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119-740: Roanoke River National Wildlife Refuge was established in 1989 to protect and enhance wooded wetlands consisting of bottomland hardwoods and swamps with high waterfowl value along the Roanoke River . The extensive bottomland hardwood habitat of the Roanoke River National Wildlife Refuge is part of what the Nature Conservancy calls "one of the last great places." Refuge lands consist of bottomland hardwood forest interspersed with cypress - tupelo sloughs that includes forested wetlands in

238-711: A sink or a source of carbon, depending on the specific wetland. If they function as a carbon sink, they can help with climate change mitigation . However, wetlands can also be a significant source of methane emissions due to anaerobic decomposition of soaked detritus , and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide . Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands in many ways, including oil and gas extraction , building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock , overfishing , alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution , and water pollution . Wetlands are more threatened by environmental degradation than any other ecosystem on Earth, according to

357-619: A tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of Bangladesh and India. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves , where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring

476-912: A 2020 assessment under the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems framework. The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about 10,277 km (3,968 sq mi), of which forests in Bangladesh's Khulna Division extend over 6,017 km (2,323 sq mi) and in West Bengal's Presidency division , they extend over 4,260 km (1,640 sq mi) across the South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas districts . The most abundant tree species are sundri ( Heritiera fomes ) and gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ). The forests provide habitat to 453 fauna wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species. Despite

595-512: A deposit of silt. It covers 14,600 square kilometres (5,600 sq mi) of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta , finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal from the northern part of Khulna District and the southern part of North 24 Parganas district in the Indian state of West Bengal. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and

714-402: A frequency and duration to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally included swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.' For each of these definitions and others, regardless of the purpose, hydrology is emphasized (shallow waters, water-logged soils). The soil characteristics and

833-466: A hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora ( Sonneratia apetala ) and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer ( Axis axis ). There is abundance of dhundul or passur ( Xylocarpus granatum ) and kankra ( Bruguiera gymnorhiza ) though distribution

952-553: A mere 130 km of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by Heritiera minor , Xylocarpus molluccensis , Bruguiera conjugata , Sonneratia apetala , Avicennia officinalis , and Sonneratia caseolaris , with Pandanus tectorius , Hibiscus tiliaceus , and Nipa fruticans along

1071-497: A network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline. The event was very threatening to trees, plankton, and vast populations of small fishes and dolphins. The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area, home to the rare Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins . Until 15 December 2014 only 50,000 litres (11,000 imp gal; 13,000 US gal) of oil from the area had been cleaned up by local residents,

1190-1259: A polar climate, wetland temperatures can be as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). Peatlands in arctic and subarctic regions insulate the permafrost , thus delaying or preventing its thawing during summer, as well as inducing its formation. The amount of precipitation a wetland receives varies widely according to its area. Wetlands in Wales , Scotland , and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm (59 in) per year. In some places in Southeast Asia , where heavy rains occur, they can receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in). In some drier regions, wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm (7.1 in) precipitation occurs each year. Temporal variation: Surface flow may occur in some segments, with subsurface flow in other segments. Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography , hydrology , vegetation , and other factors, including human involvement. Other important factors include fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial and salinity. When peat accumulates, bogs and fens arise. The most important factor producing wetlands

1309-540: A portion of the overall water cycle, which also includes atmospheric water (precipitation) and groundwater . Many wetlands are directly linked to groundwater and they can be a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands that have permeable substrates like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables have especially important roles in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Substrates that are porous allow water to filter down through

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1428-435: A protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and storm surges is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters. Sundarbans Sundarbans (pronounced / s ʌ n ˈ d ɑːr b ə n z / )

1547-537: A remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in

1666-468: A remnant population of black bear along with numerous small game and a diversity of fish species, including the endangered shortnose sturgeon . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . Wetland Wetlands exist on every continent , except Antarctica . The water in wetlands

1785-431: A significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed which include beaches, estuaries , permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks , coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in

1904-553: A storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists. The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists. The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of

2023-422: A strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in coastal wetlands and in arid and semiarid regions with large precipitation deficits. Natural salinity is regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human activity. Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such as sulfur , phosphorus , carbon , and nitrogen are found within

2142-441: A total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates , it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining". The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include

2261-437: A total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there has been a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century, with the ecological quality of the forest declining. Despite preservation commitments from both governments, the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human-made causes. In 2007, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of

2380-539: A unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique pugmarks , were much higher. The more recent counts have used camera traps , an improved methodology that yields more accurate results. Tiger attacks were historically common in

2499-410: A unique kind of wetland where lush plant growth and slow decay of dead plants (under anoxic conditions) results in organic peat accumulating; bogs, fens, and mires are different names for peatlands. Variations of names for wetland systems: Some wetlands have localized names unique to a region such as the prairie potholes of North America's northern plain, pocosins , Carolina bays and baygalls of

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2618-515: A wetland is "an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic and aerobic processes, which, in turn, forces the biota, particularly rooted plants, to adapt to flooding". Sometimes a precise legal definition of a wetland is required. The definition used for regulation by the United States government is: 'The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at

2737-422: A wetland system includes its plants ( flora ) and animals ( fauna ) and microbes (bacteria, fungi). The most important factor is the wetland's duration of flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity of the water or soils. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water, the geological material that it flows through and the nutrients discharged from organic matter in

2856-403: A wetland) affects hydro-periods (temporal fluctuations in water levels) by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland. Landscape characteristics control wetland hydrology and water chemistry. The O 2 and CO 2 concentrations of water depend upon temperature , atmospheric pressure and mixing with the air (from winds or water flows). Water chemistry within wetlands

2975-558: A whole. To replace these wetland ecosystem services , enormous amounts of money would need to be spent on water purification plants, dams, levees, and other hard infrastructure, and many of the services are impossible to replace. Floodplains and closed-depression wetlands can provide the functions of storage reservoirs and flood protection. The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major rivers downstream from their headwaters . "The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over

3094-594: A wide area, which reduces its depth and speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it does not run straight off the land into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream." Notable river systems that produce wide floodplains include the Nile River , the Niger river inland delta, the Zambezi River flood plain,

3213-492: Is Excoecaria . As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear. A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David Prain in 1903. While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the Rhizophoraceae , Avicenneaceae or Combretaceae , the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by

3332-465: Is "beautiful forest". Alternatively, it was proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban , Shomudrobôn ("Sea Forest"), or Chandra-bandhe , the name of a tribe. However, the likely origin of the word is Sundari or Sundri , the local name of the mangrove species Heritiera fomes abundant in the area. The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to Mauryan era (4th-2nd century BCE). A ruin of an abandoned city

3451-399: Is 4,143 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), including exposed sandbars with a total area of 42 square kilometres (16 sq mi); the remaining water area of 1,874 square kilometres (724 sq mi) encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of

3570-838: Is a mangrove area in the delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges , Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal . Spread across parts of India and Bangladesh , this forest is the largest Mangrove forest in the world. It spans the area from the Baleswar River in Bangladesh 's division of Khulna to the Hooghly River in India 's state of West Bengal . It comprises closed and open mangrove forests , land used for agricultural purpose, mudflats and barren land, and

3689-521: Is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of

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3808-616: Is anticipated to further damage this unique mangrove forest according to a 2016 report by UNESCO. Climate change is expected to continue to negatively affect both natural systems and human populations in the region, resulting in further ecosystem degradation and climate migration . Experts examining the region recommend further focus on mangrove restoration and management and advocating for adaptation of human populations, through processes like managed retreat and investments in resilient infrastructure. The literal meaning of Sundarbans ( Bengali : সুন্দরবন , romanized :  Sundôrbôn )

3927-440: Is determined by the pH , salinity , nutrients, conductivity , soil composition, hardness , and the sources of water. Water chemistry varies across landscapes and climatic regions. Wetlands are generally minerotrophic (waters contain dissolved materials from soils) with the exception of ombrotrophic bogs that are fed only by water from precipitation. Because bogs receive most of their water from precipitation and humidity from

4046-406: Is discontinuous. Among palms, Poresia coaractata , Myriostachya wightiana and golpata ( Nypa fruticans ), and among grasses spear grass ( Imperata cylindrica ) and khagra ( Phragmites karka ) are well distributed. The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub, littoral forest , saltwater mixed forest , brackish water mixed forest and swamp forest . Besides

4165-633: Is either freshwater , brackish or saltwater . The main types of wetland are defined based on the dominant plants and the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation such as reeds , cattails and sedges . Swamps are dominated by woody vegetation such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees). Mangrove forest are wetlands with mangroves , halophytic woody plants that have evolved to tolerate salty water . Examples of wetlands classified by

4284-446: Is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers are known to attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, with around 40 deaths recorded in 2000–2010. Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari ( Heritiera spp.) and gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983. Despite

4403-454: Is estimated to be about 4,260 km (1,640 sq mi), of which about 1,700 km (660 sq mi) is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of

4522-620: Is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas. Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including Sundarbans National Park and Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary , in West Bengal, Sundarbans East , Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries in Bangladesh. In May 2019,

4641-412: Is hydrology, or flooding . The duration of flooding or prolonged soil saturation by groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation . Other important factors include soil fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial, and salinity. When peat from dead plants accumulates, bogs and fens develop. Wetland hydrology is associated with

4760-505: Is intersected by multiple tidal streams and channels. Sundarbans is home to the world's largest area of mangrove forests. Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites , viz. Sundarbans West (Bangladesh), Sundarbans South (Bangladesh), Sundarbans East (Bangladesh) and Sundarbans National Park (India). Despite the protected status, the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in

4879-743: Is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger . It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile . The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park. Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ) and dense stands of Goran ( Ceriops tagal ), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm ( Phoenix paludosa ) on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of

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4998-550: Is situated 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans. This project violates the environmental impact assessment guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants. Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the Ramsar Convention . The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect

5117-569: Is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks. Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban. The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), Sarankhola (Khulna), and Burigoalini ( Satkhira District ) and has sixteen forest stations. It

5236-451: Is the only place in the world where both crocodiles and alligators coexist. The saltwater crocodile inhabits estuaries and mangroves. Snapping turtles also inhabit wetlands. Birds , particularly waterfowl and waders use wetlands extensively. Mammals of wetlands include numerous small and medium-sized species such as voles , bats , muskrats and platypus in addition to large herbivorous and apex predator species such as

5355-486: Is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect

5474-545: Is usually saturated with water". More precisely, wetlands are areas where "water covers the soil , or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season". A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain storm would not necessarily be considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands have unique characteristics: they are generally distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level and on

5593-628: The Bangladesh Navy , and the government of Bangladesh . Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife. On 13 December 2014, a dead Irrawaddy dolphin was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River. The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in

5712-485: The Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae . The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari ( Heritiera fomes ), gewa ( Excoecaria agallocha ), goran ( Ceriops decandra ) and keora ( Sonneratia apetala ) all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the sundari ( Heritiera littoralis ), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields

5831-505: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005. Methods exist for assessing wetland ecological health . These methods have contributed to wetland conservation by raising public awareness of the functions that wetlands can provide. Since 1971, work under an international treaty seeks to identify and protect " wetlands of international importance ." A simplified definition of wetland is "an area of land that

5950-550: The Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and completed mapping the area in 1764. However, systematic forest management started a century later. The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Indian Forest Act of 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of

6069-636: The Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta. Wetlands contribute many ecosystem services that benefit people. These include for example water purification , stabilization of shorelines, storm protection and flood control . In addition, wetlands also process and condense carbon (in processes called carbon fixation and sequestration ), and other nutrients and water pollutants . Wetlands can act as

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6188-444: The atmosphere , their water usually has low mineral ionic composition. In contrast, wetlands fed by groundwater or tides have a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients and minerals. Fen peatlands receive water both from precipitation and ground water in varying amounts so their water chemistry ranges from acidic with low levels of dissolved minerals to alkaline with high accumulation of calcium and magnesium . Salinity has

6307-576: The beavers , coypu , swamp rabbit , Florida panther , jaguar , and moose . Wetlands attract many mammals due to abundant seeds, berries, and other vegetation as food for herbivores, as well as abundant populations of invertebrates, small reptiles and amphibians as prey for predators. Invertebrates of wetlands include aquatic insects such as dragonflies , aquatic bugs and beetles , midges, mosquitos , crustaceans such as crabs, crayfish, shrimps, microcrustaceans, mollusks like clams, mussels, snails and worms. Invertebrates comprise more than half of

6426-509: The brackish -water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of Bengal. A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km ) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km ) that cover

6545-540: The mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris ) started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British and locals. There are other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur ( Semnopithecus pileatus ), smooth-coated otter ( Lutrogale perspicillata ), Asian small-clawed otter ( Aonyx cinerea ) and large Indian civet ( Viverra zibetha ). The physical development processes along

6664-608: The Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-centimetre (18 in) rise in sea level (likely by

6783-725: The Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile , northern river terrapin ( Batagur baska ), olive ridley sea turtle , Gangetic dolphin , ground turtles, hawksbill sea turtles and king crabs (horse shoe). The Sundarbans hold globally important numbers of the critically endangered masked finfoot and are important wintering sites for the spoon-billed sandpiper and the Indian skimmer . Some species such as hog deer ( Axis porcinus ), water buffalos ( Bubalus bubalis ), barasingha or swamp deer ( Cervus duvauceli ), Javan rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros sondaicus ), Indian rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis ) and

6902-639: The Okavango River inland delta, the Kafue River flood plain, the Lake Bangweulu flood plain (Africa), Mississippi River (US), Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China), Danube River (Central Europe) and Murray-Darling River (Australia). Groundwater replenishment can be achieved for example by marsh , swamp , and subterranean karst and cave hydrological systems. The surface water visibly seen in wetlands only represents

7021-522: The Southeastern US, mallines of Argentina, Mediterranean seasonal ponds of Europe and California, turloughs of Ireland, billabongs of Australia, among many others. Wetlands are found throughout the world in different climates. Temperatures vary greatly depending on the location of the wetland. Many of the world's wetlands are in the temperate zones , midway between the North or South Poles and

7140-563: The Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Kolkata , Khulna and Port of Mongla against the floods that result from the cyclones . It also protects from tsunami and soil erosion for the coastal population. The mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta –

7259-483: The Sundarbans – is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. The larger part is situated in Bangladesh, a smaller portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to

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7378-521: The Sundarbans. The forest is also suffering from increased salinity caused by sea level rise due to effects of climate change and reduced freshwater supply. In May 2009, Cyclone Aila devastated the Sundarbans with massive casualties. At least 100,000 people were affected by this cyclone. The proposed coal-fired Rampal power station situated 14 km (8.7 mi) north of the Sundarbans at Rampal Upazila of Bagerhat District in Khulna, Bangladesh,

7497-502: The US, the best known classifications are the Cowardin classification system and the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system. The Cowardin system includes five main types of wetlands: marine (ocean-associated), estuarine (mixed ocean- and river-associated), riverine (within river channels), lacustrine (lake-associated) and palustrine (inland nontidal habitats). Peatlands are

7616-610: The United States' commercial fish and shellfish stocks depend solely on estuaries to survive. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders need both terrestrial and aquatic habitats in which to reproduce and feed. Because amphibians often inhabit depressional wetlands like prairie potholes and Carolina bays, the connectivity among these isolated wetlands is an important control of regional populations. While tadpoles feed on algae, adult frogs forage on insects. Frogs are sometimes used as an indicator of ecosystem health because their thin skin permits absorption of nutrients and toxins from

7735-590: The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to 200 metres (660 ft) in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around 17,179 hectares (42,450 acres) of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another 7,554 hectares (18,670 acres). Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated

7854-431: The anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of

7973-402: The annual rise in sea level to be 8 millimetres (0.31 in) in 2010. It had doubled from 3.14 millimetres (0.124 in) recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around 7,500 hectares (19,000 acres) of forest areas. This, coupled with an around 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of

8092-429: The area , and are still frequent in the Sundarbans, with around 40 people killed in 2000–2010. Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores , which grow upward from

8211-661: The botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation . The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres , comprising primary colonisation on new accretions to more mature beach forests. Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography. The Sundarbans provides

8330-408: The climatic zone. Robert Scott Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is Sonneratia , followed by Avicennia and Nypa . As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear,

8449-433: The coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon . These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides

8568-429: The coastal population in cyclone -prone Bangladesh. Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the monsoon season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop ( kharif crop ) is therefore mainly deepwater rice or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However,

8687-401: The country. A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of

8806-494: The country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey , beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as

8925-544: The deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day. The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves. Sundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406). The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are

9044-493: The end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves. Already, Lohachara Island and New Moore Island/South Talpatti Island have disappeared under the sea, and Ghoramara Island is half submerged. In a study conducted in 2012,

9163-634: The equator. In these zones, summers are warm and winters are cold, but temperatures are not extreme. In subtropical zone wetlands, such as along the Gulf of Mexico , average temperatures might be 11 °C (52 °F). Wetlands in the tropics are subjected to much higher temperatures for a large portion of the year. Temperatures for wetlands on the Arabian Peninsula can exceed 50 °C (122 °F) and these habitats would therefore be subject to rapid evaporation. In northeastern Siberia , which has

9282-485: The flight of human capital from the region According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of Cyclone Sidr damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007. In August 2010, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) and India's state-owned National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016. The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land,

9401-504: The following areas: According to the Ramsar Convention: The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them to 'more valuable' intensive land use – particularly as the profits from unsustainable use often go to relatively few individuals or corporations, rather than being shared by society as

9520-420: The forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris ), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, chital , crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with

9639-451: The forest, there are extensive areas of brackish water and freshwater marshes , intertidal mudflats , sandflats , sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. Since Prain's report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of

9758-519: The forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in today Khulna , Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–1898. The Sundarban forest lies in

9877-399: The former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance. Ecological succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of

9996-414: The fringing banks. The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the delta and is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometres (7,900 sq mi) of an area covered. The dominant mangrove species Heritiera fomes is locally known as sundri or sundari . Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and

10115-467: The general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the Bengal tiger ( Panthera tigris ). The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the jungle cat ( Felis chaus ), fishing cat ( Prionailurus viverrinus ), and leopard cat ( P. bengalensis ). Several predators dwell in

10234-455: The indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction. Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with

10353-544: The intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways. The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal

10472-468: The interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems, making them inherently different from each other, yet highly dependent on both." In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty , wetlands are defined as follows: An ecological definition of

10591-405: The intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes is controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on

10710-462: The known animal species in wetlands, and are considered the primary food web link between plants and higher animals (such as fish and birds). Depending on a wetland's geographic and topographic location, the functions it performs can support multiple ecosystem services , values, or benefits. United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be of biosphere significance and societal importance in

10829-519: The labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the chital deer ( Axis axis ), Indian muntjacs ( Muntiacus muntjak ), wild boar ( Sus scrofa ), and Rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ). It

10948-416: The lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops ( Rabi crops ) can be grown here. Some farms and mangrove areas are being cleared for aquaculture . The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into

11067-560: The late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980. The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing. As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite

11186-505: The local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell. The Sundarban National Park is a National Park , Tiger Reserve , and a Biosphere Reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta , and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests, and

11305-655: The lower 130 miles (210 km) of the Roanoke River from the Fall Line at Weldon, North Carolina downstream to the Albemarle Sound near Plymouth, North Carolina . The refuge includes part of an extensive wetland ecosystem that contains excellent examples of several southeastern plant communities and habitat types. These include levee forest, cypress-gum swamp, bottomland hardwoods, oxbows , beaver ponds and blackwater streams. These communities add to

11424-427: The north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders . The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 square kilometres (6,400 sq mi). Now it has dwindled into about one-third of its original size. The total land area today

11543-837: The plants and animals controlled by the wetland hydrology are often additional components of the definitions. Wetlands can be tidal (inundated by tides) or non-tidal. The water in wetlands is either freshwater , brackish , saline , or alkaline . There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh , swamp , bog , and fen (bogs and fens being types of peatlands or mires ). Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types. Sub-types include mangrove forests , carrs , pocosins , floodplains , peatlands, vernal pools , sinks , and many others. The following three groups are used within Australia to classify wetland by type: Marine and coastal zone wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. In

11662-765: The property from poachers. The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$ 20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund . A new Khulna Forest Circle

11781-575: The region and partly by climate change. In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring India through the use of the Farakka Barrage bordering Rajshahi , Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo- tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to

11900-528: The reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered. The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna. The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce

12019-486: The rich mosaic of habitat types in the river's floodplain . The refuge includes valuable wetlands for fish and wildlife; especially waterfowl, neotropical migrants, and anadromous fish . The refuge hosts 214 species of birds, including 88 breeding resident species and the largest inland heron rookery in the state; white-tailed deer ; one of the largest natural wild turkey populations in North Carolina ; and

12138-710: The rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 to 2.11 metres (3.0 to 6.9 ft) above sea level. Biotic factors here play

12257-458: The same. This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010. A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heidelberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing

12376-421: The sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are wild boar , chital horin ( spotted deer ), Indian otter and macaque monkey . Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present –

12495-429: The soil and underlying rock into aquifers which are the source of much of the world's drinking water . Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is high. Mangroves , coral reefs , salt marsh can help with shoreline stabilization and storm protection. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide

12614-537: The soil of wetlands. Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with low pH and saline conductivity may reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with average salinity levels can be heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical processes in wetlands are determined by soils with low redox potential. The life forms of

12733-412: The soils and plants at higher elevations. Plants and animals may vary within a wetland seasonally or in response to flood regimes. There are four main groups of hydrophytes that are found in wetland systems throughout the world. Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach

12852-530: The sources of water include tidal wetlands , where the water source is ocean tides ); estuaries , water source is mixed tidal and river waters; floodplains , water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and bogs and vernal ponds , water source is rainfall or meltwater . The world's largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain ,

12971-406: The spatial and temporal dispersion, flow, and physio-chemical attributes of surface and ground waters. Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are predominantly precipitation , surface water (saltwater or freshwater), and groundwater. Water flows out of wetlands by evapotranspiration , surface flows and tides , and subsurface water outflow. Hydrodynamics (the movement of water through and from

13090-719: The surface of the water. When trees and shrubs comprise much of the plant cover in saturated soils, those areas in most cases are called swamps . The upland boundary of swamps is determined partly by water levels. This can be affected by dams Some swamps can be dominated by a single species, such as silver maple swamps around the Great Lakes . Others, like those of the Amazon basin , have large numbers of different tree species. Other examples include cypress ( Taxodium ) and mangrove swamps. Many species of fish are highly dependent on wetland ecosystems. Seventy-five percent of

13209-496: The surface. Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass . Floating water plants or floating vegetation are usually small, like those in the Lemnoideae subfamily (duckweeds). Emergent vegetation like the cattails ( Typha spp.), sedges ( Carex spp.) and arrow arum ( Peltandra virginica ) rise above

13328-464: The surrounding environment resulting in increased extinction rates in unfavorable and polluted environmental conditions. Reptiles such as snakes , lizards , turtles , alligators and crocodiles are common in wetlands of some regions. In freshwater wetlands of the Southeastern US, alligators are common and a freshwater species of crocodile occurs in South Florida. The Florida Everglades

13447-440: The types of plants that live within them. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants . A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil and hydrophytes . Wetlands have also been described as ecotones , providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. Wetlands exist "...at

13566-403: The undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the sundari , other tree species in the forest include Avicennia , Xylocarpus mekongensis , Xylocarpus granatum , Sonneratia apetala , Bruguiera gymnorhiza , Ceriops decandra , Aegiceras corniculatum , Rhizophora mucronata , and Nypa fruticans palms. Twenty-six of the fifty broad mangrove species found in

13685-531: The vast delta on the Bay of Bengal formed by the super-confluence of the Hooghly , Padma (both are distributaries of Ganges ), Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh . The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forest lies inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,277 km (3,968 sq mi) of which about 6,017 km (2,323 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. The Indian part of Sundarbans

13804-413: The world grow well in the Sundarbans. The commonly identifiable vegetation types in the dense Sundarbans mangrove forests are salt water mixed forest, mangrove scrub, brackish water mixed forest, littoral forest, wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests. The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations. Unlike

13923-468: The world's largest mangrove forest. On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named Southern Star VII , carrying 358,000 litres (79,000 imp gal; 95,000 US gal) of furnace oil , was sunk in the Sela river of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel. The oil spread over 350 km (140 sq mi) area after the clash, as of 17 December. The slick spread to a second river and

14042-550: Was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management

14161-695: Was found in the Baghmara Forest Block that is attributed to Chand Sadagar , a pre-Mauryan semi-historical figure in Bengali folklore. Archaeological excavation at Kapilmuni , Paikgacha Upazilla , north of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, revealed ruins of urban settlement dating back to the early middle ages . During the Mughal period, forest tracts were leased out by the local rulers for establishing settlements. In 1757, The British East India Company obtained proprietary rights over Sundarbans from

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