Roland Stadler (born 14 June 1959) is a former professional tennis player from Switzerland.
137-540: Stadler was one of the few players who used a two-handed grip for both his forehand and backhand. The Zurich born player was a surprise finalist at the Swiss Open in 1986, coming into the tournament ranked 403 in the world. He defeated three top 40 players, Milan Šrejber , Tomáš Šmíd and Emilio Sánchez . In the final he pushed Stefan Edberg to five sets but was unable to prevail. Some of his other best performances on tour also came at home, with two semi-finals and
274-582: A castellum on the Lindenhof. Later here was erected Turicum (a toponym of clear Celtic origin), a tax-collecting point for goods trafficked on the Limmat, which constituted part of the border between Gallia Belgica (from AD 90 Germania Superior ) and Raetia : this customs point developed later into a vicus . After Emperor Constantine 's reforms in AD 318, the border between Gaul and Italy (two of
411-457: A duchess in 1234. The abbess nominated the mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. The political power of the convent slowly waned in the 14th century, beginning with the establishment of the Zunftordnung ( guild laws) in 1336 by Rudolf Brun , who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not nominated by the abbess. An important event in
548-607: A "Protestant language". With the Act of Mediation , the Grisons became a canton of Switzerland in 1803. The constitution of the canton dates from 1892. When the Grisons became part of Switzerland in 1803, it had a population of roughly 73,000, of whom around 36,600 were Romansh speakers—many of them monolingual—living mostly within the Romansh-speaking valleys. The language border with German, which had mostly been stable since
685-565: A "regularly spoken" language. In 2010, Switzerland switched to a yearly system of assessment that uses a combination of municipal citizen records and a limited number of surveys. In 2019, there were 40,074 Swiss residents who primarily spoke Romansh; in 2017, 28,698 inhabitants of the canton of the Grisons (14.7% of the population) used it as their main language. Romansh is divided into five different regional dialect groups ( Sursilvan , Vallader , Putèr , Surmiran , and Sutsilvan ), each with its own standardized written language. In addition,
822-540: A "test-tube baby" or "castrated language". They argued that it was an artificial and infertile creation which lacked a heart and soul, in contrast to the traditional dialects. On the other side, proponents called on the Romansh people to nurture the "new-born" to allow it to grow, with Romansh writer Ursicin Derungs calling Rumantsch Grischun a " lungatg virginal " "virgin language" that now had to be seduced and turned into
959-667: A blossoming woman. The opposition to Rumantsch Grischun also became clear in the Swiss census of 1990, in which certain municipalities refused to distribute questionnaires in Rumantsch Grischun, requesting the German version instead. Following a survey on the opinion of the Romansh population on the issue, the government of the Grisons decided in 1996 that Rumantsch Grischun would be used when addressing all Romansh speakers, but
1096-551: A collection of church songs in the Vallader dialect. These early works are generally well written and show that the authors had a large amount of Romansh vocabulary at their disposal, contrary to what one might expect of the first pieces of writing in a language. Because of this, the linguist Ricarda Liver assumes that these written works built on an earlier, pre-literature tradition of using Romansh in administrative and legal situations, of which no evidence survives. In their prefaces,
1233-476: A continuous speech area, this continuum has now been ruptured by the spread of German, so that Romansh is now geographically divided into at least two non-adjacent parts. Aside from these five major dialects, two additional varieties are often distinguished. One is the dialect of the Val Müstair , which is closely related to Vallader but often separately referred to as Jauer (Romansh: jauer ; derived from
1370-614: A definite guideline, the Normas ortograficas per igl rumantsch da Surmeir , was not published until 1939. In the meantime, the norms of Pallioppi had come under criticism in the Engadine due to the strong influence of Italian in them. This led to an orthographic reform which was concluded by 1928, when the Pitschna introducziun a la nouva ortografia ladina ufficiala by Cristoffel Bardola was published. A separate written variety for Sutsilvan
1507-615: A few villages around Thusis and the village of Samnaun . In the case of Samnaun, the inhabitants adopted the Bavarian dialect of neighboring Tyrol, making Samnaun the only municipality of Switzerland where a Bavarian dialect is spoken. The Vinschgau in South Tyrol was still Romansh-speaking in the 17th century, after which it became entirely German-speaking because of the Counter-Reformation denunciation of Romansh as
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#17327973679631644-479: A language as equally acceptable as possible to speakers of the different dialects, by choosing those forms which were found in a majority of the three strongest varieties: Sursilvan, Vallader, and Surmiran (Puter has more speakers than Surmiran but is spoken by a lower percentage of the population in its area). The elaboration of the new standard was endorsed by the Swiss National Fund and carried out by
1781-433: A language of instruction. Opponents argued that Romansh culture and identity was transmitted through the regional varieties and not through Rumantsch Grischun and that Rumantsch Grischun would serve to weaken rather than strengthen Romansh, possibly leading to a switch to German-language schools and a swift Germanization of Romansh areas. The cantonal government refused to debate the issue again however, instead deciding on
1918-658: A modern city on the Zürichsee shore, under the guidance of the city engineer Arnold Bürkli . In 1893, the twelve outlying districts were incorporated into Zurich, including Aussersihl, the workman's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl, and additional land was reclaimed from Lake Zürich. In 1934, eight additional districts in the north and west of Zurich were incorporated. Zurich was accidentally bombed during World War II. As persecuted Jews sought refuge in Switzerland,
2055-572: A pan-regional variety called Rumantsch Grischun was introduced in 1982, which is controversial among Romansh speakers. Romansh is a Romance language descending from Vulgar Latin , the spoken language of the Roman Empire . Among the Romance languages, Romansh stands out because of its peripheral location. This has resulted in several archaic features. Another distinguishing feature is the centuries-long language contact with German , which
2192-401: A plan to Germanize the Romansh areas of Grisons, many German-speaking groups wished that the entire canton would become German-speaking. They were careful however, to avoid any drastic measures to that extent, in order not to antagonize the influential Romansh minority. The decline of Romansh over the 20th century can be seen through the results of the Swiss censuses. The decline in percentages
2329-557: A quarter-final appearance in Geneva as well as being a semi-finalist at Basel in 1983. Stadler had his best Grand Slam showing at the 1984 French Open , where he reached the third round, with wins over South Africa's Derek Tarr and local qualifier Loïc Courteau . He was a regular fixture in the Switzerland Davis Cup team throughout the 1980s and took part in a total of 22 ties. Of his 38 singles rubbers, he finished
2466-415: A republic, shedding its former status of a free imperial city. In this time the political system of Zurich was an oligarchy ( Patriziat ): the dominant families of the city were the following ones: Bonstetten, Brun, Bürkli, Escher vom Glas, Escher vom Luchs, Hirzel, Jori (or von Jori), Kilchsperger, Landenberg, Manesse, Meiss, Meyer von Knonau, Mülner, von Orelli. The Helvetic Revolution of 1798 saw
2603-686: A separate " Rhaeto-Romance " subgroup within Gallo-Romance is an unresolved issue, known as the Questione Ladina . Some linguists posit that these languages are descended from a common language, which was fractured geographically through the spread of German and Italian. The Italian linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli first made the claim in 1873. The other position holds that any similarities between these three languages can be explained through their relative geographic isolation, which shielded them from certain linguistic changes. By contrast,
2740-607: A small number of pre-Latin words have survived in Romansh, mainly concerning animals, plants, and geological features unique to the Alps , such as camutsch " chamois " and grava " scree ". It is unknown how rapidly the Celtic and Raetic inhabitants were Romanized following the conquest of Raetia. Some linguists assume that the area was rapidly Romanized following the Roman conquest, whereas others think that this process did not end until
2877-479: A small number of words from these languages. Romansh has also been strongly influenced by German in vocabulary and morphosyntax . The language gradually retreated to its current area over the centuries, being replaced in other areas by Alemannic and Bavarian dialects. The earliest writing identified as Romansh dates from the 10th or 11th century, although major works did not appear until the 16th century, when several regional written varieties began to develop. During
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#17327973679633014-428: A team of young Romansh linguists under the guidance of Georges Darms and Anna-Alice Dazzi-Gross. The Lia Rumantscha then began introducing Rumantsch Grischun to the public, announcing that it would be chiefly introduced into domains where only German was being used, such as official forms and documents, billboards, and commercials. In 1984, the assembly of delegates of the head organization Lia Rumantscha decided to use
3151-472: A three-step plan in December 2004 to introduce Rumantsch Grischun as the language of schooling, allowing the municipalities to choose when they would make the switch. The decision not to publish any new teaching materials in the regional varieties was not overturned at this point, however, raising the question of what would happen in those municipalities that refused to introduce Rumantsch Grischun at all, since
3288-634: A transition zone between them. The Engadinese varieties Putèr and Vallader are often referred to as one specific variety known as Ladin (Ladin, Sursilvan, Surmiran, and Rumantsch Grischun : ladin ; Sutsilvan: ladegn ), which is not to be confused with the closely related language in Italy's Dolomite mountains also known as Ladin . Sutsilvan and Surmiran are sometimes grouped together as Central Romansh (rm. Grischun central ), and then grouped together with Sursilvan as "Rhenish Romansh" (in German, "Rheinischromanisch"). One feature that separates
3425-583: A width of two to three km (1.2 to 1.9 mi). The partially channeled and straightened Limmat does not flow in the central part of the valley, but always along its right (northeastern) side. The Sihl meets with the Limmat at the end of Platzspitz, which borders the Swiss National Museum . The Limmat reaches the lowest point of the municipality in Oberengstringen at 392 m (1,286 ft) above sea level . On its west side,
3562-469: Is mür or mir in Romansh. The main features distinguishing Romansh from the Gallo-Italic languages to the south, and placing it closer to Ladin , Friulian and Franco-Provencal , are: Another defining feature of the Romansh language is the use of unstressed vowels. All unstressed vowels except /a/ disappeared. Whether or not Romansh, Friulan , and Ladin should compose
3699-539: Is 24.0 °C (75.2 °F) and average low temperature is 14 °C (57.2 °F). The highest recorded temperature in Zürich was 37.7 °C (100 °F), recorded in July 1947, and typically the warmest day reaches an average of 32.2 °C (90.0 °F). Spring and autumn are generally cool to mild, but sometimes with large differences between warm and cold days even during the same year. The highest temperature of
3836-542: Is a Gallo-Romance and/or Rhaeto-Romance language spoken predominantly in the Swiss canton of the Grisons (Graubünden). Romansh has been recognized as a national language of Switzerland since 1938, and as an official language in correspondence with Romansh-speaking citizens since 1996, along with German , French , and Italian . It also has official status in the canton of the Grisons alongside German and Italian and
3973-618: Is an average of 59.5 so-called bright days (number of days with sunshine duration greater than 80%) through the year, the most in July and August (7.4, 7.7 days), and the least in January and December (2.7, 1.8 days). The average number of days with sunshine duration less than 20%, so-called cloudy days , is 158.4 days, while the most cloudy days are in November (17.8 days), December (21.7 days), and January with 19 days. The climate in Zurich
4110-777: Is becoming not only warmer but also wetter, with reduced sunlight. A comparison between the periods 1940-1950 and 2013-2024 reveals significant changes. For example, in July, temperatures have increased by 1.77°C, while December has seen a rise of 3.41°C. Precipitation in October has increased by 1.45 mm. In contrast, snowfall in February has decreased by 0.16 mm, and in March, there has been a reduction in sunshine duration by 0.56 hours. Romansh language Romansh ( / r oʊ ˈ m æ n ʃ , r oʊ ˈ m ɑː n ʃ / roh- MA(H)NSH ; sometimes also spelled Romansch and Rumantsch )
4247-444: Is below 0 °C (32 °F) (so-called frost days ), and 23.7 days in which the maximum temperature is below 0 °C (32 °F) (so-called ice days ). There are on average 30 so-called summer days (maximum temperature equal to or above 25 °C [77 °F]) throughout the year, while so-called heat days (with maximum temperature equal to or above 30 °C [86 °F]) are 5.8 days. The average high temperature in July
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4384-585: Is home to many financial institutions and banking companies. Many museums and art galleries can be found in the city, including the Swiss National Museum and Kunsthaus . Schauspielhaus Zürich is generally considered to be one of the most important theatres in the German-speaking world. The name is traditionally written in English as Zurich , without the umlaut . It is pronounced / ˈ zj ʊər ɪ k / ZURE -ik . In German,
4521-401: Is it, when one can learn the languages of both without effort? In response however, the editor of the newspaper added that: According to the testimony of experienced and vigilant language teachers, while the one who is born Romansh can easily learn to understand these languages and make himself understood in them, he has great difficulties in learning them properly, since precisely because of
4658-523: Is most noticeable in the vocabulary and to a lesser extent the syntax of Romansh. Romansh belongs to the Gallo-Romance branch of the Romance languages, which includes languages such as French , Occitan , and Lombard . The main feature placing Romansh within the Gallo-Romance languages is the fronting of Latin / u / to [ y ] or [ i ] , as seen in Latin muru(m) "wall", which
4795-621: Is often referred to as Tigurum ; see Tigurini . Settlements of the Neolithic and Bronze Age were found around Lake Zurich . Traces of pre-Roman Celtic La Tène settlements were discovered near the Lindenhof , a morainic hill dominating the SE – NW waterway constituted by Lake Zurich and the river Limmat . In Roman times , during the conquest of the alpine region in 15 BC, the Romans built
4932-483: Is only partially due to the Germanization of Romansh areas, since the Romansh-speaking valleys always had a lower overall population growth than other parts of the canton. Starting in the mid-19th century however, a revival movement began, often called the "Rhaeto-Romansh renaissance". This movement involved an increased cultural activity, as well as the foundation of several organizations dedicated to protecting
5069-517: Is the mayor), two members each of the Green Party and the FDP ( Free Democratic Party ), and one member of GLP ( Green Liberal Party ), giving the left parties a combined six out of nine seats. The last regular election was held on 13 February 2022. Claudia Cuche-Curti is Town Chronicler ( Stadtschreiberin ) since 2012, and Andrea Töndury is Legal Counsel ( Rechtskonsulent ) since 2020 for
5206-595: Is used as the medium of instruction in schools in Romansh-speaking areas. It is sometimes grouped by linguists with Ladin and Friulian as the Rhaeto-Romance languages , though this is disputed. Romansh is one of the descendant languages of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire , which by the 5th century AD replaced the Celtic and Raetic languages previously spoken in the area. Romansh retains
5343-538: Is usually associated with high-pressure situations, but cooler weather phases with temperatures lower than the average. The Foehn wind , which plays an important role in the northern alpine valleys, also has some impact on Zurich. The annual mean temperature at the measuring station of the Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology in Zurich-Fluntern (556 m[1,824 ft] above sea level on
5480-418: Is −16 °C (3 °F) and record high of average daily temperatures in October is 20 °C (68 °F). Zurich has an average of 1,544 hours of sunshine per year and shines on 38% of its potential time throughout the year. During the months April until September the sun shines between 150 and 215 hours per month. The 1,134 mm (44.6 in) rainfall spread on 133.9 days with precipitation throughout
5617-456: The Alps , nestling between the wooded hills on the west and east side. The Old Town stretches on both sides of the Limmat , which flows from the lake, running northwards at first and then gradually turning into a curve to the west. The geographic (and historic) centre of the city is the Lindenhof , a small natural hill on the west bank of the Limmat, about 700 m (2,300 ft) north of where
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5754-541: The Benedictine convent with the lands of Zurich, Uri , and the Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority. In 1045, King Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city. Zurich gained Imperial immediacy ( Reichsunmittelbar , becoming an Imperial free city ) in 1218 with
5891-627: The Katzensee (nature reserve) and the Büsisee, both of which are drained by the Katzenbach to Glatt, belong to the city. Zurich has an oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ), with warm summers and four distinct seasons. Decisive for the climate of Zurich are both the winds from westerly directions, which often result in precipitation and, on the other hand, the Bise (east or north-east wind), which
6028-526: The Romonsch fusionau of Gion Antoni Bühler in 1867 and the Interrumantsch by Leza Uffer in 1958. Neither was able to gain much support, and their creators were largely the only ones actively using them. In the meantime, the Romansh movement sought to promote the different regional varieties while promoting a gradual convergence of the five varieties, called the " avischinaziun ". In 1982, however,
6165-510: The SIG ( Schweizerischer Israelitischer Gemeindebund , Israelite Community of Switzerland) raised financial resources. The Central Committee for Refugee Aid, created in 1933, was located in Zurich. The canton of Zurich did not recognize the Jewish religious communities as legal entities (and therefore as equal to national churches) until 2005. The coat of arms of Zurich, used by both the city and
6302-655: The Sonderbund cantons. Following the Sonderbund War and the formation of the Swiss Federal State, Zürich voted in favor of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the 1830s onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership , and consequently had no share in
6439-427: The third fortress in the 17th and 18th centuries. The municipality of Zurich has an area of 91.88 km (35.48 sq mi), of which 4.1 km (1.6 sq mi) is made up of Lake Zurich. The area includes a section of the northern Swiss Plateau . The banks of the Limmat constitute the densest part of the city. The river is oriented in the southeast–northwest direction, with the flat valley floor having
6576-687: The Öschbrig (696 m or 2,283 ft). Between the Käferberg and the Zürichberg is located the saddle of the Milchbuck (about 470 m or 1,540 ft), an important passage from the Limmat valley to the Glatt valley. The northernmost part of the municipality extends to the plain of the Glatt valley and to the saddle which makes the connection between the Glattal and Furttal. Also, a part of
6713-573: The 12th century; and by the 15th century, the Rhine Valley of St. Gallen and the areas around the Walensee were entirely German-speaking. This language shift was a long, drawn-out process, with larger, central towns adopting German first, while the more peripheral areas around them remained Romansh-speaking longer. The shift to German was caused in particular by the influence of the local German-speaking élites and by German-speaking immigrants from
6850-553: The 14th century. In rare cases, these Walser settlements were eventually assimilated by their Romansh-speaking neighbors; for instance, Oberhalbstein , Medel , and Tujetsch in the Surselva region. The Germanization of Chur had particularly long-term consequences. Even though the city had long before ceased to be a cultural center of Romansh, the spoken language of the capital of the Diocese of Chur continued to be Romansh until
6987-450: The 15th century. After a fire in 1465 which virtually destroyed the city, many German-speaking artisans who had been called in to help repair the damage settled there, causing German to become the majority language. In a chronicle written in 1571–72, Durich Chiampell mentions that Romansh was still spoken in Chur roughly a hundred years before, but had since then rapidly given way to German and
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#17327973679637124-413: The 16th century, now began moving again as more and more villages shifted to German. One cause was the admission of Grisons as a Swiss canton, which brought Romansh-speakers into more frequent contact with German-speakers. Another factor was the increased power of the central government of the Grisons, which had always used German as its administrative language. In addition, many Romansh-speakers migrated to
7261-441: The 1830s and 1840s. Initially, these were merely translations of the German editions, but by the end of the 19th century teaching materials were introduced which took the local Romansh culture into consideration. Additionally, Romansh was introduced as a subject in teacher's college in 1860 and was recognized as an official language by the canton in 1880. Around the same time, grammar and spelling guidelines began to be developed for
7398-464: The 1940s with the aim of reintroducing Romansh to children. Although the Scoletas had some success – of the ten villages where Scoletas were established, the children began speaking Romansh amongst themselves in four, with the children in four others acquiring at least some knowledge of Romansh – the program ultimately failed to preserve the language in the valley. A key factor was the disinterest of
7535-408: The 19th century the area where the language was spoken declined due to the industrialization of Switzerland, but the Romansh speakers had a literary revival and started a language movement dedicated to halting the decline of their language . In the 2000 Swiss census, 35,095 people (of whom 27,038 live in the canton of the Grisons ) indicated Romansh as the language of "best command", and 61,815 as
7672-625: The 4th or 5th century, when more thoroughly Romanized Celts from farther north fled south to avoid invasions by Germanic tribes . The process was certainly complete and the pre-Roman languages extinct by the 5th–6th century, when Raetia became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom . Around 537 AD, the Ostrogoths handed over the province of Raetia Prima to the Frankish Empire , which continued to have local rulers administering
7809-522: The Central Romansh varieties do not share many unique features, but rather connect Sursilvan and Ladin through a succession of numerous small differences from one village to the next. The dialects of Romansh are not always mutually comprehensible. Speakers of Sursilvan and Ladin, in particular, are usually unable to understand each other initially. Because speakers usually identify themselves primarily with their regional dialect, many do not take
7946-591: The City Council, the members of the Municipal Council are not politicians by profession but are paid a fee based on their attendance. The legislative body holds its meetings in the town hall ( Rathaus ). Zurich is partnered with two sister cities : Kunming and San Francisco . Zurich is situated at 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level on the lower (northern) end of Lake Zurich ( Zürichsee ) about 30 km (19 mi) north of
8083-442: The City Council. Distribution of voter % in the election of 2022. The Municipal Council ( Gemeinderat ) holds the legislative power . It is made up of 125 members ( Gemeindrat / Gemeinderätin ), with elections held every four years. The Municipal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The sessions of the Municipal Council are held in public. Unlike those of
8220-649: The City Council. In the mandate period 2022–2026 ( Legislatur ) the City Council is presided by mayor Corine Mauch . The executive body holds its meetings in the City Hall ( German : Stadthaus ), on the left bank of the Limmat. The building was built in 1883 in Renaissance style. As of May 2023 , the Zurich City Council is made up of four representatives of the SP ( Social Democratic Party , one of whom
8357-461: The Galliae"), discovered at the Lindenhof . In the 5th century, the Germanic Alemanni tribe settled in the Swiss Plateau . The Roman castle remained standing until the 7th century. A Carolingian castle, built on the site of the Roman castle by the grandson of Charlemagne , Louis the German , is mentioned in 835 ( in Castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci ). Louis also founded the Fraumünster abbey in 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed
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#17327973679638494-615: The Gallo-Italic varieties of Northern Italy were more open to linguistic influences from the South . Linguists who take this position often point out that the similarities between the languages are comparatively few. This position was first introduced by the Italian dialectologist Carlo Battisti . This linguistic dispute became politically relevant for the Italian irredentist movement . Italian nationalists interpreted Battisti's hypothesis as implying that Romansh, Friulan, and Ladin were not separate Romance languages but rather Italian dialects . They used this hypothesis as an argument to claim
8631-501: The German-speaking north, especially as the ruling élite now comprised almost entirely speakers of German. At the time, Romansh was spoken over a much wider area, stretching north into the present-day cantons of Glarus and St. Gallen , to the Walensee in the northwest, and Rüthi and the Alpine Rhine Valley in the northeast. In the east, parts of modern-day Vorarlberg were Romansh-speaking, as were parts of Tyrol . The northern areas, called Lower Raetia, became German-speaking by
8768-585: The Grisons then took steps to strengthen the role of Rumantsch Grischun as an official language. Since the cantonal constitution explicitly named Sursilvan and Engadinese as the languages of ballots, a referendum was launched to amend the relevant article. In the referendum, which took place on June 10, 2001, 65% voted in favor of naming Rumantsch Grischun the only official Romansh variety of the Canton. Opponents of Rumantsch Grischun such as Renata Coray and Matthias Grünert argue, however, that if only those municipalities with at least 30% Romansh speakers were considered,
8905-436: The Limmat valley includes a range of hills, which marks the watershed between the Limmat and the Glatt. From the northwest to the southeast, the height of the mostly wooded knolls generally increases: the Gubrist (615 m or 2,018 ft), the Hönggerberg (541 m or 1,775 ft), the Käferberg (571 m or 1,873 ft), the Zürichberg (676 m or 2,218 ft), the Adlisberg (701 m or 2,300 ft) and
9042-437: The Limmat valley is flanked by the wooded heights of the Albis chain, which runs along the western border. The Uetliberg is, with 869 m (2,851 ft) above sea level, the highest elevation of the surrounding area. Its summit can be reached easily by the Uetlibergbahn . From the platform of the observation tower on the summit, an impressive panorama of the city, the lake, and the Alps can be seen. The northeast side of
9179-408: The Municipal Council are carried out by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. The mayor ( German : Stadtpräsident(in) ) is elected as such by a public election by a system of Majorz while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. Any resident of Zurich allowed to vote can be elected as a member of
9316-416: The Protestants with its cultural center around Ilanz , and a Catholic variety with the Disentis Abbey as its center. The Engadine dialect was also written in two varieties: Putèr in the Upper Valley and Vallader in the Lower Valley. The Sutsilvan areas either used the Protestant variety of Sursilvan, or simply used German as their main written language. The Surmiran region began developing its own variety in
9453-451: The Rhenish varieties as in détg "said" or fatg "did", while developing into /t/ in Ladin ( dit and fat ). A feature separating Sursilvan from Central Romansh, however, involves the extent of palatalization of Latin /k/ in front of /a/, which is rare in Sursilvan but common in the other varieties: Sursilvan casa , Sutsilvan tgea , Surmiran tgesa , Putèr chesa , and Vallader chasa "house". Overall however,
9590-405: The Rhenish varieties from Ladin is the retention of the rounded front vowels / y / and / ø / (written ü and ö ) in Ladin, which have been unrounded in the other dialects, as in Ladin mür , Sursilvan mir , Surmiran meir "wall" or Ladin chaschöl to Rhenish caschiel "cheese". Another is the development of Latin -CT-, which has developed into /tɕ/ in
9727-446: The Romansh language. In 1863, the first of several attempts was made to found an association for all Romansh regions, which eventually led to the foundation of the Società Retorumantscha in 1885. In 1919, the Lia Rumantscha was founded to serve as an umbrella organization for the various regional language societies. Additionally, the role of Romansh in schooling was strengthened, with the first Romansh school books being published in
9864-538: The agricultural sector, which had been a traditional domain of Romansh, became less important. All this meant that knowledge of German became more and more of a necessity for Romansh speakers and that German became more and more a part of daily life. For the most part, German was seen not as a threat but rather as an important asset for communicating outside one's home region. The common people frequently demanded better access to learning German. When public schools began to appear, many municipalities decided to adopt German as
10001-755: The area and not the presence of a town that early). During the Middle Ages, Zurich gained the independent and privileged status of imperial immediacy and, in 1519, became a primary centre of the Protestant Reformation in Europe under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli . The official language of Zurich is German, but the main spoken language is Zurich German , the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. As one of Switzerland's primary financial centres, Zurich
10138-486: The authors themselves often mention the novelty of writing Romansh, and discuss an apparently common prejudice that Romansh was a language that could not be written. The first writing in the Sursilvan and Sutsilvan dialects appears in the 17th century. As in the Engadine, these early works usually focused on religious themes, in particular the struggles between Protestants and Counter-Reformers. Daniel Bonifaci produced
10275-651: The basis of serious conflicts that eventually led to the outbreak of the Wars of Kappel . During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Council of Zurich adopted an isolationist attitude, resulting in a second ring of imposing fortifications built in 1624. The Thirty Years' War which raged across Europe motivated the city to build these walls. The fortifications required a lot of resources, which were taken from subject territories without reaching any agreement. The following revolts were crushed brutally. In 1648, Zurich proclaimed itself
10412-464: The canton, consists of a divided field featuring white (argent) and blue (azure). Its origins date back to the 14th century, with the earliest documentation found on a seal of the Imperial Court of Justice from 1384. The shield appeared in colour on a banner in 1437 and a coin around 1417/18. When the canton of Zurich was established in 1803, it adopted the heraldic achievement that had been
10549-578: The city name is written Zürich and pronounced [ˈtsyːrɪç] . In the local dialect , the name is pronounced without the final consonant and with two short vowels, as Züri [ˈtsyri] , although the adjective remains Zürcher(in) . The city is called Zurich [zyʁik] in French, Zurigo [dzuˈriːɡo] in Italian, and Turitg [tuˈritɕ] in Romansh . The earliest known form of
10686-530: The city of Zurich (before 1893) were more or less synonymous with the location of the old town. Two large expansions of the city limits occurred in 1893 and in 1934 when the city of Zürich merged with many surrounding municipalities, that had been growing increasingly together since the 19th century. Today, the city is divided into twelve districts (known as Kreis in German), numbered 1 to 12, each one of which contains between one and four neighborhoods: Most of
10823-520: The city's hegemony . The Treaty of Zurich between Austria, France, and Sardinia was signed in 1859. Zurich was the Federal capital for 1839–40, and consequently, the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zurich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845–46, Zurich took the lead in opposing
10960-424: The city's for centuries, and a new version was created for the city by adding a mural crown as a crest . There are slight differences between the supporters of the city and the canton, too: Both have their coats of arms supported by two lions, but the lions of the canton hold a sword and a palm leaf (which belonged to the city before the canton came into existence; see pictures below). The previous boundaries of
11097-537: The city's name is Turicum , attested on a tombstone of the late 2nd century AD in the form STA(tio) TURICEN(sis) ("Turicum customs post"). The name is interpreted as a derivation from a given name, possibly the Gaulish personal name Tūros . The toponym * Turīcon would then mean "belonging to Tūros", "place of Tūros". The Latin stress on the long vowel of the Gaulish name, [tʊˈriːkõː] ,
11234-444: The dialect shares many features with the neighboring Putèr dialect of Romansh. As these varieties form a continuum with small transitions from each village to the next, there is no straightforward internal grouping of the Romansh dialects. The Romansh language area can be described best as consisting of two widely divergent varieties, Sursilvan in the west and the dialects of the Engadine in the east, with Sutsilvan and Surmiran forming
11371-503: The district boundaries are fairly similar to the original boundaries of the previously existing municipalities before they were incorporated into the city of Zurich The City Council ( Stadtrat ) constitutes the executive government of the City of Zurich and operates as a collegiate authority . It is composed of nine councilors, each presiding over a department. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by
11508-628: The early 14th century was the completion of the Manesse Codex , a key source of medieval German poetry. The famous illuminated manuscript – described as "the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries;" – was commissioned by the Manesse family of Zurich, copied and illustrated in the city at some time between 1304 and 1340. Producing such a work was a highly expensive prestige project, requiring several years of work by highly skilled scribes and miniature painters, and it testifies to
11645-456: The early 18th century, with a catechism being published in 1703, though either the Catholic variety of Sursilvan or Putèr was more commonly used there until the 20th century. In the 16th century, the language border between Romansh and German largely stabilized, and it remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century. During this period, only isolated areas became German-speaking, mainly
11782-404: The effort to attempt to understand unfamiliar dialects, and prefer to speak Swiss German with speakers of other varieties. A common Romansh identity is not widespread outside intellectual circles, even though this has been changing among the younger generation. Romansh originates from the spoken Latin brought to the region by Roman soldiers, merchants, and officials following the conquest of
11919-414: The elite had been German-speaking for centuries, so that German was associated with power and education, even though most people did not speak it, whereas Romansh was associated with peasant life. In the Engadine and the Surselva by contrast, the elite was itself Romansh-speaking, so that Romansh there was "not only the language spoken to children and cows, but also that of the village notable, the priest, and
12056-518: The exception of Präz , where the Scoleta remained open until 1979. In other areas, such as the Engadine and the Surselva, where the pressure of German was equally strong, Romansh was maintained much better and remained a commonly spoken language. According to the linguist Mathias Kundert, one important factor was the different social prestige of Romansh. In the Heinzenberg and Domleschg valleys,
12193-571: The extinction of the main line of the Zähringer family and attained a status comparable to statehood. During the 1230s, a city wall was built, enclosing 38 hectares, when the earliest stone houses on the Rennweg were built as well. The Carolingian castle was used as a quarry, as it had started to fall into ruin. Emperor Frederick II promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of
12330-535: The fall of the Ancien Régime . Zurich lost control of the land and its economic privileges, and the city and the canton separated their possessions between 1803 and 1805. In 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its urban subjects, following the Züriputsch of 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th century were torn down, without ever having been besieged, to allay rural concerns over
12467-507: The first surviving work in this category, the catechism Curt mussameint dels principals punctgs della Christianevla Religiun , published in 1601 in the Sutsilvan dialect. A second edition, published in 1615, is closer to Sursilvan, however, and writings in Sutsilvan do not appear again until the 20th century. In 1611, Igl Vêr Sulaz da pievel giuvan ("The true joys of young people"), a series of religious instructions for Protestant youths,
12604-570: The four praetorian prefectures of the Roman Empire) was located east of Turicum, crossing the river Linth between Lake Walen and Lake Zurich where a castle and garrison looked over Turicum's safety. The earliest written record of the town dates from the 2nd century, with a tombstone referring to it as the Statio Turicensis Quadragesima Galliarum ("Zurich post for collecting the 2.5% value tax of
12741-424: The increasing wealth and pride of Zurich citizens in this period. The work contains 6 songs by Süsskind von Trimberg , who may have been a Jew, since the work itself contains reflections on medieval Jewish life, though little is known about him. The first mention of Jews in Zurich was in 1273. Sources show that there was a synagogue in Zurich in the 13th century, implying the existence of a Jewish community. With
12878-446: The language much more than Italian has. Romansh comprises a group of closely related dialects , which are most commonly divided into five different varieties, each of which has developed a standardized form. These regional standards are referred to as idioms in Romansh to distinguish them from the local vernaculars, which are referred to as dialects . These dialects form a dialect continuum without clear-cut divisions. Historically
13015-476: The language was maintained to a much greater extent. In the Central Grisons, by contrast, German had been a central part of schooling since the beginning, and virtually all schools switched entirely to German as the language of instruction by 1900, with children in many schools being punished for speaking Romansh well into the 1930s. Early attempts to create a unified written language for Romansh include
13152-486: The larger cities, which were German-speaking, while speakers of German settled in Romansh villages. Moreover, economic changes meant that the Romansh-speaking villages, which had mostly been self-sufficient, engaged in more frequent commerce with German-speaking regions. Also, improvements in the infrastructure made travel and contact with other regions much easier than it had been. Finally, the rise of tourism made knowledge of German an economic necessity in many areas, while
13289-571: The logical result of which would be to abolish the regional varieties as languages of instruction. The cantonal parliament passed the measure in August 2003, even advancing the deadline to 2005. The decision was met by strong opposition, in particular in the Engadine, where teachers collected over 4,300 signatures opposing the measure, followed by a second petition signed by around 180 Romansh writers and cultural figures, including many who were supportive of Rumantsch Grischun but opposed its introduction as
13426-451: The medium of instruction, as in the case of Ilanz, where German became the language of schooling in 1833, when the town was still largely Romansh-speaking. Some people even welcomed the disappearance of Romansh, in particular among progressives. In their eyes, Romansh was an obstacle to the economic and intellectual development of the Romansh people. For instance, the priest Heinrich Bansi from Ardez wrote in 1797: "The biggest obstacle to
13563-463: The modern-day Grisons area by the Romans in 15 BCE. Before that, the inhabitants spoke Celtic and Raetic languages, with Raetic apparently being spoken mainly in the Lower Engadine valley . Traces of these languages survive mainly in toponyms , including village names such as Tschlin , Scuol , Savognin , Glion , Breil/Brigels , Brienz/Brinzauls , Purtenza , and Trun . Additionally,
13700-426: The month March in 2014 was on the 20th at 20.6 °C (69.1 °F) during a sunny afternoon and the lowest temperature was on the 25th at −0.4 °C (31.3 °F) during the night/early morning. Record low of average daily temperatures in March since 1864 is −12 °C (10 °F) and record high of average daily temperatures in March is 16 °C (61 °F). Record low of average daily temperatures in October
13837-401: The moral and economical improvement of these regions is the language of the people, Ladin [...] The German language could certainly be introduced with ease into the Engadine, as soon as one could convince the people of the immense advantages of it". Others however, saw Romansh as an economic asset, since it gave the Romansh an advantage when learning other Romance languages. In 1807, for example,
13974-518: The municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership, and in 1893 the eleven outlying districts were incorporated within the town proper. When Jews began to settle in Zurich following their equality in 1862, the Israelitische Cultusgemeinde Zürich
14111-636: The municipality had 443,037 inhabitants, the urban area 1.315 million (2009), and the Zurich metropolitan area 1.83 million (2011). Zurich is a hub for railways, roads, and air traffic. Both Zurich Airport and Zurich's main railway station are the largest and busiest in the country. Permanently settled for over 2,000 years, Zurich was founded by the Romans , who called it Turicum . However, early settlements have been found dating back more than 6,400 years (although this only indicates human presence in
14248-423: The new standard language when addressing all Romansh-speaking areas of the Grisons. From the very start, Rumansh Grischun has been implemented only on the basis of a decision of the particular institutions. In 1986, the federal administration began to use Rumantsch Grischun for single texts. The same year, however, several influential figures began to criticize the introduction of Rumantsch Grischun. Donat Cadruvi, at
14385-602: The north, with the lower and rural classes retaining Romansh longer. In addition, beginning around 1270, the German-speaking Walser began settling in sparsely populated or uninhabited areas within the Romansh-speaking heartland. The Walser sometimes expanded into Romansh-speaking areas from their original settlements, which then often became German-speaking, such as Davos , Schanfigg , the Prättigau , Schams , and Valendas , which became German-speaking by
14522-465: The parents, whose main motivation for sending their children to the Scoletas appears to have been that they were looked after for a few hours and given a meal every day, rather than an interest in preserving Romansh. The other factor was that after entering primary school, the children received a few hours a week of Romansh instruction at best. As a result, the last Scoletas were closed in the 1960s with
14659-599: The personal pronoun jau "I", i.e. "the jau -sayers"). Less commonly distinguished is the dialect of Tujetsch and the Val Medel , which is markedly different from Sursilvan and is referred to as Tuatschin . Additionally, the standardized variety Rumantsch Grischun , intended for pan-regional use, was introduced in 1982. The dialect of the Val Bregaglia is usually considered a variety of Lombard , and speakers use Italian as their written language, even though
14796-417: The priest Mattli Conrad wrote an article listing the advantages and disadvantages of Romansh: The Romansh language is an immense advantage in learning so much more rapidly the languages derived from Latin of France, Italy, Spain etc, as can be seen with the Romansh youth, which travels to these countries and learns their language with ease. [...] We live in between an Italian and a German people. How practical
14933-417: The proponents of Rumantsch Grischun to Nazi thugs raiding a Romansh village and desecrating, destroying, and burning the Romansh cultural heritage. The proponents responded by labeling the opponents as a small group of archconservative and narrow-minded Sursilvans and CVP politicians among other things. The debate was characterized by a heavy use of metaphors, with opponents describing Rumantsch Grischun as
15070-514: The referendum would have been rejected by 51%, with an even larger margin if only those with at least 50% Romansh speakers were considered. They thus interpret the results as the Romansh minority having been overruled by the German-speaking majority of the canton. A major change in policy came in 2003, when the cantonal government proposed a number of spending cuts, including a proposal according to which new Romansh teaching materials would not be published except in Rumantsch Grischun from 2006 onwards,
15207-511: The regional varieties could continue to be used when addressing a single region or municipality. In schools, Rumantsch Grischun was not to replace the regional dialects but only be taught passively. The compromise was largely accepted by both sides. A further recommendation in 1999, known as the "Haltinger concept", also proposed that the regional varieties should remain the basis of the Romansh schools, with Rumantsch Grischun being introduced in middle school and secondary school. The government of
15344-570: The regional written dialects. One of the earliest was the Ortografia et ortoëpia del idiom romauntsch d'Engiadin'ota by Zaccaria Pallioppi , published in 1857. For Sursilvan, a first attempt to standardize the written language was the Ortografia gienerala, speculativa ramontscha by Baseli Carigiet, published in 1858, followed by a Sursilvan-German dictionary in 1882, and the Normas ortografias by Giachen Caspar Muoth in 1888. Neither of these guidelines managed to gather much support however. At
15481-459: The rise of the Black Death in 1349, Zurich, like most other Swiss cities, responded by persecuting and burning the local Jews , marking the end of the first Jewish community there. The second Jewish community of Zurich formed towards the end of the 14th century, was short-lived, and Jews were expulsed and banned from the city from 1423 until the 19th century. A woman who died in about 200 BC
15618-602: The river issues from Lake Zurich. Today the incorporated city stretches somewhat beyond the natural confines of the hills and includes some districts to the northeast in the Glatt Valley ( Glattal ) and to the north in the Limmat Valley ( Limmattal ). The boundaries of the older city are easy to recognize by the Schanzengraben canal. This artificial watercourse has been used for the construction of
15755-507: The same time, the Canton published school books in its own variety. Sursilvan was then definitely standardized through the works of Gion Cahannes , who published Grammatica Romontscha per Surselva e Sutselva in 1924, followed by Entruidament devart nossa ortografia in 1927. The Surmiran dialect had its own norms established in 1903, when the Canton agreed to finance the school book Codesch da lectura per las scolas primaras de Surmeir , though
15892-408: The similarity, he mixes them so easily with his own bastardized language. [...] in any case, the conveniences named should hold no weight against all the disadvantages that come from such an isolated and uneducated language. According to Mathias Kundert, this quote is a good example of the attitude of many German-speakers towards Romansh at the time. According to Mathias Kundert, while there was never
16029-406: The slope of the Zürichberg, 150 m[490 ft] above the level of the city centre) is 9.3 °C (48.7 °F). The lowest monthly mean of daily minimum temperature are measured in January with −2.0 °C (28.4 °F) and the highest monthly mean of daily maximum temperature are measured in July with 24.0 °C (75.2 °F). On average there are 74.9 days in which the minimum temperature
16166-516: The so-called Duchy of Chur . However, after the death of the last Victorid ruler, Bishop Tello , around 765 AD, Charlemagne assigned a Germanic duke to administer the region. Additionally, the Diocese of Chur was transferred by the (pre- Schism ) Roman Catholic Church from the Archdiocese of Milan to the Diocese of Mainz in 843 AD. The combined effect was a cultural reorientation towards
16303-467: The teacher." Additionally, Romansh schools had been common for several years before German had become a necessity, so that Romansh was firmly established as a medium of education. Likewise, in the Upper Engadine, where factors such as increased mobility and immigration by German speakers were even stronger, Romansh was more firmly established as a language of education and administration, so that
16440-479: The territories for Italy where these languages were spoken. From a sociolinguistic perspective, however, this question is largely irrelevant. The speakers of Romansh have always identified as speaking a language distinct from both Italian and other Romance varieties. Furthermore, unlike Friulian, Ladin, or Lombard , Romansh is located north of the German-Italian linguistic border, and German has influenced
16577-474: The then secretary of the Lia Rumantscha, a sociolinguist named Bernard Cathomas [ de ] , launched a project for designing a pan-regional variety. The linguist Heinrich Schmid presented to the Lia Rumantscha the same year the rules and directives for this standard language under the name Rumantsch Grischun (Rumantsch Grischun: rumantsch grischun ). Schmid's approach consisted of creating
16714-499: The time the president of the cantonal government, claimed that the Lia Rumantscha was trying to force the issue. Romansh writer Theo Candinas also called for a public debate on the issue, calling Rumantsch Grischun a "plague" and "death blow" to Romansh and its introduction a "Romansh Kristallnacht", thus launching a highly emotional and bitter debate which would continue for several years. The following year, Candinas published another article titled Rubadurs Garmadis in which he compared
16851-572: The titles survive for many of them. Another early writer, Giachem Bifrun , who also wrote in Putèr, penned the first printed book in Romansh, a catechism published in 1552. In 1560 he published a translation of the New Testament : L'g Nuof Sainc Testamaint da nos Signer Jesu Christ . Two years later, in 1562, another writer from the Engadine, Durich Chiampel , published the Cudesch da Psalms ,
16988-473: The turn of the century, the inner Heinzenberg and Cazis became German-speaking, followed by Rothenbrunnen , Rodels , Almens , and Pratval , splitting the Romansh area into two geographically non-connected parts. In the 1920s and 1930s the rest of the villages in the valley became mainly German-speaking, sealing the split. In order to halt the decline of Romansh, the Lia Rumantscha began establishing Romansh day care schools, called Scoletas , beginning in
17125-566: The various Romansh-speaking regions would still have developed their own separate written standards. Instead, several regional written varieties of Romansh began appearing during the 16th century. Gian Travers wrote the first surviving work in Romansh, the Chianzun dalla guerra dagl Chiaste da Müs , in the Putèr dialect. This epic poem, written in 1527, describes the first Musso war , in which Travers himself had taken part. Travers also translated numerous biblical plays into Romansh, though only
17262-490: The victor in 20 of them, including one against Ivan Lendl in 1981, when the Czech retired hurt in a first set tiebreak. He was unbeaten in his three doubles matches. Zurich Zurich (German: Zürich ; Alemannic German : Züri ) is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich . It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich . As of January 2023 ,
17399-603: The woman. On 1 May 1351, the citizens of Zurich had to swear allegiance before representatives of the cantons of Lucerne , Schwyz , Uri and Unterwalden , the other members of the Swiss Confederacy . Thus, Zurich became the fifth member of the Confederacy, which was at that time a loose confederation of de facto independent states . Zurich was the presiding canton of the Diet from 1468 to 1519. This authority
17536-457: The year. Roughly about every third day you will encounter at least some precipitation, which is very much a Swiss average. During the warmer half of the year and especially during the three summer months, the strength of rainfall is higher than those measured in winter, but the days with precipitation stays about the same throughout the year (in average 9.9–12.7 days per month). October has the lowest number (9.9) of days with some precipitation. There
17673-468: Was developed in 1944 by Giuseppe Gangale . Around 1880, the entire Romansh-speaking area still formed a continuous geographical unit. But by the end of the century, the so-called "Central-Grisons language bridge" began to disappear. From Thusis , which had become German-speaking in the 16th/17th century, the Heinzenberg and Domleschg valleys were gradually Germanized over the next decades. Around
17810-509: Was found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf, and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with
17947-599: Was founded. Extensive developments took place during the 19th century. From 1847, the Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn , the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zurich with Baden , putting the Zürich Hauptbahnhof at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof (the main railway station) dates to 1871. Zurich's Bahnhofstrasse (Station Street)
18084-495: Was laid out in 1867, and the Zurich Stock Exchange was founded in 1877. Industrialisation led to migration into the cities and to rapid population growth, particularly in the suburbs of Zurich. The Quaianlagen are an important milestone in the development of the modern city of Zurich, as the construction of the new lakefront transformed Zurich from a small medieval town on the rivers Limmat and Sihl to
18221-481: Was lost in German [ˈtsyːrɪç] but is preserved in Italian [dzuˈriːɡo] and in Romansh [tuˈritɕ] . The first development towards its later Germanic form is attested as early as c. 680–700 with the form Ziurichi . From the 9th century onward, the name is established in an Old High German form Zuri(c)h (857 in villa Zurih , 924 in Zurich curtem , 1416 Zürich Stadt ). In Neo-Latin texts dating from c. 1500–1800, Zurich
18358-530: Was now not much appreciated by the inhabitants of the city. Many linguists regard the loss of Chur to German as a crucial event. According to Sylvia Osswald, for example, it occurred precisely at a time when the introduction of the printing press could have led to the adoption of the Romansh dialect of the capital as a common written language for all Romansh speakers. Other linguists such as Jachen Curdin Arquint remain skeptical of this view, however, and assume that
18495-640: Was published by Steffan Gabriel . Four years later, in 1615, a Catholic catechism, Curt Mussament , was published in response, written by Gion Antoni Calvenzano . The first translation of the New Testament into Sursilvan was published in 1648 by the son of Steffan Gabriel, Luci Gabriel . The first complete translation of the Bible, the Bibla da Cuera , was published between 1717 and 1719. The Sursilvan dialect thus had two separate written varieties, one used by
18632-528: Was readmitted to the confederation in 1450. Zwingli started the Swiss Reformation at the time when he was the main preacher at the Grossmünster in 1519. The Zurich Bible was printed by Christoph Froschauer in 1531. The Reformation resulted in major changes in state matters and civil life in Zurich, spreading also to several other cantons. Several cantons remained Catholic and became
18769-465: Was the executive council and lawmaking body of the confederacy, from the Middle Ages until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848. Zurich was temporarily expelled from the confederacy in 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zurich War ). Neither side had attained significant victory when peace was agreed upon in 1446, and Zurich
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