands War ( Spanish : Guerra de las Malvinas ) between Argentina and

7800-856: The same period, he also served as chairman of the Economic Advisory Committee to the president of the Central Reserve Bank and the labor minister. Throughout his academic and governmental career, Toledo worked as a consultant for various international organizations, including the United Nations, the World Bank , the Inter-American Development Bank , the International Labour Organization (ILO), and

7900-425: The same year when, after the national election board refused to accept his candidacy filing, he led a massive protest that became known as the "manguerazo" or "hosedown" from the powerful water cannons used by the police to repress the demonstrators. When it seemed that the confrontation was going to turn violent, Belaúnde showed the gift for symbolism that would serve him well throughout his political life; calming down

8000-848: The single district up, called for regional elections, and eliminated the centralist Ministry of the Presidency that had been instituted under Fujimori. However, when Peru Possible's rival political party APRA made significant gains in regional elections, the Toledo administration halted its decentralization program by withholding power in the areas of revenue and expenditure. This left many regionally elected governors confused as to how far their authority extended. Without strong fiscal plans to support his new policy of centralization, Toledo had to continue decentralizing power and recognizing more regions. Toledo continued to assert control of regional governments, however, by withholding funding. Toledo's plan for decentralization enjoyed widespread popular support. Most of

8100-523: The slate submitted by the " National Front of Democratic Youth ", an organization formed by reform-minded university students, some of which had studied under him; his principled support for the La Prensa newspaper, which had been closed down by the dictatorship in early 1956, had prompted the leadership of the National Front to approach him as to lead its slate. He gained notoriety on June 1 of

8200-537: The struggle against poverty, encouraging economic development in the borderlands, reducing arms spending in the region, strengthening relations with Asia-Pacific countries, and integrating with the Andean Community of Nations . Peru also became an associate member of MERCOSUR , a free trade zone that would be established gradually. The objective was for signing nations to gradually build up an infrastructure that would ease trade with one another, to cooperate in

8300-493: The time had also distanced itself from the wealthy elite, with the Center of High Military Studies promoting studies of Manuel González Prada and José Carlos Mariátegui for about a decade, creating officers that believed the elite were sacrificing Peru's sovereignty in exchange for foreign capital and that such practices resulted with an undeveloped, reliant nation. Several days after the Standard Oil controversy, Belaúnde

8400-433: The vice-presidential candidates, pulled out of the race on 31 January. However, a clash with the core of the party over the inclusion of some people in the congressional candidate list led to the withdrawal of his candidature. The previous candidate, businesswoman Jeannete Enmanuel Tejada  [ es ] also renounced her candidature one week after being selected following growing pressure from within certain parts of

8500-543: The vote, to Garcia's 47.77%. Toledo thereby became the first South American president of indigenous descent to be democratically elected in five hundred years. During his campaign, Toledo promised Peruvians higher wages, a fight against poverty, anti-corruption measures, higher pensions, more employment, military reform, development of tourism, and industrialization. As Pedro Pablo Kuczynski noted "Toledo comes after almost 30 years of either dictatorships or governments that weren't so democratic. People expect Toledo to solve all

8600-467: The wages that had been promised to civil servants. Even as the Peruvian government was taking in too little money to pay civil servants, the country saw its cost of living increase dramatically during the early years of Toledo's administration. These hardships, combined with increasing unemployment and stagnant wages caused the general public to doubt that Toledo was living up to lofty campaign promises. By 2003, Toledo's approval rating had fallen below 10%,

8700-520: The way for reparations. The commission's final report to President Toledo was issued in 2003, and concluded that approximately 69,000 people had been killed by the Shining Path and other extremist groups, the bulk of the victims being innocent peasants. In January of that year, the Constitutional Court repealed several anti-terrorism measures enacted during Fujimori's administration. It was estimated that 54% of these victims were killed by

8800-549: The year that followed introduced Toledo to a world outside his small fishing village and inspired him to apply for a local civic group's scholarship to study in the United States. He was chosen to receive a one-year grant, and while in the United States, Deeds and Meister helped him get into the University of San Francisco's special program for non-English speakers. Toledo received a BA degree in economics and business administration at University of San Francisco by obtaining

8900-410: Was removed from office by a military coup led by general Juan Velasco Alvarado , who would go on to become dictator of Peru for seven years. Belaúnde spent the next decade in the United States, teaching at Harvard , Johns Hopkins and George Washington University . Meanwhile the military regime established by General Velasco instituted sweeping but ill-fated reforms, primarily the nationalization of

9000-618: Was able to continue his schooling by working nights and weekends, becoming the first person in his family to attend high school. Toledo eventually found employment as a news correspondent for La Prensa in Chimbote, where he interviewed several high-ranking politicians. Toledo's prospects improved when two Peace Corps volunteers, Joel Meister and Nancy Deeds, arrived in Chimbote looking for lodging and arrived at his family's door. The two Americans were drawn to Toledo by his "industriousness and charm," and his long conversations with them during

9100-487: Was accused of falsifying some of the signatures that had been collected on his behalf in the 2000 election. Police concluded that 78% of the signatures had been falsified. Further investigation revealed that the forged signatures had been produced by Toledo's sister, who was subsequently placed under house arrest. At the legislative elections held on 9 April 2006, the party won 4% of the popular vote and 2 out of 120 seats in Congress . According to Daniel Mora , one of

9200-532: Was also President of the Republic . He attended the Sagrados Corazones Recoleta in Lima. During the dictatorship of Augusto B. Leguía , the persecution for the political activities of his father Rafael and his uncle Víctor Andrés Belaúnde prompted the family to move to France in 1924, where Fernando attended high school and received his initial University education in engineering. From 1930 to 1935, Belaúnde studied architecture in

9300-495: Was also blamed for making bad economic decisions, and by 1967 the sol had become seriously devalued . In August 1968, the Belaúnde Administration announced the settlement of a long-standing dispute with a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey over claims to the rich La Brea and Pariñas oil fields. However, widespread anger about Belaúnde's decision to pay the Standard Oil compensation for handing over

9400-613: Was an affiliated researcher in the field of international development at the Harvard Institute for International Development . He has also been a guest professor at the University of Waseda in Tokyo and at the Japan Foundation . Toledo entered politics as an independent candidate for the presidency (winning 3% of the vote) in the 1995 election in which Alberto Fujimori was ultimately re-elected. Despite his loss,

9500-545: Was attended by all the presidents of the neighboring Andean states who joined him in signing the "Declaration of Machu Picchu," promising to protect indigenous rights. Maria Elena García calls the years of Toledo's presidency a transition ripe with new opportunities for indigenous people, noting the "reframed state-indigenous interactions", "increase in NGO projects and social movements", and "proliferation of indigenous organizations." Toledo created and first lady Eliane Karp headed

9600-437: Was born in the village of Ferrer, Bolognesi, but registered in the nearby town of Cabana , Pallasca Province, Ancash Department . The family moved to Chimbote when Toledo was six years old. As a child he worked shining shoes and selling newspapers and lottery tickets. At age 11, Toledo finished grade school, his father expected him to leave school and get a job to support the family. With his teacher's encouragement, Toledo

9700-528: Was condensed and centralized. A Fujimori-dominated congress passed a new constitution in 1993, which consolidated the bicameral legislature into a unicameral legislature with a single national district. Under Fujimori local governments retained minimal legal authority including fees for utilities, basic civil registries, and management of public spaces and markets. Decentralization was among Toledo's most successful institutional reforms. In addition to announcing regional elections upon his inauguration, he charged

9800-475: Was promulgated in the Ayacucho and Apurímac regions. During the next years, the economic problems left over from the military government persisted, worsened by an occurrence of the "El Niño" weather phenomenon in 1982–83, which caused widespread flooding in some parts of the country, severe droughts in others, and sharply reduced the schools of ocean fish that are one of the country's major resources. During

9900-489: Was re-elected in 1980 after twelve years of military rule. The second of four children, Belaúnde was born in Lima into a wealthy aristocratic family of Spanish forebears: his father, Rafael Belaúnde Diez Canseco (1886–1972), a professor, served as Prime Minister under José Bustamante y Rivero ; his paternal grandfather, Mariano Andrés Belaunde, was a Finance Minister ; and one of his great-grandfathers, Pedro Diez Canseco ,

10000-562: Was the release of the "Vladi-videos" that prompted retreat by Fujimori. The first of these incriminating videos showed Montesinos bribing a congressman with US$ 15,000 to switch to Fujimori's camp. In November 2000, amid growing allegations of fraud and corruption within his administration, Fujimori agreed to hold new elections in 2001, and not to stand as a candidate. While he was attending the APEC forum in Brunei , Fujimori's party lost control of

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