A performance is an act or process of staging or presenting a play, concert, or other form of entertainment. It is also defined as the action or process of carrying out or accomplishing an action, task, or function.
106-737: In the work place, job performance is the hypothesized conception or requirements of a role. There are two types of job performances: contextual and task. Task performance is dependent on cognitive ability, while contextual performance is dependent on personality. Task performance relates to behavioral roles that are recognized in job descriptions and remuneration systems. They are directly related to organizational performance, whereas contextual performances are value-based and add additional behavioral roles that are not recognized in job descriptions and covered by compensation; these are extra roles that are indirectly related to organizational performance. Citizenship performance, like contextual performance, relates to
212-447: A colleague ample notice when you alter something that will affect them. Finally, sportsmanship has been defined as a willingness on the part of the employee that signifies the employee's tolerance of less-than-ideal organizational circumstances without complaining and blowing problems out of proportion. Organ et al. (2006) further define sportsmanship as an employee's "ability to roll with the punches" even if they do not like or agree with
318-414: A composite measure of OCB. Results from this study indicated that the composite measure of OCB was positively correlated with restaurant profits. More recently, Podsakoff, Blume, Whiting, and Podsakoff (2009) found that OCBs were positively related to unit-level performance and customer satisfaction. Nielsen, Hrivnak, and Shaw (2009), in their meta-analytic review of the existing group literature, examined
424-635: A concern for others. Masculine behaviors, on the other hand, are typically more aggressive and independent (Spence & Helmreich, 1980). In line with these ideas, the OCB dimensions of altruism, courtesy, civic virtue and sportsmanship can be divided by gender role. Altruism and courtesy, previously mentioned as OCBIs, are considered in-role behavior for women, while civic virtue and sportsmanship, previously mentioned as OCBOs, are regarded as more in-role for men. The dimension of conscientiousness , which includes attention to detail and adherence to organizational rules,
530-774: A consultant's time is the outcome, the OCB/task performance trade off is “immediate and apparent.” In a sales-oriented firm the effect lags and is less apparent because the outcome of sales productivity is not immediately manifest. There is a cost indicated to individuals engaging in OCB in an outcome-based system, with task performance proving much more important for increasing salary and enabling promotion. Conversely, OCB correlates negatively to salary and has nil impact on promotion. In short, OCB participation in may distract from task performance and negatively impact career advancement in an outcome-based system. Adrian Piper Adrian Margaret Smith Piper (born September 20, 1948)
636-412: A culture of OCB within their teams. By providing a supportive and empowering environment, transformational leaders can enhance employees' intrinsic motivation, leading to increased discretionary efforts and OCB. Motivation plays a central role in OCB. Intrinsic factors, driven by purpose and fulfillment, are key in sustaining discretionary efforts. In the public sector, this commitment to the greater good
742-403: A defined role, it quickly becomes difficult to define what is discretionary. OCB has often been compared to contextual performance . Similarly to OCB, this concept emerged in response to the realization that only looking at job specific work behaviors ignored a significant portion of the job domain. Originally, experts in this field focused only on activities that directly supported the output of
848-422: A great deal of criticism. The very nature of the construct makes it difficult to operationally define. Critics started questioning whether or not OCBs, as defined by Organ, were discretionary in nature. Organ (1997), in response to criticisms, notes that since his original definition, jobs have moved away from a clearly defined set of tasks and responsibilities and have evolved into much more ambiguous roles. Without
954-616: A lifelong performance of personal responsibility." In February 2017, the work was central to her first solo exhibition in a German museum at Nationalgalerie at Hamburger Bahnhof. A 50-year retrospective of Piper's work, displayed on the top floor of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) from March 31, 2018, to July 22, 2018, is the first time the New York museum devoted that entire level to a living artist. The Adrian Piper Research Archive Foundation The Adrian Piper Research Archive Foundation
1060-697: A massive canvas on his studio floor. Situationists in France, led by Guy Debord , married avant-garde art with revolutionary politics to incite everyday acts of anarchy. The "Naked City Map" (1957) fragments the 19 sections of Paris, featuring the technique of détournement and abstraction of the traditional environment, deconstructing the geometry and order of a typical city map. At the New School for Social Research in New York, John Cage and Allan Kaprow became involved in developing happening performance art. These carefully scripted one-off events incorporated
1166-416: A museum, chewing gum loudly, and holding a purse full of ketchup. The Catalysis performances were meant to catalyze challenges that constituted the order of the social field, "at the level of dress, sanity, and the distinction between public and private acts." day. The word "catalysis" describes a chemical reaction caused by a catalytic agent that remains unchanged, and Piper viewed her audience's reaction as
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#17327660986151272-494: A negative relationship was found between task routinization and OCB. Even though task characteristics have been found to predict OCB, some debate exists as to whether this is a direct effect or a relationship mediated by job satisfaction (Todd & Kent, 2006). Leadership behaviors have also been found to be an important predictor of OCB. These behaviors fall into four categories: transformational leadership behavior, transactional leadership behavior, behaviors having to do with
1378-449: A pivotal role in shaping the motivation for OCB. A culture that values teamwork, collaboration, and mutual respect fosters an environment where employees are more inclined to engage in discretionary efforts. Research indicates that when individuals perceive their organization as supportive, fair, and appreciative of their contributions, they are more likely to exhibit OCB. Additionally, organizations that celebrate and recognize OCB reinforce
1484-437: A powerful motivator for engaging in behaviors that benefit the organization and the broader community. Additionally, public sector organizations often have specific mission statements and values centered around public service, which can enhance employees' intrinsic motivation to engage in OCB. Research has highlighted the importance of organizational mission in fostering OCB in the public sector. Organizational culture plays
1590-443: A set of individual activity/contribution (prosocial organizational behavior) that supports organizational culture . In performing arts , a performance generally comprises an event in which a performer, or group of performers, present one or more works of art to an audience . In instrumental music and drama, a performance is typically described as a "play". Typically, the performers participate in rehearsals beforehand to practice
1696-404: A sign that read "Wet Paint", and going to Macy's department store to shop for gloves and sunglasses; stuffing a huge white towel into her mouth and riding the bus, subway, and Empire State Building elevator; and dousing herself in a mixture of vinegar, eggs, milk, and cod liver oil and then spending a week moving around New York's subway and bookstores. Catalysis VII involved Piper visiting
1802-437: A specific colleague with an organizationally relevant task or problem. Conscientiousness consists of behaviors that go well beyond the minimum role requirements of the organization (Law, Wong, & Chen, 2005). These behaviors indicate that employees accept and adhere to the rules, regulations, and procedures of the organization. Civic virtue is characterized by behaviors that indicate the employee's deep concerns and interest in
1908-532: A specific gain for the organization. The idea is that over time, the compilation of employees helping behavior will eventually be advantageous for the organization (Organ et al., 2006). General compliance behavior serves to benefit the organization in several ways. Low rates of absenteeism and rule following help to keep the organization running efficiently. A compliant employee does not engage in behaviors such as taking excessive breaks or using work time for personal matters. When these types of behaviors are minimized
2014-428: A statement about her identity. Racial passing is addressed in another of Piper's performance pieces, "Cornered" (1988), where in a video recording she declares to an audience, "I'm black". Piper then explains how that fact may surprise the viewer because Piper, who has a fairer complexion, could pass for White, but chooses to identify as black. Piper's, Everything #5.2 (2004), is a piece of mirrored glass shaped like
2120-434: A summary of empirical evidence, that OCBs uniquely accounted for 42.9% of the variance in managerial performance evaluations. Results from this study also indicated that altruism or helping was significantly related to performance evaluations in eight out of the ten studies it was included in; sportsmanship was significantly related to performance evaluations in five out of the eight studies it was included in; conscientiousness
2226-442: A tombstone that layers the reflection of the viewer, the text, "Everything Will Be Taken Away", and the internal structures behind the plaster of the gallery wall. The work can be seen as a means of provoking viewers to interrogate the power of institutions to determine the value of a piece of art, as well as to interrogate their own place in the world. In The Probable Trust Registry , the piece for which Piper received top honors at
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#17327660986152332-416: A unique context for considering OCB and its motivations. Research has shown that public sector employees often exhibit higher levels of OCB compared to their private sector counterparts. This can be attributed, in part, to the intrinsic motivation derived from the public service aspect of their roles. Public sector workers often have a strong sense of duty and commitment to the greater good, which can serve as
2438-477: A way for her to subtly confront racism. In an effort to challenge gender norms, Piper explored the negative associations made about a woman sitting alone at a bar and the assumption that she is seeking the male gaze. To combat these norms between 1986 and 1990 she would pass out " My Calling Card #2" to request onlookers respect her privacy and to convey that being alone does not equate to her intending to be picked up. Both of these Calling Cards were handed out to make
2544-402: A “tournament” where the most deserving candidate for promotion “wins.” Task performance determines speed of advancement, so time spent on OCB can contribute to a slower promotion rate. Task performance also appears to be more important than OCB in an outcome-based system, where OCB participation correlates “significantly and negatively” to task performance. In a professional services firm where
2650-470: Is a construct very similar to OCB. Smith, Organ, and Near (1983) first proposed that OCB is composed of altruism and general compliance. These two dimensions serve to improve organizational effectiveness in different ways. Altruism in the workplace consists essentially of helping behaviors. These behaviors can both be directed within or outside of the organization. There is no direct link, or one-to-one relationship, between every instance of helping behavior and
2756-402: Is a form of helping behavior, but one that works to prevent problems from arising. It also includes the word's literal definition of being polite and considerate of others (Organ et al., 2006). Examples of courteous behaviors are asking fellow employees if they would like a cup of coffee while you are getting one for yourself, making extra copies of the meeting agenda for your teammates, and giving
2862-476: Is a performance of the artist rolling and moving in mud, using their body as the art-making tool, and emphasizing the temporary nature of performance art. Valie Export , an Austrian artist born Waltraud Lehner, performed "Tap and Touch Cinema" in 1968. She walked around the streets in Vienna during a film festival wearing a styrofoam box with a curtain over her chest. Bystanders were asked to put their hands inside
2968-454: Is also dependent on adaptation of eight areas: Handling crisis, managing stress, creative problem solving, knowing necessary functional tools and skills, agile management of complex processes, interpersonal adaptability, cultural adaptability, and physical fitness. Performance is not always a result of practice, but rather about honing in a skill. Over practicing itself can result in failure due to ego depletion . According to Andranik Tangian ,
3074-470: Is an American conceptual artist and Kantian philosopher . Her work addresses how and why those involved in more than one discipline may experience professional ostracism , otherness , racial passing , and racism by using various traditional and non-traditional media to provoke self-analysis. She uses reflection on her own career as an example. Piper has been awarded various fellowships and medals and has been described as having "profoundly influenced
3180-485: Is based in Berlin, Germany. It focuses on documenting the art, philosophy, and yoga of Piper's life. The goal of the foundation is to protect, preserve, and offer public access to the foundation for the benefit of those students, scholars, curators, collectors, writers, and members of the general public who demonstrate interest in the work of Piper. A fellowship award has been given in the years 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017, with
3286-493: Is characterized by a sense of personal satisfaction, enjoyment, or fulfillment derived from engaging with or performing an activity or task. Employees who are intrinsically motivated to excel in their roles are more likely to engage in OCB, as they find satisfaction in contributing beyond their basic job requirements. For instance, an employee might mentor a new team member not because of a specific reward, but because they find fulfillment in helping others grow professionally. On
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3392-403: Is excluded, as this dimension does not seem to adhere to any particular gender norm (Kidder & Parks, 2001). Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) is defined as "intentional employee behavior that is harmful to the legitimate interests of an organization" (Dalal, 2005). When considering the definitions of OCB and CWB , it seems logical to assume that these constructs are opposites; one harms
3498-444: Is particularly pronounced. Fostering motivation, as well as a culture of collaboration and empowerment, assists to promote a culture of organizational citizenship. Research on gender-role stereotypes has gone on for decades. It is widely accepted that certain behaviors are considered more feminine and certain behaviors are considered more masculine. Feminine behaviors have been characterized as interpersonal in orientation and focused on
3604-703: Is reduced where OCB enjoys high organisational support, high-quality TMX relationships, and pressure to engage in OCB is low. Conversely, citizenship fatigue is amplified when perceived organisational support is low, TMX relationships are low in quality, and there is perceived pressure to engage in OCB. A study of the relationship between OCB, task performance, and career outcomes in outcome-based professional services gauged potential consequences of OCB engagement. Time spent on task performance and OCB were positively related to performance evaluations, which in turn strongly determine promotion. Controlled for advancement speed, however, performance evaluation merely allows entry into
3710-827: Is some tension visible in the existing literature on the effects of OCB on the employees who perform these citizenship behaviours. Allowing employees some scope to work outside their formal roles is thought to enhance the employee experience and lower turnover intentions and actual turnover (Podsakoff et al., 2009). However, these benefits of OCB appear to come at a cost. Emotional exhaustion and conflict between home life and work are both higher for conscientious employees, and these effects are stronger amongst employees exhibiting high in-role performance (Deery, Rayton, Walsh and Kinnie, 2016). Citizenship fatigue occurs when OCB activities contribute to an employee “feeling worn out, tired, or on edge,” which in turn leads to reduced future OCB activity. While performance of job duties may remain high,
3816-521: Is that professional philosophers who visit these pages will eventually take it upon themselves to begin the long, slow process of reintegrating the Eastern philosophical tradition with the Western one, of reminding us what we have lost – by restoring the application of theory to practice as a central measure of philosophical worth; by restoring, too, the more generous conception of the self extending beyond
3922-461: Is that this type of behavior, unlike OCB, can be unrelated to the organization. Thus, someone exhibiting prosocial behavior could be helping a coworker with personal matter. Extra-role behavior (ERB), first defined by Van Dyne, Cummings and Mclean-Parks (1995, as cited in Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006), is another construct similar to OCB. ERB is defined as "behavior that attempts to benefit
4028-495: Is when an organization provides a conducive work environment (hygiene factor) along with regular employee recognition programs (motivator). This combination can significantly contribute to a motivated workforce, more inclined towards engaging in OCB. Motivation can be categorized into two primary types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations play distinct roles in encouraging OCB. Intrinsic motivation stems from internal factors within an individual. It
4134-908: The Adrian Piper Research Archive . In 2015, she was awarded the Golden Lion for best artist in the international exhibition of the Venice Biennale. In 2017, Piper received an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts degree from the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design University. In 1981 Piper published an essay entitled "Ideology, Confrontation and Political Self-Awareness", in which she discusses concepts she explores through her art. In her essay, she contemplates notions of human self-examination and belief structures that serve to "individuate oneself from another." These beliefs begin with our early experiences in
4240-842: The College Art Association . In 2015, she was awarded the Golden Lion for best artist of the 2015 Venice Biennale for her participation in Okwui Enwezor 's central show, "All the World's Futures". In 2011 the American Philosophical Association awarded her the title, professor emeritus. In 2013, the Women's Caucus for Art announced that Piper would be a 2014 recipient of the organization's Lifetime Achievement Award. Piper received
4346-735: The School of Visual Arts and was graduated with an associate's degree in 1969. Piper then studied philosophy at the City College of New York and graduated summa cum laude with a bachelor's in 1974. Piper received a master's in philosophy from Harvard University in 1977 and her doctorate in 1981, supervised by John Rawls . She also studied at the University of Heidelberg . During her philosophical studies, Piper focused on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason ; this philosophical inspiration pervades her artworks, most specifically Food for
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4452-629: The adrenal glands , and increased blood pressure. Organizational citizenship behavior In industrial and organizational psychology , organizational citizenship behavior ( OCB ) is a person's voluntary commitment within an organization or company that is not part of his or her contractual tasks. Organizational citizenship behavior has been studied since the late 1970s. Over the past three decades, interest in these behaviors has increased substantially. Organizational behavior has been linked to overall organizational effectiveness, thus these types of employee behaviors have important consequences in
4558-606: The path-goal theory of leadership , and behaviors having to do with the leader-member exchange theory . Transformational leadership behaviors, including articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, fostering the acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations, and intellectual stimulation, have significant positive relationships with Organ's dimensions of OCB. Two types of behaviors representative of transactional leadership style, contingent reward behavior and non-contingent punishment behavior, have significant relationships with Organ's dimensions of OCB. Additionally, both
4664-465: The 1950s with Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning gave way to action painting , a technique that emphasized the dynamic movements of artists as they splattered paint and other media on canvas or glass. For these artists, the motion of putting paint on canvas was just as valuable as the finished painting, and so it was common for artists to document their work in film; such as the short film Jackson Pollock 51(1951), featuring Pollock dripping paint onto
4770-556: The APRA Foundation Berlin. Curator Ned Rifkin wrote that Piper "holds a singular position" in the art world . Art critic Michael Brenson asserted that Piper's work "cut through the frozen sea in people and [led] them into areas of themselves they did not know existed." Piper was included in Peggy Phelan and Helena Reckitt's compendium, Art and Feminism (2001), where Phelan wrote that her art "worked to show
4876-482: The OCBs civic virtue and sportsmanship were both significantly related to indices of sales performance. Podsakoff, Ahearne, and MacKenzie (1997, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) examined paper mill workers and found that helping behavior was significantly related to product quality. MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Ahearne (1996, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) found that civic virtue and helping behavior were significantly related to
4982-697: The Spirit (1971). During the late 1960s and early 1970s Piper was influenced by Sol LeWitt and Yvonne Rainer . She worked at the Seth Siegelaub Gallery , known for its conceptual art exhibitions, in 1969. In 1970, she exhibited in the Museum of Modern Art 's exhibition Information , and began to study philosophy in college. Piper has said that she was kicked out of the art world during this time for her race and sex. Her work started to address ostracism, otherness, and attitudes around racism. In an interview with Maurice Berger , published under
5088-436: The Venice Biennale in 2015, Piper asked visitors to sign contracts with themselves adhering to one of a trio of posted statements, for example, "I will always do what I say I am going to do". In a statement accompanying the award, the jury said: "Piper has reformed conceptual practice to include personal subjectivity—of herself, her audience, and the public in general." They also noted that the piece asks its audience "to engage in
5194-429: The academic format to engage in active discussion. By engaging audiences in active participation, Piper saw herself as creating an early work of relational aesthetics or what might be described as social practice . As documented in a video by Sam Samore , the experience transcended academic didacticism in favor of social exchange; Piper's mantra for the work was, "Get down and party together." In 1981, Piper published
5300-523: The amount and degree to which they will perform them. However, while contextual performance and OCB share a good part of their content domain, there are some important differences between the two constructs. One of the main requirements of OCBs is that they are not formally rewarded, which is not the case for contextual performance. Organ (1997) contends that OCBs may at some point encourage some sort of reward, but that these rewards would be indirect and uncertain. Also, contextual performance does not require that
5406-476: The amount of the award varying. The foundation is raising funds with the goals of, (1) complete the renovation of its permanent home in Berlin-Mitte so as to increase its accessibility to the general public; (2) increase the grant amount of the annual Multi-disciplinary Fellowship to a full-year research sabbatical for the grantee; and (3) lay the foundations for the a new Philosophy Dissertation Fellowship for
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#17327660986155512-437: The attention of authorities (Near & Miceli, 1987, as cited in Organ et al., 2006). Principled organizational dissent is when employees protest the organization because of some kind of injustice (Graham, 1986, as cited in Organ et al., 2006). Both of these ideas contribute to ERB in the sense that their purpose is to further the good of the organization and that they are not included in the formal job description. This again,
5618-451: The audience into acts of chaos and spontaneity. These happenings challenged traditional art conventions and encouraged artists to carefully consider the role of an audience. In Japan, the 1954 Gutai group led by Yoshihara Jiro, Kanayma Akira, Murakami Saburo, Kazuo Shiraga, and Shimamoto Shozo made the materials of art-making come to life with body movement and blurring the line between art and theater. Kazuo Shiraga 's Challenging Mud (1955)
5724-403: The behavior be extra-role , only that it be non-task. The differences between contextual performance and OCB are slight and easy to miss, however, they do exist. OCB has also been compared to prosocial organizational behavior (POB). POB is defined as behavior within an organization that is aimed at improving the welfare of an individual, a group or an organization. The important distinction here
5830-440: The best results are achieved when spontaneity and even improvisation are backed up by rational elements that arrange means of expression in a certain structure, supporting the communication (not just verbal) with the audience. Theatrical performances, especially when the audience is limited to only a few observers, can lead to significant increases in the performer's heart rate. This increase takes place in several stages relative to
5936-456: The box and touch her bare chest. This commentary on women sexualization in film focused on the sense of touch rather than sight. Adrian Piper and her performance Catalysis III (1970) featured the artist walking down New York City streets with her outfit painted white and a sign across her chest that said "wet paint." She was interested in the invisible social and racial dynamics in America and
6042-540: The changes that are occurring within the organization. By reducing the number of complaints from employees that administrators have to deal with, sportsmanship conserves time and energy. It has been proven empirically that the factors listed above are the most robust and distinct factors in assessing OCB. However, in a meta-analysis of the OCB literature, LePine, Erez, and Johnson (2002) found that these five dimensions are very highly correlated and do not have much differentiation among antecedents , indicating some overlap in
6148-488: The consequences of OCBs has focused on two main areas: organizational performance and success and managerial evaluations of performance and reward allocation. Some evidence also exists on the impacts of OCB on the employees themselves. Multiple studies and meta-analyses have been conducted to look at the relationship between OCBs and organizational performance and success. Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1994, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) looked at an insurance agency and found that
6254-474: The context of OCB, employees who feel a sense of belonging and recognition are more likely to engage in discretionary behaviors that benefit the organization. Another relevant theory is Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory. Herzberg distinguished between hygiene factors, which include extrinsic factors like salary and working conditions, and motivators, which comprise factors such as recognition and achievement. An illustrative example of this theory in action
6360-501: The dance styles, culture, and history of funk music . Piper located the roots of funk in African tribal music and saw it as integral to the growing presence of black cultural figures in America and the ongoing struggle for equal rights. By exposing diverse audiences to the music of African American counterculture, Piper sought to create a dialogue about the cultural value of dance music and the politics of race and identity. Each "lesson"
6466-449: The dimensions. A different way of organizing the OCB construct was proposed by Williams and Anderson (1991). They divided up the dimensions of OCB into two different types of OCB based on whom the behaviors were directed at. Organizational citizenship behavior – individuals (OCBI) include behaviors that are aimed at other individuals in the workplace while organizational citizenship behavior-organizational (OCBO) include behaviors directed at
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#17327660986156572-495: The eastern yogic traditions of Hindu philosophy . Many of her works either allude to or directly incorporate eastern philosophy in them, for example, Mythic Being: Doing Yoga (1975), The Color Wheel Series (2000), and Mokshamudra Progression (2012). On her website, Piper brings attention to the rise of yoga in the United States, and with it, the decline of its true spiritual meanings. She states, "But my deeper hope
6678-507: The effects of job candidates' tendency to exhibit OCBs on selection decisions made in the context of a job interview. These researchers found that candidates whose interview responses indicated a tendency to engage in helping others, challenge the status quo by voicing their opinions, and support and defend an organization were generally viewed as more competent, received higher overall evaluations, and received higher recommended starting salaries than those who did not. Research has also looked at
6784-431: The ego that Western philosophy has forgotten; by restoring to a central place in our thinking the insights of Yoga into the structure of the ego and its relation to change, desire, and acquisitions; and thereby restoring the methods, practices and wisdom of Yoga to its rightful place among the many philosophical traditions that express our capacities for intellectual analysis and spiritual growth." In June 1968 Piper's work
6890-632: The essay, "Ideology, Confrontation, and Political Self Awareness", in High Performance Magazine . In it, she details three pervasive logical fallacies that she felt contributed to constructing one's ideology: the False Identity Mechanism, Illusion of Perfectibility, and One Way Communication Mechanism. She argued that these fallacies lead to the Illusion of Omniscience, which she defined as "[b]eing so convinced of
6996-571: The exhibition because its inclusion further underlined the marginalization of non-White artists and was in direct opposition to the ideals that she fought to inspire in her viewers. Piper spent the summer of 1971 in her loft in New York City. During this time, she was reading Immanuel Kant 's Critique of Pure Reason (1781). She would read this book while doing various activities. Such activities consisted of yoga, fasting and writing. However, her experience reading this led to her feeling that she
7102-576: The expense of other individuals or groups." Piper concludes the essay by telling readers that if considering the points she brings up makes them self-conscious about their political beliefs in the slightest degree, or causes them to have even "the slightest glimmerings of doubt about the veracity of [their] opinions, then [she] will consider [the] piece a roaring success." Piper's work is largely based on her background in philosophy, including eastern philosophy . Piper started studying and practicing yoga in 1965 . Through her education, she gained interest into
7208-436: The field of public management. Several prominent theories in psychology and organizational behavior provide insights on the motivations behind OCB. One such theory is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs . According to Maslow, individuals have a hierarchy of needs ranging from physiological needs to self-actualization. Once basic needs are met, individuals are motivated by higher-level needs, such as belongingness and esteem. In
7314-457: The first female African-American philosophy professor to receive academic tenure in the United States. While she was on unpaid leave in Berlin during 2008, Wellesley College terminated her tenured full professorship because of her refusal to return to the United States while listed as a "Suspicious Traveler" on the U.S. Transportation Security Administration Watch List. Piper is divorced. She currently lives and works in Berlin, where she runs
7420-476: The foundation. The goal of the campaign is to raise €4,000,000. The Berlin Journal of Philosophy Established in 2011, The Berlin Journal of Philosophy is an open-access, peer-reviewed, international journal that seeks to innovate through adhering strictly to simultaneous policies of blind submission, double-blind review, and anti-plagiarism. The Berlin Journal of Philosophy is administered and published by
7526-689: The infallibility of your own beliefs about everyone else that you forget you are perceiving and experiencing as other people from a perspective that is in its own ways just as subjective and limited as theirs." In 2008, she published her two-volume essay, "Rationality and the Structure of the Self". Volume I involves a summary of a wealth of Western philosophy, while Volume II focuses on her own interpretation of these philosophers. In Volume II, Piper argues that, without moral alienation, we would be unable to forge relationships with others, or act interpersonally in
7632-673: The interplay between OCB and citizenship fatigue. A perceived lack of support from the organisation correlates with citizenship fatigue, which workers may compensate for in other areas, such as working longer hours. Older workers were less likely to report citizenship fatigue. High citizenship pressure does not appear to correlate to citizenship fatigue rates, but where citizenship pressure is low, higher OCB levels correlated with decreased citizenship fatigue. Further, TMX situations where employees are conscientious and supportive of each other's interests appear to decrease citizenship fatigue, although low-TMX seems to have nil impact. Citizenship fatigue
7738-657: The intrinsic motivation among employees, further encouraging them to go above and beyond their formal job roles for the collective benefit of the organization. Transformational leadership has been identified as a significant predictor of employees engaging in OCB. This leadership style involves inspiring and motivating employees by creating a compelling vision of the future and empowering them to contribute meaningfully to organizational goals. Studies have shown that leaders who exhibit transformational qualities, such as charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and inspirational motivation, are more likely to foster
7844-656: The language and form of Conceptual art". In 2002, she founded the Adrian Piper Research Archive (APRA) in Berlin, Germany , the focus of a foundation that was established in 2009. Piper was born on September 20, 1948, in New York City . She was raised in Manhattan in an upper-middle-class Black family and attended a private school with mostly wealthy, White students. She studied art at
7950-618: The life of the organization (Law et al., 2005). This dimension also encompasses positive involvement in the concerns of the organization (Organ et al., 2006). Examples of civic virtue can be seen in daily affairs such as attending meetings and keeping up with what is going on with the organization in general. Civic virtue can also be demonstrated on a larger scale by defending the organization's policies and practices when they are challenged by an outside source. Courtesy has been defined as discretionary behaviors that aim at preventing work-related conflicts with others (Law et al., 2005). This dimension
8056-510: The nature of OCB as additional activity can see atrophy through employee exhaustion. Citizenship fatigue acts on both affect and cognition meaning that a sense of OCB burnout can be coupled with the perception that OCB activities are causing the feelings of burnout. A study of 273 employees over multiple points in time found that “perceived organisational support, quality of team-member exchange (TMX) relationships, and pressure to engage in OCB” affect
8162-484: The organization and that goes beyond existing role expectations" (Organ et al., 2006, p. 33). While similar in many aspects, there do exist some important differences between OCB and ERB. Two concepts are a part of ERB that are not included in OCB: whistle blowing and principled organizational dissent. Whistle blowing involves the reporting of one employee by another so that unethical and or illegal practices are brought to
8268-480: The organization and the other helps. Individuals might further assume that by engaging in one of these types of behaviors, an individual will not tend to engage in the other. However, a recent meta-analysis , Dalal (2005), found that this is not the case. The results of this analysis indicate that these constructs only shared a little to moderate negative correlation and furthermore showed differences in magnitude and pattern of relationships between various antecedents and
8374-723: The organization as a whole. Altruism and courtesy are actions aimed at other employees and thus fall under the umbrella of OCBIs. Conscientiousness , civic virtue, and sportsmanship are behaviors intended for the benefit of the organization and can subsequently be considered OCBOs. Those dimensions are widely used in organizational behavior studies e.g. Motivation plays an important role in driving individuals to engage in Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). The underlying mechanisms that lead employees to engage in these extra-role behaviors are significant for both academic study and practical application in
8480-528: The organization. As the job market became more aggressive, it became necessary for employees to go above and beyond that which is formally required by the job description in order to remain competitive. Contextual performance is defined as non-task related work behaviors and activities that contribute to the social and psychological aspects of the organization. Contextual performance consists of four elements: persistence of enthusiasm, assistance to others, rule and proscribed procedure following, and openly defending
8586-399: The organizations objectives. OCB and contextual performance share their defining attributes as they both consist of behaviors other than those needed to perform the routine functions of the job. Both also require that these behaviors contribute to the overall success of the organization. Additionally, they also agree on the theme that these behaviors are discretionary and each employee chooses
8692-439: The other hand, extrinsic motivation comes from external stimuli, typically in the form of rewards or punishments. Examples of extrinsic motivators include performance bonuses, incentives, recognition, promotions, or advancement opportunities. In summary, while both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can influence behavior, the former is often more closely associated with sustained engagement in OCB. The public sector presents
8798-483: The overall and individual OCB levels. One of the most intuitive antecedents of OCB is job satisfaction. Organ and Ryan (1995) conducted a meta-analysis of 28 studies and found a modest relationship between job satisfaction and OCB. This relationship was stronger than the relationship between job satisfaction and in-role performance. Other attitudinal measures, perceived fairness, organizational commitment , and leader supportiveness are found to correlate with OCB at about
8904-402: The percent of team quota sales. Walz and Niehoff (2000) examined 30 different restaurants and found that helping behavior was significantly related to operating efficiency, customer satisfaction, and quality of performance. Researchers found that helping behavior was also negatively correlated with wasted food. Koys (2001, as cited in Organ et al., 2006) used a combination of OCB dimensions to form
9010-456: The performance itself, including anticipatory activation (one minute before the start of subject's speaking role), confrontation activation (during the subject's speaking role, at which point their heart rate peaks) and release period (one minute after the conclusion of the subject's speech). The same physiological reactions can be experienced in other mediums such as instrumental performance. When experiments were conducted to determine whether there
9116-403: The piece were listed on the last page as the "Exhibit Locations". With this project, Piper succeeded in distributing her work on her own terms to an audience of more than 150 artists, curators, and dealers of her choosing. In the 1970s, she began a series of street performances under the collective title, Catalysis, which included actions such as painting her clothes with white paint, wearing
9222-490: The relationship between OCBs and performance at the group level. These researchers found a positive and significant relationship between overall OCB and performance at the group level. In addition, Nielsen et al. (2009) found that similar patterns of relationships existed for each dimension of OCB: civic virtue, sportsmanship, altruism, conscientiousness , and courtesy. With regard to the relationship between OBs and managerial evaluations, Podsakoff and colleagues (2000) found, in
9328-399: The relationship between task-performance, CWB , and OCB with overall managerial evaluations. When compared with task-performance and CWB , OCB is found to contribute least to overall managerial evaluations (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). This somewhat inconsistent pattern of results across the OCB literature with regard to antecedents exemplifies the need for more research in this area. There
9434-880: The same rate as satisfaction (Organ & Ryan, 1995). In terms of personality characteristics, conscientiousness , agreeableness , and positive and negative affectivity garner the most support as antecedents of OCB (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Conscientiousness, in particular, has been found to have a strong relationship with the general compliance component of OCB (Organ et al., 2006). However, it has also been reported that personality measures are weaker predictors of OCB when compared to attitudinal predictors (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Task characteristics such as feedback, routinization, and intrinsic satisfaction are found to be significantly related to altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue. Positive relationships were found between both task feedback and intrinsic satisfaction and OCB, while
9540-502: The service of selfless or disinterested moral principles. Much of Piper's work deals with issues of racial passing , racism , and gender in the United States. For example, in her 1986 performance piece, " My Calling (Card) #1", she distributed a card to anyone who made a racist comment in her presence, making them aware of her identity as an African American woman, and of how their comment made her feel uncomfortable. These cards were distributed by Piper at dinners and cocktail parties as
9646-407: The supportive leadership and leader role clarification aspects of the path-goal theory of leadership are positively related to OCB. Podsakoff et al. (2000) found that leader-member exchange was positively related to altruism and an overall composite measure of OCB. During the early 1990s, scholars gained real momentum in the area of OCB with regard to empirical research. Empirical research regarding
9752-636: The title Critique of Pure Racism, Piper asserted that while she finds analysis of racism praiseworthy, she wants her artwork to help people confront their racist views. Piper was awarded visual arts fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts in 1979 and 1982, and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1989 . Piper taught at Wellesley College , Harvard University , Stanford University , University of Michigan , Georgetown University , and University of California, San Diego . In 1987, she became
9858-614: The two constructs. These results indicate that CWB and OCB are two separate constructs and should be conceptualized as thus. Early research regarding the antecedents of OCB focused on employee attitudes, dispositions, and leader supportiveness. More recently, many different variables have been examined in the effort to determine the antecedents of OCB. Commonly studied antecedents of OCB are job satisfaction , perceptions of organizational justice , organizational commitment , personality characteristics, task characteristics, and leadership behavior. These antecedents have been analyzed at both
9964-519: The unaffected agent. Piper's Mythic Being series, started in 1973, saw the artist dressed in a wig and mustache and performing publicly as a "third world, working class, overly hostile male." In 2013, NYU 's Grey Art Gallery played footage from Piper's 1973 work, Mythic Being , in its exhibition entitled, "Radical Presence: Black Performance in Contemporary Art". Piper rejected the inclusion, and requested that her work be removed from
10070-576: The way in which an actor performs. In a solo capacity, it may also refer to a mime artist , comedian , conjurer , magician, or other entertainer. Another aspect of performance that grew in popularity in the early 20th century is performance art . The origins of Performance art started with Dada and Russian constructivism groups, focusing on avant-garde poetry readings and live paintings meant to be viewed by an audience. It can be scripted or completely improvised and includes audience participation if desired. The emergence of abstract expressionism in
10176-505: The ways in which racism and sexism are intertwined pathologies which have distorted our lives." Piper received visual arts fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts in 1979 and 1982, and a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1989 . In 1987, she became the first female African-American philosophy professor to receive academic tenure in the United States. In 2012, she received the Artist Award for Distinguished Body of Work from
10282-436: The work. An effective performance is determined by the achieved skills and competency of the performer, also known as the level of skill and knowledge. In 1994, Spencer and McClelland defined competency as "a combination of motives, traits, self-concepts, attitudes, cognitive behavior skills (content knowledge) that helps a performer to differentiate themselves as superior from the average performer". A performance also describes
10388-416: The workforce is naturally more productive. Later, Organ (1988) deconstructed the dimension of general compliance and added additional dimensions of OCB. This deconstruction resulted in a five-factor model consisting of altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness , civic virtue , and sportsmanship. The definition of altruism remained much as it was, defined by discretionary behaviors that have the effect of helping
10494-452: The workplace. Organ expanded upon Katz's (1964) original work. Organ (1988) defines OCB as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization". Organ's definition of OCB includes three critical aspects that are central to this construct: At the same time, Organ's (1988) definition of OCB has generated
10600-531: The world and go unquestioned until they are attacked by new experiences that break the conformity, introducing doubt—the key to self-examination and belief-revision. Piper argues that the beliefs we tend to hold onto the longest, and often avoid exposing to examination, are those that allow us to maintain an understanding that makes sense to us about who we are and how we exist within the world at large. She points out that these "ideologies" often are responsible for "stupid, insensitive, self-serving [behavior], usually at
10706-415: Was a correlation between audience size and heart rate (an indicator of anxiety) of instrumental performers, the researcher's findings ran contrary to previous studies, showing a positive correlation rather than a negative one. Heart rate shares a strong, positive correlation with the self reported anxiety of performers. Other physiological responses to public performance include perspiration , secretion of
10812-403: Was advertised on postcards that specifically avoided labeling the event as a work of participatory art . Piper began the lessons by playing samples of music and instructing participants in specific dance moves, while gradually introducing anecdotes of black history and culture into her presentation. Piper acted as a facilitator to discussions that, at times, grew heated as participants strayed from
10918-608: Was determined to encourage civic-mindedness and interruption of the system. Carolee Schneemann , American artist, performed Interior Scroll in 1975, where she unrolls Super-8 film "Kitsch's Last Meal" from her genitals. This nude performance contributes to a discourse on femininity, sexualization, and film. Williams and Krane define the ideal performance state as a mental state having the following characteristics: Other related factors are: motivation to achieve success or avoid failure, task relevant attention, positive self-talk, and cognitive regulation to achieve automaticity . Performance
11024-481: Was losing connection to her physical self and was disappearing. She created the work Food for the Spirit to counteract this feeling. To perform the work, she would photograph herself periodically in front of a mirror and would chant parts of the book that led her to this feeling. The works consist of 14 gelatin silver prints as part of a binder. Between 1982 and 1984, Piper staged a series of events advertised as Funk Lessons , which invited participants to learn about
11130-588: Was published in 0 to 9 magazine , an avant-garde publication that experimented with language and meaning-making. The first mention of Piper as an artist in the press was in the Village Voice on March 27, 1969, when she was only 19 years old. It was in response to what also is considered her first solo exhibition, her mail art project entitled, Three Untitled Projects . The people and institutions to whom she sent her 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 -by-11-inch (220 mm × 280 mm) stapled booklets that comprised
11236-415: Was significantly related to performance evaluations in all three of the studies it was included in; and civic virtue was significantly related to performance evaluations in six out of the eight studies it was included in. More recently, Podsakoff et al. (2009) found that OCBs have a positive relationship with performance ratings and reward allocations. Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, and Mishra (2010) examined
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