135-637: 51°16′59″N 0°48′26″W / 51.282957°N 0.807098°W / 51.282957; -0.807098 The National Gas Turbine Establishment ( NGTE Pyestock ) in Farnborough , part of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), was the prime site in the UK for the design and development of gas turbine and jet engines . For over 50 years, Pyestock was at the forefront of gas turbine development. The NGTE came into existence during
270-669: A renewed federation , an attempted coup against Gorbachev by hardline communists prompted the largest republics—Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus—to secede. On December 26, Gorbachev officially recognized the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Boris Yeltsin , the leader of the RSFSR, oversaw its reconstitution into the Russian Federation , which became the Soviet Union's successor state; all other republics emerged as fully independent post-Soviet states . During its existence,
405-567: A century, prototype engines destined for the British military were designed and tested by the NGTE. The engines of various Royal Air Force combat aircraft of the Cold War era, including the V bombers , Harrier Jump Jet and Panavia Tornado , are believed to have undergone testing at Pyestock. The organisation's efforts were considered to be a key part of Britain's efforts to maintain parity with
540-592: A closer relationship with France and Britain. In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement , the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in
675-488: A highly skilled workforce, with over 40% of residents holding degree-level qualifications or above. However, like many town centres across the UK, Farnborough has experienced some challenges in recent years when it comes to the health of its traditional retail sector. The rise of online shopping and changing consumer habits have led to increasing vacancy rates and declining footfall in the town's main shopping areas. In response, Rushmoor Borough Council has developed plans for
810-428: A major redevelopment of Farnborough's town centre. This £100 million+ project, set to be delivered over the coming decade, aims to transform the retail and leisure offer, with the construction of new cinema, restaurant and residential units. The goal is to reposition the town centre as a more vibrant, mixed-use destination that can better adapt to the evolving retail landscape. Farnborough is near arterial routes serving
945-494: A museum dedicated to the legacy of the Royal Aircraft Establishment, with exhibits on the development of British aeronautical technology. Visitors can also explore the historic wind tunnels on the former RAE site, which have been preserved as listed buildings. Farnborough has a relatively prosperous and affluent economic profile compared to many other parts of the UK. Data from the 2011 census shows that
1080-597: A new profitable market. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labour unions or other organizations on the left, which they labelled social fascists . In the usage of the Soviet Union, and of the Comintern and its affiliated parties in this period, the epithet fascist was used to describe capitalist society in general and virtually any anti-Soviet or anti-Stalinist activity or opinion. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with
1215-422: A particular service required by one or more of the other buildings, such as power stations , turbine halls, offices, workshops, laboratories, cooling towers , and treatment plants. Many of the buildings were interconnected with large pipes, the site functioned akin to a single complex entity. A total of five altitude test cells were constructed on site to function as testing environments, being capable of simulating
1350-532: A predominantly white suburban settlement. However, the data does indicate a gradual diversification of Farnborough's population in recent decades. English is by far the most widely spoken language in Farnborough, with 90.3% of residents reporting it as their main language in the 2011 census. "Other" languages, accounting for 8.1% of the population. The Church of England has a significant presence in Farnborough, with several notable places of worship. The oldest
1485-541: A strong presence in Farnborough, centred around St Michael's Abbey. This imposing church and monastery complex was constructed in the late 19th century at the behest of the Empress Eugénie, widow of Napoleon III , who lived in the town. St Michael's Abbey is home to a community of Benedictine monks and serves as a pilgrimage site, housing the tombs of Napoleon III and the Prince Imperial. In addition to
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#17327971616141620-400: A testing and development centre, both for experimental developments and to support commercial engine companies. It was decided to base the turbine development site at Pyestock, a former golf course in a secluded wooded spot between Farnborough and Fleet; the location was selected as the NGTE's activities would be top secret , thus there was a need to be at a distance from the general public,
1755-496: A turbine's performance) to be carried out on engines and helicopter rotors. The engine or turbine was suspended from the roof of the cell. The largest test cell on site, Cell 4 was built in 1965, at a cost of £6.5 million, as part of the Concorde programme but also to test other supersonic jet engines. The test cell, unique in the world, takes up most of the steel clad structure with its mass of pipes, blast doors and electronics. It
1890-475: A union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians . The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as 'Russia'. While the Russian SFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, and most highly developed. The Russian SFSR
2025-481: A valley setting, with the main urban area situated between the River Blackwater to the east and higher ground to the west. The topography gradually rises from the valley floor, reaching a maximum elevation of around 90 metres (300 feet) above sea level on the fringes of the town. Geologically, Farnborough lies on a foundation of London Clay , overlain by deposits of sandy and gravelly Bagshot Beds from
2160-520: Is twinned with: Farnborough falls under the jurisdiction of Rushmoor Borough Council , the local government authority for the borough of the same name. The borough is divided into eight electoral wards, each represented by three councillors on the borough council. At the time of writing, the Labour Party is in control of the council following significant gains in the May 2024 local elections. At
2295-403: Is St Peter's Church, parts of which date back to the 12th century. The current building was largely reconstructed and expanded during the 19th century, though it retains some original medieval features. In addition to St Peter's, other Anglican churches in Farnborough include St Mark's, built in 1881, and the more modern St Martin's Church, consecrated in 1978. The Roman Catholic faith also has
2430-531: Is connected to the Air House by blue pipes and was designed to simulate Concorde's flying conditions - Mach 2 (1522 mph) at 61,000 feet, but could test Concorde's engines at a maximum wind speed of 2,000 mph. The amount of energy required to run the air house (see below) at the speed needed was too great for the site's own power station, so electricity had to be taken from the National Grid . By
2565-472: Is distributed fairly evenly throughout the year, with an annual average of around 760 millimetres (30 in). The driest months are usually spring (April–May) and the wettest are October and November. Snowfall occurs occasionally in winter, but heavy and prolonged snowstorms are uncommon due to the town's relatively low elevation and southern latitude. The Met Office have a weather station at Farnborough Airport which has been operating since 1914. Rushmoor
2700-655: Is his background, his education , his profession . These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the Red Terror ." During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , or by
2835-490: Is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines , and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel . It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to
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#17327971616142970-407: Is the final design for the compressor/exhauster sets from the late 1950s. They are made up of an in-line arrangement (from left to right) of an 8,000 horsepower steam turbine, then two low-pressure compressors, a high-pressure exhauster, a 27 MW 11 kV synchronous motor that provided 36,000 horsepower, and finally the barring gear and the exciter (a small generator that provides a current needed to start
3105-708: The Barents Sea and Kara Sea , which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19 , K-8 , a K-129 , K-27 , K-219 and K-278 Komsomolets . There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of
3240-468: The Eocene epoch. The town's soils are generally free-draining and infertile, which historically limited the agricultural potential of the land. Neighbouring areas Farnborough forms part of the wider Blackwater Valley conurbation, which includes the neighbouring towns of Aldershot , Camberley , Yateley , Sandhurst and Frimley . The town itself is bordered to the east by the county of Surrey , with
3375-674: The Era of Stagnation , was marked by economic decline, political corruption, and a rigid gerontocracy . Despite efforts to maintain the Soviet Union's superpower status, the economy struggled due to its centralized nature, technological backwardness, and inefficiencies. The vast military expenditures and burdens of maintaining the Eastern Bloc, further strained the Soviet economy. In the 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev 's policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) aimed to revitalize
3510-559: The Georgian Affair of 1922, Lenin called for the Russian SFSR and other national Soviet republics to form a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (Russian: Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии , romanized : Soyuz Sovyetskikh Respublik Evropy i Azii ). Joseph Stalin initially resisted Lenin's proposal but ultimately accepted it, and with Lenin's agreement he changed
3645-755: The Land Forces , the Air Force , the Navy , Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) and the Internal Troops . The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD secret police, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in
3780-541: The Mesolithic period, indicating the presence of hunter-gatherer communities in the area over 8,000 years ago. During the Neolithic period, the region saw increasing agricultural activity and the development of more permanent settlements. Excavations have revealed the remains of several prehistoric enclosures and barrows within the boundaries of modern-day Farnborough, suggesting it was home to thriving communities in
3915-528: The Moscow State Institute of International Relations . The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and changed directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions. During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it
4050-741: The Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join with all anti-Fascist political, labour, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism , especially of the Nazi variety. The rapid growth of power in Nazi Germany encouraged both Paris and Moscow to form a military alliance, and the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed in May 1935. A firm believer in collective security, Stalin's foreign minister Maxim Litvinov worked very hard to form
4185-582: The Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars ), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike
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4320-789: The Rushmoor district of Hampshire , England. It has a population of around 57,486 as of the 2011 census and is an important centre of aviation, engineering and technology. The town is probably best known for its association with aviation, including the Farnborough International Airshow , Farnborough Airport , Royal Aircraft Establishment , and the Air Accidents Investigation Branch . The earliest evidence of human settlement around Farnborough dates back thousands of years. Archaeologists have uncovered flint tools and other artefacts from
4455-554: The Russian Civil War , the Soviet Union quickly became a one-party state under the Communist Party . Its early years under Lenin were marked by the implementation of socialist policies and the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed for market-oriented reforms. The rise of Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s ushered in an era of intense centralization and totalitarianism. Stalin's rule was characterized by
4590-650: The Russian Empire , the State Council , which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers. The Soviets as workers' councils first appeared during the 1905 Russian Revolution . Although they were quickly suppressed by the Imperial army, after the February Revolution of 1917 , workers' and soldiers' Soviets emerged throughout the country and shared power with
4725-859: The Russian Provisional Government . The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin , demanded that all power be transferred to the Soviets, and gained support from the workers and soldiers. After the October Revolution , in which the Bolsheviks seized power from the Provisional Government in the name of the Soviets, Lenin proclaimed the formation of the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR). During
4860-635: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), saying that it was "overly juridical" and potentially infringed on national sovereignty. The Soviet Union later signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1973 (and the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ), but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by
4995-593: The Western Bloc during the Cold War . This period saw the USSR engage in an arms race, the Space Race , and proxy wars around the globe. The post-Stalin leadership, particularly under Nikita Khrushchev , initiated a de-Stalinization process, leading to a period of liberalization and relative openness known as the Khrushchev Thaw . However, the subsequent era under Leonid Brezhnev , referred to as
5130-461: The first probe to land on another planet . In 1985, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev , sought to reform the country through his policies of glasnost and perestroika . In 1989, various countries of the Warsaw Pact overthrew their Soviet-backed regimes , and nationalist and separatist movements erupted across the Soviet Union. In 1991, amid efforts to preserve the country as
5265-567: The general secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in
5400-485: The right to food , the right to work , and the right to education . The Soviet conception of human rights was very different from international law . According to Soviet legal theory , "it is the government who is the beneficiary of human rights which are to be asserted against the individual". The Soviet state was considered as the source of human rights. Therefore, the Soviet legal system considered law an arm of politics and it also considered courts agencies of
5535-528: The system of appointments . All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied
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5670-493: The third-most populous country . An overall successor to the Russian Empire , it was nominally organized as a federal union of national republics , the largest and most populous of which was the Russian SFSR . In practice, its government and economy were highly centralized . As a one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , it was a flagship communist state . Its capital and largest city
5805-703: The 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union , concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR , to himself. Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling
5940-468: The 4th-2nd millennia BC. The area continued to be inhabited throughout the Bronze Age and Iron Age , with hillforts, field systems and other archaeological evidence indicating the presence of larger, more organized settlements. One notable site is Caesar's Camp , an Iron Age hillfort, located just north of the modern town. The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD brought major changes to
6075-781: The Admiralty Fuel Experimental Station which developed the Admiralty three-drum boiler ) was taken over by the NGTE in 1965. Following the 1971 creation of the Ministry of Defence Procurement Executive , both the Admiralty Engineering Laboratory (1917-1977) and the Admiralty Oil Laboratory (1953-1977) were amalgamated with the NGTE. The apparent value in the site declined over time, particularly following
6210-497: The Christian denominations, Farnborough is also home to a small Muslim community centred around an Islamic centre established in the late 20th century. There are no purpose-built mosques within the town itself, though proposals for new facilities have been the subject of local controversy and planning disputes over the years. Sport plays an important role in the cultural life of Farnborough, with several clubs and facilities serving
6345-529: The Communist authorities. Under Joseph Stalin , the death penalty was extended to adolescents as young as 12 years old in 1935. Sergei Kovalev recalled "the famous article 125 of the Constitution which enumerated all basic civil and political rights" in the Soviet Union. But when he and other prisoners attempted to use this as a legal basis for their abuse complaints, their prosecutor's argument
6480-475: The Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism , demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above. The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over
6615-497: The Electoral boundary reviews, Grange and Mayfield wards were merged to create Cherrywood ward. Farnborough is represented on Hampshire County Council by three Divisions, each with a single elected representative. Farnborough North: Roz Chadd (Conservative) Farnborough South: Adam Jackman (Conservative) Farnborough West: Rod Cooper (Conservative) The table below shows the historical population growth of Farnborough since
6750-632: The Latin alphabet: SSSR ) is the abbreviation of the Russian-language cognate of USSR, as written in Cyrillic letters . The Soviets used this abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. After this, the most common Russian initialization is Союз ССР (transliteration: Soyuz SSR ) which essentially translates to Union of SSRs in English. In addition,
6885-431: The Norman lord, Odin de Windesores, who owned 3 hides of land there. The Domesday entry suggests Farnborough was a relatively insignificant rural village in the late 11th century, with a population estimated at 50-100 people. Over the following centuries, Farnborough remained a modest agricultural settlement, its economy based around subsistence farming, woodland management and small-scale industry. The manor passed through
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#17327971616147020-481: The Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party. Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from
7155-456: The RAE, and the influx of skilled engineers and technicians it brought, had a profound impact on Farnborough's subsequent growth and character. Major aerospace companies such as Supermarine , Handley Page and De Havilland were attracted to set up factories and facilities in the area, further cementing the town's reputation as a hub of British aviation. In the decades following the Second World War, Farnborough continued to expand rapidly, with
7290-403: The River Blackwater forming much of the county boundary. Farnborough experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), typical of southeastern England. Summers are generally warm and dry, with average daily high temperatures around 22 °C (72 °F). Winters are mild, with average highs of 8 °C (46 °F) and lows around 2 °C (36 °F). Rainfall
7425-399: The Russian short form name Советский Союз (transliteration: Sovyetsky Soyuz , which literally means Soviet Union ) is also commonly used, but only in its unabbreviated form. Since the start of the Great Patriotic War at the latest, abbreviating the Russian name of the Soviet Union as СС has been taboo, the reason being that СС as a Russian Cyrillic abbreviation is associated with
7560-488: The South of England. The M3 motorway runs along the northern edge of Farnborough, with junctions 4 and 4a providing access to the town. Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ), commonly known as the Soviet Union , was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. During its existence, it was the largest country by area , extending across eleven time zones and sharing borders with twelve countries , and
7695-450: The Soviet Union and turned into SSRs, which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation . After the Soviet invasion of Finland , the Karelo-Finnish SSR was formed on annexed territory as a Union Republic in March 1940 and then incorporated into Russia as the Karelian ASSR in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below). While nominally
7830-500: The Soviet Union in 1922. Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power, inaugurating rapid industrialization and forced collectivization that led to significant economic growth but contributed to a famine between 1930 and 1933 that killed millions. The Soviet forced labour camp system of the Gulag was expanded. During the late 1930s, Stalin's government conducted the Great Purge to remove opponents, resulting in mass death, imprisonment, and deportation. In 1939,
7965-425: The Soviet Union , the government represented by the Council of Ministers , and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country. At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee , elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and
8100-452: The Soviet Union produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations . It had the world's second-largest economy and largest standing military. An NPT-designated state , it wielded the largest arsenal of nuclear weapons in the world . As an Allied nation, it was a founding member of the United Nations as well as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . Before its dissolution,
8235-414: The Soviet Union undertook a campaign of de-Stalinization under Nikita Khrushchev , which saw reversals and rejections of Stalinist policies. This campaign caused tensions with Communist China . During the 1950s, the Soviet Union expanded its efforts in space exploration and took a lead in the Space Race with the first artificial satellite , the first human spaceflight , the first space station , and
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#17327971616148370-411: The Soviet Union was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by the Russian Federation . Covering a sixth of Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America . Two other successor states, Kazakhstan and Ukraine , rank among the top 10 countries by land area, and the largest country entirely in Europe, respectively. The European portion accounted for a quarter of
8505-417: The Soviet Union's priorities changed. Despite previous conflict with the United Kingdom , Vyacheslav Molotov dropped his post war border demands. The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc , which began following World War II in 1945. The term cold war is used because there
8640-464: The Soviet system but instead accelerated its unraveling. Nationalist movements gained momentum across the Soviet republics , and the control of the Communist Party weakened. The failed coup attempt in August 1991 against Gorbachev by hardline communists hastened the end of the Soviet Union , which formally dissolved on December 26, 1991, ending nearly seven decades of Soviet rule. With an area of 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 sq mi),
8775-408: The USSR and Nazi Germany signed a nonaggression pact , but in 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in the largest land invasion in history, opening the Eastern Front of World War II . The Soviets played a decisive role in defeating the Axis powers , suffering an estimated 27 million casualties , which accounted for most Allied losses. In the aftermath of the war , the Soviet Union consolidated
8910-430: The USSR from the United States . The country's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak ) in Tajikistan , at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). The USSR also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran ), and Lake Baikal , the world's largest (by volume) and deepest freshwater lake that is also an internal body of water in Russia. Neighbouring countries were aware of
9045-638: The USSR was one of the world's two superpowers through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, global diplomatic and ideological influence (particularly in the Global South ), military and economic strengths, and scientific accomplishments. The word soviet is derived from the Russian word sovet (Russian: совет ), meaning 'council', 'assembly', 'advice', ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of * vět-iti ('to inform'), related to Slavic věst ('news'), English wise . The word sovietnik means 'councillor'. Some organizations in Russian history were called council (Russian: совет ). In
9180-430: The USSR. Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and de facto diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it
9315-442: The accident were unknown, 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer which resulted from the accident's contamination were reported at the time of the accident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). Another major radioactive accident was the Kyshtym disaster . The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with major problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk , where nickel , for example,
9450-412: The amount of electricity required, which was drawn from the National Grid . As early as 1957, it is known that early computers, supplied by Elliott Brothers (London) Ltd , were an active component of the engine testing process. Typical data points of these tests included the temperature, fuel flow, and pressure at various points across an engine. The Admiralty Marine Engineering Establishment (formerly
9585-404: The atmospheric conditions of both subsonic and supersonic flight. These closed loop systems used compressed air generated in a vast turbine hall known as the air house . The power of these facilities were such that speeds of up to Mach 3 and altitudes of up to 70,000 feet could be accurately recreated for several hours at a time. Even though Pyestock was intentionally kept at a distance from
9720-429: The country was limited. The state restricted rights of citizens to private property . According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , human rights are the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." including the right to life and liberty , freedom of expression , and equality before the law ; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to participate in culture ,
9855-660: The country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia , was much less populous. It spanned over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) east to west across 11 time zones , and over 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra , taiga , steppes , desert and mountains . The USSR, like Russia , had
9990-643: The county level, Farnborough is part of the Aldershot division represented on Hampshire County Council . In terms of national government representation, Farnborough is situated within the Aldershot parliamentary constituency . Since the 2024 general election, the local Member of Parliament has been Alex Baker of the Labour Party. Farnborough is part of the Borough of Rushmoor, along with Aldershot. It contains eight wards, each with three elected borough councillors. Until 2011, there were nine wards, but following
10125-438: The development of major new business parks, light industrial estates and residential areas to accommodate the growing population. The town also became renowned globally as the host of the biennial Farnborough International Airshow , one of the world's largest and most important aerospace trade events. Farnborough is located in the northeastern corner of the county of Hampshire , near the border with Surrey . The town occupies
10260-553: The duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in
10395-550: The early 1970s, Pyestock had to negotiate with the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) to have enough electricity generated. So as not to strain the grid, Cell 4 could only be powered up at night. Pyestock's designers built the Air House on a large scale, thinking it could supply adequate suction for the supersonic test cells. But they could not have anticipated the phenomenal force required by Cell 4 - even with all eight exhausters running
10530-427: The early 19th century, based on census data: According to the 2011 census, Farnborough's ethnic composition was as follows: White: 87.2% Asian/Asian British: 7.9% Mixed/multiple ethnic groups: 2.6% Black/African/Caribbean/Black British: 1.3% Other ethnic group: 0.9% The town has a lower proportion of ethnic minority residents compared to the national average for England, likely reflecting its historical demographic as
10665-528: The end of Roman rule in the early 5th century, the area was gradually absorbed into the emerging Anglo-Saxon kingdoms . The modern name "Farnborough" derives from the Old English "Ferneberga", meaning "fern-covered hill". Farnborough is first recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it is listed as a small hamlet within the larger manor of Crondall . At this time, the settlement was held by
10800-458: The end of the Cold War. It has been speculated that, with the progression of time and advancement of new technologies, particularly computer simulations, it had become easier to accurately predict some of the data that had previously required physical testing to gather. The site is believed to have been quite costly to run, thus it appears that the British government had decided to gradually reduce
10935-715: The first person to fly in a powered aircraft in Great Britain in 1908. A full-scale replica of this Army Aeroplane No 1 now exists in a pavilion alongside the original Balloon School Headquarters building, now home to the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust (FAST) Aviation Museum. With the growth of aircraft related activity, the Army Balloon Factory became the Royal Aircraft Factory under civilian control. In 1912, with
11070-659: The forced collectivization of agriculture , rapid industrialization , and the Great Purge , which eliminated perceived enemies of the state. The Soviet Union played a crucial role in the Allied victory in World War II , but at a tremendous human cost, with millions of Soviet citizens perishing in the conflict. The Soviet Union emerged as one of the world's two superpowers, leading the Eastern Bloc in opposition to
11205-648: The formation of the Royal Flying Corps, the headquarters of the Balloon School became the headquarters of the Royal Flying Corps and is now known as "Trenchard House". The name of the Royal Aircraft Factory had to be changed in 1918, when the Royal Air Force was formed, becoming the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). This led to Farnborough becoming a globally significant centre for aeronautical research and development. The establishment of
11340-779: The founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan PSPs . In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR
11475-404: The full length of the building, for the 8 compressor/exhauster sets inside. The pipes transported the fast moving air to/from the test cells. The Air House had two functions: blowing or sucking air, at up to 2,000 mph (for Cell 4). There were eight identical GEC compressor/exhauster sets which aggregated to 352,000 horsepower, then the largest installation of its kind in the western world. This
11610-441: The general public as to better obscure its activities and maintain secrecy, local people would often become aware of the tests being undertaken; some residents that lived miles away from the site have claimed to have witnessed occasional low rumbling roars, and that the lights in their homes would occasionally go dim. and could be heard from up to several miles away. Particularly demanding tests were typically performed at night due to
11745-549: The government. Extensive extrajudicial powers were given to the Soviet secret police agencies . In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the rule of law , civil liberties , protection of law and guarantees of property , which were considered as examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet law theorists such as Andrey Vyshinsky . The USSR and other countries in the Soviet Bloc had abstained from affirming
11880-455: The hands of various noble families, including the de Farnborough and de Sherborne dynasties. Farnborough began to grow and develop more rapidly from the late 18th century onwards, driven by improved transportation links and its proximity to the expanding metropolis of London . The construction of the London and South Western Railway in the 1830s, with a station at Farnborough, greatly enhanced
12015-523: The high levels of pollution in the Soviet Union but after the dissolution of the Soviet Union it was discovered that its environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Soviet Union was the world's second largest producer of harmful emissions. In 1988, total emissions in the Soviet Union were about 79% of those in the United States. But since the Soviet GNP
12150-454: The highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989, the first in Soviet history. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since
12285-582: The historic village core to the area around the railway station, with the construction of new churches, schools, shops and other amenities. The most transformative event in Farnborough's history came in 1905, when the Royal Engineers moved from Aldershot with their Balloon School and factory, to use the open space of Laffan's Plain for development and trials. They were joined by Samuel Cody in 1906, who came to demonstrate his man lifting kites, and he persuaded them to let him build an aeroplane. Cody became
12420-603: The infamous Schutzstaffel of Nazi Germany , as SS is in English. In English-language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. The Russian SFSR dominated the Soviet Union to such an extent that, for most of the Soviet Union's existence, it was colloquially, but incorrectly, referred to as Russia . The history of the Soviet Union began with the ideals of the Bolshevik Revolution and ended in dissolution amidst economic collapse and political disintegration. Established in 1922 following
12555-611: The late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget . The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee ) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court ,
12690-546: The late 1970s and early 1980s. The constitution , which was promulgated in 1924 , 1936 and 1977 , did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in
12825-607: The late 19th century, and has occasionally gained national prominence, most notably when they reached the fourth round of the FA Cup in 2003, where they were narrowly defeated by Arsenal at Highbury. Other sports catered for in the town include cricket, with Cove Cricket Club playing in the Morrant Thames Valley Cricket League, and hockey, where the Camberley and Farnborough Hockey Club represents
12960-436: The local area. There are also tennis clubs, a cycling club, and facilities for various other recreational activities. Farnborough has a varied cultural offering, with a range of arts, entertainment and leisure facilities catering to local residents and visitors. Farnborough is also home to several museums and heritage attractions that celebrate the town's rich aviation history. The Farnborough Air Sciences Trust (FAST) operates
13095-559: The local community. The town's rugby union club, Farnborough RFC, was established in 1915 and has long been a fixture of the local sporting scene. The club's current home ground is at Tile Barn Close and it fields teams across various levels of the Hampshire leagues. Farnborough is home to a football club, Farnborough FC , which plays in the National League South. The club has a long and storied history, dating back to
13230-460: The local landscape. The Devil's Highway , a key Roman road, passed through what is now Farnborough, linking the provincial capital of Calleva Atrebatum (modern-day Silchester) with the coastal port of Portus Adurni (Portchester). Numerous Roman artefacts and building remains have been discovered within the town, suggesting it was home to a small rural settlement during the Roman period. Following
13365-437: The main motor). The 8,000 horsepower steam turbine, which was powered by the site's boiler house, gave the compressor sets a kick start before it was synced with the grid. They could also be used whilst they were being run, but this was expensive and only used on the supersonic tests. Cell 3 was mostly underground and was a supersonic replacement of Cell 2, allowing for higher speeds and a greater engine temperature range. There
13500-461: The mid-1940s, its principal predecessors were Power Jets , a formerly private company headed by Frank Whittle , the inventor of the jet engine, and the RAE turbine development team; the design teams of both entities were incorporated, initially being led by Whittle and Hayne Constant . Upon its creation, it was nationalised and ran as a state-owned entity. A major function of the NGTE was to function as
13635-555: The military advances that were underway within the Soviet Union . Every gas turbine to be installed in Royal Navy ships was inspected by the NGTE; captured Soviet engines were also discreetly examined. At its height, 1,600 staff worked at Pyestock while the site itself was of a similar size to that of a small town. It comprised 11 fairly large buildings alongside a multitude of smaller service buildings that typically provided
13770-526: The mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , the nominal head of state . The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations . However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with
13905-410: The name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), although all republics began as socialist soviet and did not change to the other order until 1936 . In addition, in the regional languages of several republics, the word council or conciliar in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian soviet and never in others, e.g. Ukrainian SSR . СССР (in
14040-417: The newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR , and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt . The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power 'in the period of transition'. Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR. The judiciary
14175-608: The official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force fourth, and Navy fifth). The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis , under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov , it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989, there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on
14310-499: The other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees , local Soviets and executive committees . While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary. The state security police (the KGB and its predecessor agencies ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It
14445-570: The partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II . Up until his death in 1953, Joseph Stalin controlled all foreign relations of the Soviet Union during the interwar period . Despite the increasing build-up of Germany 's war machine and the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , the Soviet Union did not cooperate with any other nation, choosing to follow its own path. However, after Operation Barbarossa ,
14580-538: The party's highest body the Politburo . Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs . It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in
14715-459: The party, nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned . The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets ) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in
14850-579: The policies being enacted by the British government of the time. In 1951, the organisation received $ 4,000,000 (£1,428,600) from the US Government in advance payment for American use of some 200 Power Jets Whittle gas turbine patents over the following 20 years. Prior to this, patent fees payable by the US had been waived by Power Jets for the duration of the Second World War . For over half
14985-523: The size of the NGTE and to progressively shut down parts of Pyestock. During 1995, the establishment became part of the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA). During 2000, the Pyestock site was permanently closed amid preparations for the partial privatisation of DERA. The Air House (1961) was a modernistic structure. Its eastern side is sheet glass; 8 large blue exhaust pipes rise
15120-469: The struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare , propaganda campaigns, espionage , far-reaching embargoes , rivalry at sports events and technological competitions such as the Space Race . Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being
15255-442: The suction was insufficient. The solution was to build another exhauster set directly next to Cell 4. As there are eight in the Air House, this one was named number 9. It is a Parsons "multi-stage axial-flow exhauster". It was used mainly by Cell 4 but also occasionally by Cell 3 and Cell 3 West. It was driven by a 36,000 horsepower synchronous motor, with power being taken first from the site's power station, and then when 3,000 rpm
15390-473: The surrounding woodland would also dampen the noise. The first elements of the site began construction began in 1949, initially consisting of small test "cubicles" inside buildings like the Plant House. When the possibility of supersonic jets arose, the site was expanded to the north west; the Air House and several large test cells were built circa 1961. Pyestock was probably the largest site of its kind in
15525-644: The territory occupied by the Red Army , forming satellite states , and undertook rapid economic development which cemented its status as a superpower . Geopolitical tensions with the US led to the Cold War . The American-led Western Bloc coalesced into NATO in 1949, prompting the Soviet Union to form its own military alliance, the Warsaw Pact , in 1955. Neither side engaged in direct military confrontation, and instead fought on an ideological basis and through proxy wars . In 1953, following Stalin's death ,
15660-536: The town has a higher than average proportion of residents employed in managerial, professional and technical occupations. The median annual household income in Farnborough was estimated at £47,000 as of 2020, significantly above the national average. This reflects the town's high concentration of well-paid jobs in the aerospace, technology and financial services sectors. Unemployment rates in Farnborough have historically been low, averaging around 3-4% in recent years, compared to national figures of 4-5%. The town also has
15795-463: The town's accessibility and connectivity. This, combined with its healthy climate and picturesque rural setting, attracted an influx of wealthy London commuters and helped transform Farnborough into more of a suburban residential area. From 1830 to 1850, Farnborough's population grew from around 400 to over 800, as new housing developments and services were established to cater for the expanding middle-class community. The town's focal point shifted from
15930-492: The truth". Human rights in the Soviet Union were severely limited. The Soviet Union was a totalitarian state from 1927 until 1953 and a one-party state until 1990. Freedom of speech was suppressed and dissent was punished. Independent political activities were not tolerated, whether these involved participation in free labour unions , private corporations , independent churches or opposition political parties . The freedom of movement within and especially outside
16065-455: The world's longest border , measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), or 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline . The country bordered Afghanistan , the People's Republic of China , Czechoslovakia , Finland , Hungary , Iran , Mongolia , North Korea , Norway , Poland , Romania , and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated
16200-404: The world. Over the next 50 years, the NGTE played a major role in the design and testing of the majority of the British military's jet engines in addition to naval gas turbine engines. Following the end of the Cold War , the NGTE's activity dipped considerably. In 1995, the organisation was incorporated into the wider Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA). Five years later, NGTE Pyestock
16335-587: Was Moscow . The Soviet Union's roots lay in the October Revolution of 1917. The new government, led by Vladimir Lenin , established the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the world's first constitutionally socialist state . The revolution was not accepted by all within the Russian Republic , resulting in the Russian Civil War . The RSFSR and its subordinate republics were merged into
16470-461: Was a fairly large building above ground. But that was just to allow engines to be lowered into the test chamber from a huge crane. The test chamber itself was almost entirely underground. Cell 3 West was a comparatively small building, with a large blue and white round opening on the front of the test chamber. It was the last altitude test cell built on site. It was one of the largest cells internally, allowing icing tests (testing to see how ice affects
16605-539: Was also the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was 'window dressing' for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called 'Russians', not 'Soviets', since 'everyone knew who really ran the show'. Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of
16740-540: Was carried out within the terms of the Soviet Civil Code. Some Soviet legal scholars even said that "criminal repression" may be applied in the absence of guilt. Martin Latsis , chief of Soviet Ukraine 's secret police explained: "Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which class he belongs, what
16875-404: Was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia , Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from the Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Soviet-occupied Bessarabia , and Ukrainian SSR. Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania were also annexed by
17010-483: Was instrumental in the Red Terror and Great Purge , but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov , the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in
17145-634: Was merged with the RAE's Turbine Division and renamed as Power Jets (Research and Development) Ltd. That same year, the organisation established its headquarters at Pyestock. Shortly after the end of the Second World War , the organisation was reconstituted as a division of the Ministry of Supply , at which point it was renamed as the National Gas Turbine Establishment , commonly referred to as NGTE Pyestock . During February 1946, Frank Whittle parted ways with NGTE, having resigned from his position after disagreeing with some of
17280-424: Was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers , but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars . The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany in 1945. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment,
17415-450: Was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts ( People's Court ) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law , where the judge, procurator , and defence attorney collaborate to "establish
17550-459: Was only 54% of that of the United States, this means that the Soviet Union generated 1.5 times more pollution than the United States per unit of GNP. The Soviet Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant . Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses were scattered relatively far. Although long-term effects of
17685-487: Was permanently closed and the site itself was decommissioned; it has since been redeveloped into housing, known as Hartland Village. During 1942, the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) Turbine Division moved to new facilities in Pyestock. On 28 March 1944, following discussions with the Air Ministry , Frank Whittle reluctantly agreed to the nationalisation of his company, Power Jets , for £135,000, after which it
17820-471: Was reached it was synchronised with the National Grid. Pyestock was used for several scenes in the 2005 film Sahara by Breck Eisner , based on the best-selling book of the same name by Clive Cussler . Internal sections of Cell 3 and Cell 4 were suitably reworked for the film's supposedly solar powered waste disposal facility. Farnborough, Hampshire Farnborough is a town located in
17955-477: Was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of
18090-482: Was that "the Constitution was written not for you, but for American Negroes, so that they know how happy the lives of Soviet citizens are". Crime was determined not as the infraction of law, instead, it was determined as any action which could threaten the Soviet state and society. For example, a desire to make a profit could be interpreted as a counter-revolutionary activity punishable by death. The liquidation and deportation of millions of peasants in 1928–31
18225-640: Was the Russian responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic —lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help. By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became
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