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130-590: Muhiddin Piri ( c. 1470 – 1553), better known as Piri Reis ( Turkish : Pîrî Reis ), was an Ottoman corsair , navigator , geographer , and cartographer . He is primarily known today for his cartographic works, including his 1513 world map and the Kitab-ı Bahriye ( Book of the Sea ), a book with detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing

260-592: A windrose network rather than a longitude and latitude grid . It contains extensive notes primarily in Ottoman Turkish . The colophon in Arabic is written in a different handwriting, likely that of Piri Reis himself. The depiction of South America is detailed and accurate for its time. Scholars attribute the peculiar arrangement of the Caribbean to a now-lost map from Columbus that depicted Cuba as part of

390-680: A Spaniard who had participated in Columbus's voyages , and likely possessed an early map of the Americas that Piri Reis would use as a source for his maps. When his uncle died in a 1511 shipwreck in the Mediterranean, Piri Reis returned to Gallipoli to work on his navigational studies. The finished manuscript of his first world map was dated to the month of Muharram in the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to March 1513 AD. This work included

520-736: A failed attempt at the mortifications of cenobitic life at the Hosios Loukas monastery in Boetia set sail in the spring of 1094 on a pilgrimage to Rome for the Solemnity of Sts. Peter and Paul. His pious habit of evangelizing the sailors with constant proclamations (in Greek kerygma from κηρύσσω, meaning "to cry or proclaim as a herald") of the phrase Kyrie Eleison according to legend, led them to throw him overboard. He made it ashore in Italy, but

650-686: A fleet to invade the Peloponnese . In Classical Antiquity , it was an important town of the Locri Ozolae and the best harbour on the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf . The town was situated just within the entrance of this gulf, a little east of the promontory Antirrhium . It is said to have derived its name from the Heracleidae having here built the fleet with which they crossed over to Peloponnesus . Though Naupactus

780-475: A form of consonant mutation whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/ , is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/. This is analogous to languages such as German and Russian , but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling

910-593: A lost map of the Caribbean from Christopher Columbus . This sparked greater interest in the Kitab-ı Bahriye , and facsimiles of both were published. Piri Reis and his cartography have since become a point of national pride for Turkey . Little is known about Piri Reis' background and early life. He was likely born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles . At the time, Gallipoli was a major naval base for

1040-689: A major Angevin base on the Greek mainland. In 1304 or 1305, the Epirotes recovered Naupactus during a war with the Angevins, but handed it back when peace was concluded in 1306. The town briefly became part of the Serbian Empire during the 1350s. In 1361 the town was captured by the Catalans of the Duchy of Athens . In 1376 or 1377 it fell to John Bua Spata , an Albanian despot of Arta . It

1170-546: A more elaborate version at the urging of Grand Vizier Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha . His final surviving work is a 1528 world map, of which only the northwest corner remains (showing Greenland , Labrador , Newfoundland , Florida , Cuba , Hispaniola , Jamaica , and Central America ). In 1546, Piri Reis became Hind Kapudan-ı Derya , or grand admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean , as well as admiral of

1300-415: A negative suffix -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school'). In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then mi comes after the predicate but before

1430-753: A single person out of respect. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of the Turkic family. Other members include Azerbaijani , spoken in Azerbaijan and north-west Iran , Gagauz of Gagauzia , Qashqai of south Iran and the Turkmen of Turkmenistan . Historically the Turkic family was seen as a branch of the larger Altaic family, including Japanese , Korean , Mongolian and Tungusic , with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists. Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since

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1560-407: A verb in the form of the copula ol or y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below: The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word değil . For example, the sentence above would become Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of

1690-655: Is a character in the Assassin's Creed franchise. In the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood , a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, to match the Templars ' expansion into the new lands. He appears in its 2011 sequel Assassin's Creed: Revelations , set in early sixteenth-century Constantinople. Turkish language To

1820-582: Is a town and a former municipality in Nafpaktia , Aetolia-Acarnania , West Greece , situated on a bay on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth , 3 km (2 mi) west of the mouth of the river Mornos . It is named for Naupaktos ( Ναύπακτος , Latinized as Naupactus ), an important Athenian naval station in the Peloponnesian war . As a strategically crucial possession controlling access to

1950-531: Is based on the dialect of Istanbul . This Istanbul Turkish ( İstanbul Türkçesi ) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by Ziya Gökalp , Ömer Seyfettin and others. Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and in the Turkish education system since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive , leading to an ambiguity with

2080-537: Is called Psani, while the Eastern part Gribovo. Naupactus sits on a shoulder of a mountain range on the north while farmlands dominate the western part. It used to be on the GR-48/E65 linking Antirrio and Amfissa ; now it is bypassed to the north at the elevation of 150 to 200 m (492 to 656 ft) above sea level . The bypass has contributed significantly in lowering the number of heavy trucks passing through

2210-459: Is indicated only in the textual descriptions, not with scale bars. Standard portolan symbols indicate hazards, like dots for shallow water and crosses for rocks. Written when Ottoman sailors relied on oar-driven galleys and galiots , the Kitab-ı Bahriye reflects their needs and capabilities. It gives information on coastal waters, safe harbors, hazards, and sources of fresh water. The known surviving manuscripts are all copies created beginning in

2340-654: Is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani . In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire , such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus , Greece (primarily in Western Thrace ), the Republic of North Macedonia , Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in

2470-635: Is one of the official languages of Cyprus . Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo , including Mamusha, , two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in Kirkuk Governorate in Iraq. Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country. In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is

2600-594: Is recorded as having departed for Otranto in 1094 from the port. The history of the town over the next two centuries is obscure; during the visit of Benjamin of Tudela in 1165, there was a Jewish community of about 100 in the town. Following the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade , it became part of the Despotate of Epirus . Under its metropolitan, John Apokaukos ,

2730-500: Is slightly south of the correct position for Cuba and the Yucatan. The map uses standard portolan colors and symbols. Dots indicate shallow waters and sand banks . Crosses indicate rocks and reefs . The ships painted on the map are two caravels and a carrack . The scale bars indicate 50 miles between the sections of the scales. Based on the design of recently explored geographical features like Greenland, Newfoundland, and Florida,

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2860-652: Is the [harbor] fortress of Modon . Her right eye is that of Corfu ." Piri Reis took part in the Ottoman–Venetian wars , including the First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) , Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon) , and 1501 conquest of Navarino . During the First Battle of Lepanto, Piri Reis was one of many corsairs in a fleet of about 270 ships that fought through the Venetian fleet and entered

2990-426: Is the target of various pseudoscientific claims and is sometimes invoked in broader pop culture as an unsolved mystery. Civil engineer Arlington Mallery , professor Charles Hapgood , and Hapgood's students developed the hypothesis that the 1513 world map contained cartographic information, notably from an ice-free Antarctic coast, that exceeded the map-making abilities of the sixteenth century. In his 1966 book Maps of

3120-642: Is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad 'name' (dative ada ), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at 'horse', dative ata ). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms. Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/. The vowels of

3250-486: Is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish orthography , represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens

3380-713: The Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya . The nomadic Yörüks of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish . The Meskhetian Turks who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in

3510-508: The Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Except for a brief period of Venetian control in 1687–1699, Lepanto remained under Ottoman control until Greek independence in 1829. The modern municipality was incorporated in 1946, and later merged into the larger Nafpaktia municipality in the 2010 reform . Nafpaktos is now both the name of a municipal unit within Nafpaktia and of the town proper within

3640-482: The Byzantine possessions in southern Italy. A rebellion of the local populace, which led to the death of the local strategos George, is recorded during the early reign of Constantine VIII (r. 1025–28). In 1040, the town did not take part in the uprising of Peter Delyan , and although attacked by the rebel army, alone among the towns of the theme of Nicopolis, it resisted successfully. St. Nicholas of Trani

3770-631: The Germanic runic alphabets . With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages ( c.  6th –11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia , covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean . The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks , in particular, brought their language, Oghuz —the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during

3900-477: The Greek War of Independence . It was suppressed in 1900, replaced by the see of Acarnania and Naupactia, whose seat is at Missolonghi . Today the population is about 19,768 people according to the 2011 census. Residential homes align with the Gulf of Corinth over a length of about 3 km (2 mi) and a width of about 1 km (0.6 mi). The port divides the beachfront in two parts. The Western part

4030-763: The Gulf of Corinth , forcing the governor to surrender. Kemal Reis led the Ottomans in the battles to take the fortresses at Modon and Navarino. After the Ottoman navy defeated the Venetian fleet at the Peloponnese, they began to take control of the Eastern Mediterranean. In the early 1500s, Kemal Reis led raids on the Balearic Islands , Sardinia , and Pianosa in the western Mediterranean. In one naval battle, Piri Reis and his uncle captured

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4160-512: The Gulf of Lepanto was the scene of the great sea battle in which the naval power of the Ottoman Empire was nearly completely destroyed by the united Spanish, Papal, and Venetian forces ( Battle of Lepanto , October 7, 1571). In 1687 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored to the Ottomans in 1699, by the Treaty of Karlowitz . Among those who fought in the Battle of Lepanto

4290-600: The Kitab-ı Bahriye , completed after the conquest of Rhodes, only discusses the events in terms of the practical concerns of acquiring drinking water from Karabağ in Bodrum prior to the siege. The longer second version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye resulted from a conversation with the empire's grand vizier . Suleiman's reign was the beginning of a shift towards power concentrating in a group of viziers , advisers, governors, and royal family members, including Suleiman's childhood friend Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha who rose to grand vizier of

4420-623: The Laz language ). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. Karamanli Turkish is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα . It is the literary standard for the Karamanlides . At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian, although only syllable-finally. The phoneme that

4550-437: The Ottoman Empire period ( c.  1299 –1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish , which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for

4680-480: The Ottoman Empire . He was born Muhiddin Piri; Reis was a military rank equivalent to captain. His uncle was Kemal Reis . Little is known about his parents. Piri Reis gives his father's name as Hacı Mehmed. It is not clear from historical records whether Piri was the son of Kemal Reis' brother or sister. Kemal Reis had a brother-in-law from Nafpaktos who was arrested and tortured in Venice for alleged spying during

4810-523: The Ottoman–Venetian wars . He was possibly Piri Reis' father. By age 12, he began sailing with his uncle Kemal Reis . Kemal was a notable corsair , a type of pirate who acted with the approval of a sovereign state . Led by Kemal Reis, the Barbary pirates threatened European maritime traffic. Piri Reis wrote of his early years, "We sailed on the Mediterranean and fought the enemies of our religion mercilessly." He sailed with his uncle on raids, mainly on

4940-820: The Portuguese . Piri Reis subdued the local Bedouin rulers of Basra in 1547 and began building a Persian Gulf fleet. The fleet conducted annual expansions in the Indian Ocean, and some local rulers began to ally with the Portuguese. The sultan instructed Piri Reis to take the Portuguese-controlled Hormuz Island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf . Taking Bahrain Island was a secondary objective. In April 1552, Piri Reis left Suez with 25 galleys, 5 ships, and 850 soldiers. In 1552,

5070-560: The Seljuq Turks , who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans , the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian . Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry , was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during

5200-859: The Third Messenian War in 464 BCE, and during the Peloponnesian War it was the headquarters of the Athenians in all their operations in Western Greece, and the scene of the Battle of Naupactus in 429 BCE. After the Battle of Aegospotami the Messenians were expelled from Naupactus, and the Locrians regained possession of the town. Afterwards it passed into the hands of the Achaeans , from whom, however, it

5330-539: The Trabzon region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of Old Anatolian Turkish , with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no palatal harmony . It is likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book",

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5460-441: The Turkish Language Association ( Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism : indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with

5590-489: The ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea . He was born in Gallipoli —a major Ottoman naval base—and sailed from an early age with his uncle Kemal Reis . They fought as corsairs in the Western Mediterranean until they were brought into the Ottoman Navy . Piri Reis fought alongside Kemal Reis in the Ottoman–Venetian wars . When his uncle died in 1511, Piri Reis returned to Gallipoli to begin his cartographic works. He created his first world map and likely began drafting

5720-410: The 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate , published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ( ديوان لغات الترك ). Following the adoption of Islam around the year 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and

5850-509: The 1513 world map to Ottoman Sultan Selim I ( r.  1512–1520 ). It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later. When rediscovered in 1929, the remaining fragment garnered international attention for including a partial copy of an otherwise lost map by Christopher Columbus . The map is a portolan chart with compass roses from which lines of bearing radiate. Designed for navigation via dead reckoning , portolan charts use

5980-411: The 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used the formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After

6110-404: The 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though the Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists. The nineteenth-century Ural-Altaic theory, which grouped Turkish with Finnish , Hungarian and Altaic languages, is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection. The theory

6240-424: The Americas and Vasco da Gama 's discovery of a sea route to India . It offers the first detailed Ottoman description of the Indian Ocean , and gives special attention to Hormuz Island at the strait leading into the Persian Gulf . The main part of both versions is a nautical guide to the Mediterranean Sea . Separate chapters cover different locations with corresponding portolan charts. There are 130 chapters in

6370-435: The Ancient Sea Kings , Hapgood claims islands along the map's southern Atlantic shore to be ice-covered mountains in Antarctica's Queen Maud Land region. Hapgood's book was met with skepticism due to its lack of evidence and reliance on polar shift . According to geologist Paul Heinrich, the book also did not account for post-glacial rebound , and the 1949 survey initially cited by Mallery could not measure even one percent of

6500-411: The Arabic alphabet. The colophon is in Arabic, likely handwritten by Piri Reis himself. According to the colophon, Piri Reis compiled the map in 1528 in Gallipoli. However, he may not have completed it until 1529. The 1528 map was a portolan chart like his earlier works. It uses a windrose network radiating out from compass roses . The map does include one line of latitude, the Tropic of Cancer ; it

6630-500: The Asian mainland and Hispaniola according to Marco Polo 's description of Japan. This reflects Columbus's erroneous claim that he had found a new route to Asia. The southern coast of the Atlantic Ocean is most likely a version of Terra Australis . The map is visually distinct from European portolan charts , influenced by the Islamic miniature tradition. It was unusual in the Islamic cartographic tradition for incorporating many non-Muslim sources. Historian Karen Pinto has described

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6760-423: The French loanword parti ). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean " script " in computer science . Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are: Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language

6890-415: The Great when explaining the discoveries of Columbus. According to the Quran and Turkish literary tradition, Dhu al-Qarnayn —believed to be a Quranic reference to Alexander the Great —traveled to every corner of the world, thereby defining its limits. Marginal inscriptions on the world map mention "charts drawn in the days of Alexander" and a book that "fell into the hands" of Columbus describing lands "at

7020-409: The Gulf of Corinth, Naupaktos changed hands many times during the Crusades and the Ottoman–Venetian Wars . It was under Venetian control in the 15th century, and came to be known by the Venetian form of its name, Lepanto . It fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1499 and was used as a naval station by the Ottoman Navy in the 16th century, being the site of the decisive victory by the Holy League in

7150-409: The Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects. Some immigrants to Turkey from Rumelia speak Rumelian Turkish , which includes the distinct dialects of Ludogorie , Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized Balkan sprachbund . Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots . Edirne is the dialect of Edirne . Ege is spoken in

7280-567: The Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in

7410-462: The Nafpaktos unit. The municipal district has an area of 159,947 square kilometres (61,756 square miles ), with a population close to 20,000 as of 2011 . The town is 9 km (6 mi) northeast of Antirrio , 18 km (11 mi) northeast of Patras , 35 km (22 mi) east of Missolonghi and 45 km (28 mi) southeast of Agrinio . The Greek National Road 48 / E65 (Antirrio – Nafpaktos – Delphi – Livadeia ) passes north of

7540-430: The Ottoman Navy. To bolster the empire's navy, Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II recruited Barbary and Aegean corsairs, including Piri and Kemal. Before Barbarossa reorganized the navy, sultans commonly employed former pirates. The addition of experienced corsairs raised the Ottoman Navy's competence in open-sea combat and knowledge of the Mediterranean. In 1495, Kemal Reis was imprisoned on Euboea for piracy and brought to

7670-455: The Ottoman navy relied mainly on galleys , which were more effective along the coasts. This limited Ottoman naval warfare to the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and narrow straits around Arabia. The empire focused on using its navy to continue land-based expansion into new areas for tax revenue and agriculture. Using his fleet based out of Suez , Egypt, Piri Reis led campaigns in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. On 26 February 1548, he recaptured Aden from

7800-473: The Portuguese governor inside the fortress, dated 31 October 1552, said that the walls had been near collapsing, but that the Ottomans had run low on "munitions, gunpowder, and other war materials" much of which they had lost when a galleon sank on the way to Hormuz. The Portuguese governor of India , Afonso de Noronha  [ es ] organized a fleet of 40 ships led by his nephew Antão de Noronha that reached Hormuz in November 1552. In his 80s, Piri Reis

7930-444: The SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes. Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb: Ahmet Ahmet yumurta-yı Nafpaktos Nafpaktos ( Greek : Ναύπακτος ) or Naupactus ,

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8060-420: The TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual Ottoman-Turkish /Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform. Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before

8190-406: The Turkish fleet took Muscat after a one-month siege. The expedition took control of coastal lands in Yemen, Oman, and Arabia. The Portuguese prepared for the attack on Hormuz by evacuating most of the island. Wealthy residents took refuge on the nearby island of Qeshm , and the soldiers and royal family retreated to the fortress. The Turkish soldiers took the City of Hormuz , but could not take

8320-450: The Turkish language are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination . The basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb . Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender . The language makes usage of honorifics and has a strong T–V distinction which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, social distance , age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to

8450-539: The Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨ı⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ö⟩ , ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ü⟩ . The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: front and back , rounded and unrounded and vowel height . Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high]. The only diphthongs in

8580-405: The United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency. In 2005, 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish, about 67 million at the time, with Kurdish languages making up most of

8710-437: The adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982 , following the military coup d'état of 1980 . Modern standard Turkish

8840-406: The aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by

8970-415: The area drawn in the Piri Reis map. Subsequent studies have shown no significant similarities to Antarctica's coast. Hapgood's claims have been uncritically repeated by Erich von Däniken in support of ancient astronauts and by Graham Hancock in support of an advanced lost civilization. The map and polar shift were key plot elements in Allan W. Eckert 's science fiction novel The HAB Theory . Piri Reis

9100-407: The areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with Azerbaijani , the language of Azerbaijan. The Central Anatolia Region speaks Orta Anadolu . Karadeniz , spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax ; it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with

9230-433: The book. Piri Reis completed a second world map in 1528 or 1529. According to Sevim Tekeli , the changes from the first world map demonstrate that Piri Reis was actively following European voyages of discovery. In both the 1513 world map and the Kitab-ı Bahriye preface, Piri Reis rhetorically undermines the significance of European discoveries by reframing them as the rediscovery of ancient knowledge. He invokes Alexander

9360-547: The capital, Constantinople . Rather than being sentenced, he was given an official position in the navy. Piri Reis was with his uncle through this and later documented it in the Kitab-ı Bahriye . In the empire's navy, Kemal and Piri advocated taking the Venetian coastal fortresses of the Peloponnese and the small but strategically valuable island of Rhodes . In his Kitab-ı Bahriye , Piri Reis reports that his uncle had told Sultan Bayezid II , "Venice has two eyes: Her left eye

9490-496: The cartographic works of Piri Reis, "They show that although the Ottoman Empire had the potential to participate in the discoveries, its ruling elite spurned the attempt to blaze a trail in this direction". The 1513 world map disappeared from the historical record until its rediscovery centuries later. There is no evidence that either version of his atlas circulated outside the royal palace prior to 1550. The copies produced in

9620-534: The charts and notes that would form the basis of the Kitab-ı Bahriye . By 1516, he returned to the navy and took part in the Ottoman conquest of Egypt . After their victory, he presented the world map to Sultan Selim I . When Suleiman the Magnificent became sultan, Piri Reis completed the first version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye , which he dedicated and gifted to the sultan by 1521. Several years later, he created

9750-629: The coasts of Italy and Spain. By 1490, they were operating out of Béjaïa , Algeria . As a corsair, Piri Reis captured many ships, a fortress near Mallorca , and Pianosa near Corsica. During the Granada War , Piri Reis transported Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa. During the winters, he and his uncle took shelter in favorable harbors on the Barbary Coast . Piri Reis sailed under his uncle and later Hayreddin Barbarossa in

9880-562: The continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka , "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval ( fırka has been replaced by

10010-530: The country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over

10140-523: The discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Old Turkic alphabet , which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to

10270-580: The eastern Mediterranean. After Sinan Reis died in 1546, Piri Reis took his position as Hind Kapudan-ı Derya , or grand admiral of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean , as well as admiral of the fleet in Egypt. Portuguese ships had raided the Red Sea as far as Suez and taken the port city of Aden in Yemen. The Portuguese navy employed sailing ships capable of navigation and combat in open seas, while

10400-607: The empire's capital and Mediterranean ports. The Knights of St. John controlled the island, took Muslim captives, and provided shelter to Christian pirates. During the siege, the Knights' fleet of ten ships remained in the harbor rather than confront the larger Ottoman force. The Ottoman Navy conducted an amphibious operation, transporting many troops to the small island, and the island surrendered in December 1522. The Knights of St. John later relocated to Malta . The second version of

10530-526: The empire. When putting down Hain Ahmed Pasha 's 1524 rebellion in Egypt, Ibrahim rode aboard the navy's flagship, commanded by Piri Reis. Piri Reis said they discussed cartography after Ibrahim asked him about the maps and charts being consulted aboard the ship. Ibrahim commissioned Piri Reis to create an expanded version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye . He finished it and gifted it to the sultan by 1526. In later centuries, many copies were made of both versions of

10660-514: The end of the Western Sea". In the 1526 version of the Kitab-ı Bahriye , he explicitly credits European discoveries to lost works created during legendary voyages of Alexander, "My friend, the Franks both read and write everything there is to know about the science of the sea. But do not suppose that they invented such knowledge on their own; and if you wish, I will explain why. During his time,

10790-607: The explored southern coasts of the Florida peninsula are on the map. The geography of Florida is left ambiguous as potentially an island or peninsula . The Spanish Empire 's master map, the Padrón Real , included this type of ambiguous Florida until 1520, and it influenced Italian cartography like the Freducci map . During his own life, there was limited appreciation for Piri Reis' cartography. Historian Svat Soucek said of

10920-621: The famous ruler Alexander traveled over all the seas, and whatever he saw and whatever he heard he had recorded, item by item, by a competent person." Venice saw Piri Reis as an adversary and obstacle to their aims in the Middle East during the 1530s. In 1532, he fought back Dalmatian pirates in the Adriatic. He attacked the Venetian-held castle at Coron in 1533, captured a Venetian galley in 1536, and chased Venetian ships out of

11050-534: The first version and 210 in the second. Piri Reis says he composed an atlas because any single map has limited space for written details, and some "knowledge cannot be known from maps; it must be explained." The chapters start at the Dardanelles and move counter-clockwise around the Mediterranean. The Kitab-ı Bahriye combines information from a range of sources and Piri Reis' personal experience. The coast of North Africa relies little on outside sources. Its maps have compass roses indicating North for each page. Scale

11180-440: The fleet in Egypt. He expanded the Indian Ocean fleet, retook several ports, and pushed the Portuguese out of the Red Sea. In the 1550s, he began a campaign to capture the Portuguese-controlled Hormuz Island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf . He abandoned the siege of Hormuz after several weeks, sacked the city, and looted the nearby Qeshm Island , where wealthy residents of Hormuz had evacuated. For failing to capture Hormuz, he

11310-714: The following centuries were often created for their aesthetic or artistic value. No Turkish school of cartography or navigation was established to build on his work. Murat Reis the Elder 's expedition to the Canary Islands and the 1586 Sack of Lanzarote were some of the few times when Piri Reis' Atlantic cartography was likely used by the Ottoman Navy. The empire's navy—even during the Canary Islands expedition—remained largely composed of oar-driven galleys after

11440-472: The fortress. They besieged and bombarded the fortress for several weeks, but Piri Reis grew concerned about the Portuguese fleet attacking them during the siege. The Ottoman forces ran low on gunpowder, and Kubad Pasha the governor of Basra did not send supplies to the siege. On 9 October 1552, the Ottomans retreated. They sacked the city, looted Qeshm, and retreated into the gulf with over a million pieces of gold. The fleet arrived at Basra by 1553. A letter from

11570-473: The lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun . With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable). Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or

11700-466: The language are found in loanwords and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules: The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to

11830-429: The language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive the speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995. The past few decades have seen

11960-517: The later 1500s. The book achieved fame only after Piri Reis' death. At least some portion of the book has been translated into English, modern Turkish, Greek, French, German, and Italian. Piri Reis compiled a second world map in 1528. Only a fragment of the map—the northwest corner—remains. The parchment fragment is approximately 70 centimeters square. As with the 1513 map, the 1528 map has calligraphic inscriptions in Ottoman-Turkish written in

12090-525: The linguistic concept of accent , which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out projects investigating Turkish dialects. As of 2002 work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect- atlas of the Turkish language. Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than

12220-477: The map likely relied on Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian maps from the 1520s. Notes on the map cite recent Portuguese voyages to Labrador and Newfoundland . Hispaniola and Cuba are much more accurate compared to the 1513 world map. Cuba, labeled " Isla di Vana ", is now correctly positioned as an island in the Caribbean. In contrast to the 1513 map, Piri Reis leaves areas that have not been explored blank. Only

12350-468: The map. Scholarly debate exists over the specific sources used in the map's creation and the number of source maps. Many areas on the map have not been conclusively identified with real or mythical places . Some authors have noted visual similarities to parts of the Americas not officially discovered by 1513, but there is no textual or historical evidence that the map represents land south of present-day Cananéia . A disproven 20th-century hypothesis identified

12480-484: The modern Turkish language. While visiting the region between Adıyaman and Adana , Evliya Çelebi recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish: Reforms Kemalism After the foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform , the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , with

12610-410: The national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian. In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons. Turkish is the official language of Turkey and

12740-451: The navy as captain of a galley in the Ottoman fleet and took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt . He was the commander of the Turkish fleet that blockaded Alexandria. After the Ottoman victory, Piri Reis presented the 1513 world map to Sultan Selim I ( r.  1512–1520 ). It is unknown how Selim used the map, if at all, as it vanished from history until its rediscovery centuries later. According to Venetian documents, Piri Reis

12870-489: The personal ending, so for example Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz ? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?'). Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb , as in Korean and Latin , but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often

13000-435: The phenomenon of labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels. If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently. Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: Practically,

13130-508: The point where other naval powers were moving to sailing ships that were more suited to the open oceans. Ottoman scholar Kâtip Çelebi built on the Kitab-i Bahriye in his seventeenth-century work, Müntehab-ı Bahriyye . By the eighteenth century, major works of cartography from Western Europe were being translated into Turkish. When Piri Reis' world map was unearthed in 1929, it received international media attention for containing

13260-506: The positive portrayal of legendary creatures from the edge of the known world in the Americas as breaking away from the medieval Islamic idea of an impassible "Encircling Ocean" surrounding the Old World . Piri Reis adapted the elements of iconography from the traditional maps —which illustrated well-known routes, cities, and peoples—to the portolan portrayals of newly discovered coasts. There are conflicting interpretations of

13390-638: The preceding vowel. In native Turkic words, the sounds [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] are mainly in complementary distribution with [k] , [ɡ] , and [ɫ] ; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below. However, there are minimal pairs that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit". Turkish orthography reflects final-obstruent devoicing ,

13520-440: The principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye' dir ("it is Turkey"), kapı dır ("it is the door"), but gün dür ("it is the day"), palto dur ("it is the coat"). These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony: The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features: The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in

13650-468: The recently explored shores of the Americas and Africa. Although he had never sailed the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era. At least by 1513, Piri Reis was sailing again for the Ottomans under Hayreddin Barbarossa along the coast of North Africa. By 1516, Piri Reis returned to

13780-437: The reign of Justinian I . The town and its hinterland were hit by an epidemic coming from Italy in 747/8 and almost deserted. From the late 9th century, probably the 880s, it was capital of the Byzantine thema of Nicopolis . At the same time, its bishopric was elevated to a metropolis . During the 9th–10th centuries, the town was an important harbour for the Byzantine navy and a strategic point for communication with

13910-401: The remainder. Azerbaijani language , official in Azerbaijan, is mutually intelligible with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in

14040-407: The sea, a temple of Artemis , a cave sacred to Aphrodite , and the ruins of a temple of Asclepius . The Roman playwright Plautus mentions Naupactus in his comedy Miles Gloriosus as the destination of an Athenian master (Pleusicles) who is on a diplomatic mission to the city. Naupactus is mentioned in the 6th-century list of Hierocles , but it was destroyed by an earthquake in 551/2, during

14170-529: The see of Naupactus gained in importance and headed the local synod for the southern half of the Epirote domains. In 1294, the town was ceded to Philip I, Prince of Taranto as part of the dowry of Thamar Angelina Komnene . The ruler of Thessaly , Constantine Doukas , attacked Epirus in the next year and captured Naupactus, but in 1296 handed most of his conquests back to the Angevins , and Naupactus became

14300-522: The siege of the fortress of Hormuz". He was possibly survived by a son, Mehmed Reis, who is known only from a single portolan map of the Aegean. Three of his cartographic works survive in some form to the present day. Fragments of his 1513 world map and his 1528 world map are kept in museums in Istanbul. Copies of the Kitab-ı Bahriye , a navigational atlas, are kept in many libraries and museums around

14430-403: The southern landmass with an ice-free Antarctic coast. The Kitab-ı Bahriye (كتاب بحرية), or Book of the Sea , is a navigational atlas. Piri Reis compiled navigational charts and notes into the most detailed portolan atlas of the sixteenth century. There are two versions of the book. The first version was composed between 1511 and 1521. Both versions begin with a preface and were dedicated to

14560-407: The sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( r.  1520–1566 ). The second version—completed by 1526—includes a longer introduction written in verse. It offers information on storms, winds, navigating with a compass, navigating by the stars, reading portolan charts , and the oceans . It includes information on recent Portuguese and Spanish voyages including the voyages of Christopher Columbus to

14690-400: The surviving piece of an otherwise lost map of Christopher Columbus. Turkey's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , took an interest in the map and initiated projects to publish facsimiles and conduct research. Discovered during Atatürk's reforms , the map was a point of national pride. Its rediscovery also sparked interest in the Kitab-ı Bahriye . A facsimile of the book's second version

14820-405: The town. It is the second largest town of Aetolia-Acarnania, after Agrinio . The ancient name Naupaktos (Ναύπακτος) means "boatyard" (from ναύς naus "ship" and πήγ- pêg- "to fix, fasten"). It was later Latinized as Naupactus . By the late medieval period, the local name had evolved into Nepahtos (Νέπαχτος), Epaktos or Epahtos (Έπακτος, Έπαχτος). By the "Franks" (Latins) it

14950-432: The twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back. The following examples, based on the copula -dir ("[it] is"), illustrate

15080-613: The west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish —the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire —spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Perso-Arabic script -based Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with the Latin script -based Turkish alphabet . Some distinctive characteristics of

15210-532: The world, although the two created by Piri Reis himself are lost. The Piri Reis map of 1513 is a world map compiled from a range of contemporary and classical sources. Approximately one third of the map survives, housed in the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul . The finished manuscript was dated to the Islamic year 919 AH, equivalent to 1513 AD. After the empire's 1517 conquest of Egypt , Piri Reis presented

15340-454: Was Miguel de Cervantes , the most famous Spanish writer; there is a statue located at the port, in his honour. Nafpaktos became part of independent Greece in March 1829. It was incorporated as a commune in 1912 and as an independent municipality in 1946. In the 1997 reform , Nafpaktos municipality was enlarged by the incorporation of 13 communes. In the 2010 reform , Nafpaktos municipality

15470-489: Was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: agglutination , vowel harmony and lack of grammatical gender. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia . Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan , these date back to the Second Turkic Khaganate (dated 682–744 CE). After

15600-460: Was briefly occupied Knights Hospitaller in 1378, and, now wedged between the expanding lands of the Count of Cephalonia Carlo I Tocco and the Ottoman possessions, sold to the Republic of Venice by Paul Spata in 1407. After 1449, the town was an isolated Venetian exclave in Ottoman territory, as the Ottomans completed their conquest of the rest of Epirus and Aetolia-Acarnania. The town

15730-457: Was called Neopant , Nepant or Lepant . French sources of the 14th century give Nepant or Neopant ; Venetian sources have Nepanto or Lepanto . The name was adapted in Ottoman Turkish from Greek Νέπαχτος as Aynabahti or İnebahtı . The original ancient name was revived in modern Greece in the 19th century. In Greek legend, Naupactus is the place where the Heraclidae built

15860-537: Was executed following his retreat at Hormuz. After the expedition's failure, Kubad Pasha denied Piri Reis rowers for his galleys. Piri Reis returned to Egypt in 1553 with only two ships, loaded with gold. The sultan had him beheaded in Cairo ; the exact date of his execution is unknown. A letter—dated 15 November 1553—written from diplomats in Constantinople to Venice said that he had been "charged with having raised

15990-478: Was executed in 1553 in Cairo . His cartographic work received little appreciation during his own life. There's no evidence that the Kitab-ı Bahriye circulated outside the royal palace before 1550. After his death, hundreds of copies of the book were likely made. Over 40 copies survive today, spanning several centuries. When his 1513 world map was unearthed at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul , it drew international attention. The map relies on many sources, including

16120-546: Was important to Venice, as it secured their trade through the Corinthian Gulf , and the Republic took care to erect strong fortifications to secure its possession. In the end, the fortress fell to the Ottomans in 1499, during the Second Ottoman–Venetian War . Under the Ottomans, Naupactus was known as Aynabahtı, İnebahtı and was the seat of an Ottoman province . In 1521 ( Hijri 927) the town had 509 Christian, 84 Jewish , and 28 Roma households. The mouth of

16250-647: Was indebted for its historical importance to its harbour at the entrance of the Corinthian gulf, it was probably originally chosen as a site for a city on account of its strong hill, fertile plains, and copious supply of running water. After the Greco-Persian Wars it fell into the power of the Athenians , who settled there the Messenians , who had been compelled to leave their country at the end of

16380-651: Was merged with five other municipalities to form Nafpaktia municipality, and the town of Nafpaktos proper is now a communal district within the Nafpaktos municipal district of Nafpaktia municipality. Naupactus suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires . The metropolitan see of Naupactus depended on the pope of Rome until 733, when Leo III the Isaurian annexed it to the Patriarchate of Constantinople . The zealous youth St. Nicholas of Trani after

16510-594: Was no longer with the Ottoman navy in 1518 and was engaging in piracy in the Aegean Sea. Piri Reis advocated for and took part in Suleiman the Magnificent 's 1522 Siege of Rhodes . The first version of his Kitab-ı Bahriye —a nautical atlas gifted and dedicated to Suleiman—included advice on conquering Rhodes. The island of Rhodes had a secure harbor and was 20 km off the coast of Anatolia. Controlled by an adversary, it could threaten maritime communication between

16640-628: Was not hospitably received and died some months later aged just 19. Miraculous cures led to him being publicly acclaimed as worthy of veneration by the Bishop of Trani at the Council of Bari in 1098. Under Frankish rule , there were about 20 archbishops in the 14–15th centuries. The city remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic church. The see was attached to the Church of Greece after

16770-640: Was published by the Turkish Historical Society in 1935, and a four-volume facsimile with photographic quality was published in 1988. Several ships and submarines have been named after him, including the RV K. Piri Reis and TCG Pirireis . The Piri Reis University for maritime studies was founded in 2008. In the Turkish TV series Barbaros: Sword of the Mediterranean , he is portrayed by actor Emir Benderlioğlu. Piri Reis' 1513 world map

16900-646: Was wrested by Epaminondas . Philip II of Macedon gave it to the Aetolians , and hence it is frequently called a town of Aetolia. The Aetolians vigorously defended Naupactus against the Romans for two months in 191 BCE. Ptolemy calls it a town of the Locri Ozolae, to whom it must therefore have been assigned by the Romans after Pliny's time. Pausanias saw at Naupactus a temple of Poseidon near

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