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114-501: Romney Marsh is a sparsely populated wetland area in the counties of Kent and East Sussex in the south-east of England. It covers about 100 square miles (260 km). The Marsh has been in use for centuries, though its inhabitants commonly suffered from malaria until the 18th century. Due to its location, geography and isolation, it was important for smugglers between the 17th and 19th centuries. The area has long been used for sheep pasture: Romney Marsh sheep are considered one of

228-557: A drainage district are deemed to derive benefit from the activities of an IDB. Every property is therefore subject to a drainage rate paid annually to the IDB. For the purposes of rating, properties are divided into: Occupiers of all "other land" pay Council Tax or non-domestic rates to the local authority who then are charged by the board. This charge is called the "Special Levy". The board, therefore, only demands drainage rates direct on agricultural land and buildings. The basis of this

342-666: A recent publication by the Association of Drainage Authorities identified that 53% of the installed capacity (potential maximum power output) of major power stations in England and Wales are located within an IDB. Although of much reduced significance since the 1980s, many IDB districts in Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire lie in areas of coal reserves and drainage has been significantly affected by subsidence from mining. IDBs have played an important role in monitoring and mitigating

456-711: A sink or a source of carbon, depending on the specific wetland. If they function as a carbon sink, they can help with climate change mitigation . However, wetlands can also be a significant source of methane emissions due to anaerobic decomposition of soaked detritus , and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide . Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands in many ways, including oil and gas extraction , building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock , overfishing , alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution , and water pollution . Wetlands are more threatened by environmental degradation than any other ecosystem on Earth, according to

570-655: A 24-hour contact number and most extend office hours during severe emergencies. Associated with the powers to regulate activities that may impede drainage, IDBs provide comments to local planning authorities on developments in their district and when asked, make recommendations on measures required to manage flood risk and to provide adequate drainage. Internal drainage boards in England have responsibilities associated with 398 Sites of Special Scientific Interest plus other designated environmental areas, in coordination with Natural England . Slow flowing drainage channels such as those managed by IDBs can form an important habitat for

684-538: A distinct breed. Some cross-breeding with Leicester sheep took place at around that time, to improve their characteristics. They are dual-purpose animals, producing good meat and quality wool. They are particularly adapted to wet conditions, being resistant to foot rot, while their fleeces stay healthy in the harsh conditions found on the Marsh. They are also resistant to the liver fluke parasite. Their wool has fibres which are finer than all other breeds of longwool sheep, and

798-843: A diverse community of aquatic and emergent plants, invertebrates and higher organisms. IDB channels form one of the last refuges in the UK of the BAP registered spined loach (Cobitis Taenia), a small nocturnal bottom-feeding fish that have been recorded only in the lower parts of the Trent and Great Ouse catchments, and in some small rivers and drains in Lincolnshire and East Anglia. All IDBs are currently engaging with their own individual biodiversity action plans which will further enhance their environmental role. Many IDBs are involved with assisting major wetland biodiversity projects with organisations such as

912-402: A frequency and duration to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally included swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.' For each of these definitions and others, regardless of the purpose, hydrology is emphasized (shallow waters, water-logged soils). The soil characteristics and

1026-705: A higher level, the IDB may make an application to the Environment Agency for a contribution towards the expenses of dealing with that water. District drainage commissioners (DDCs) are internal drainage boards set up under local legislation rather than the Land Drainage Act 1991 and its predecessor legislation. The majority of the provisions of the Land Drainage Acts, do however, apply to such commissioners and they are statutory public bodies. The most important in terms of size and revenue

1140-457: A major importer of wine, was relocated on higher land, with a harbour consisting of 82 wharfs. Those same storms, however, helped to build up more shingle; such beaches now ran along practically the whole seaward side of the marshland. By the 14th century, much of the Walland and Denge Marshes had been reclaimed by "innings", the process of throwing up an embankment around the sea-marsh and using

1254-659: A medieval canal that brought water from higher up the river Rother . The main road is the A259 from Rye , which is narrow and winding to Brookland and Brenzett, where it splits in two. One arm becomes the A2070 and runs parallel to the railway to link the Marsh to Hamstreet , Ashford and the wider world. The other, still the A259, is good only as far as the junction with Lydd Lane (B2075) and leads to New Romney , Dymchurch , Hythe and eventually, Folkestone . The local bus routes on

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1368-564: A model complaints procedure for IDBs to operate. This move was aimed to increase the accountability of IDBs to the general public who have an interest in the way that IDBs are run and operate by providing an independent means of review. At this time Defra also revised and re-issued model statutory rules and procedures under which IDBs operate. There are 112 internal drainage boards in England as of 2018 covering 1.2 million hectares (9.7% of England's total land area) and areas around The Wash ,

1482-531: A multitude of land functions. As with any engineered structure it must be maintained in order to function at or near its design capacity. Annual or bi-annual vegetation clearance and periodic de-silting (dredging) of these rivers and watercourses is therefore an essential component of the whole life cycle of these watercourses. Accommodating sustainability within the design and maintenance process for lowland rivers and watercourses has to address three essential elements: Many IDBs are redesigning watercourses to create

1596-1259: A polar climate, wetland temperatures can be as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). Peatlands in arctic and subarctic regions insulate the permafrost , thus delaying or preventing its thawing during summer, as well as inducing its formation. The amount of precipitation a wetland receives varies widely according to its area. Wetlands in Wales , Scotland , and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm (59 in) per year. In some places in Southeast Asia , where heavy rains occur, they can receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in). In some drier regions, wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm (7.1 in) precipitation occurs each year. Temporal variation: Surface flow may occur in some segments, with subsurface flow in other segments. Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography , hydrology , vegetation , and other factors, including human involvement. Other important factors include fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial and salinity. When peat accumulates, bogs and fens arise. The most important factor producing wetlands

1710-540: A portion of the overall water cycle, which also includes atmospheric water (precipitation) and groundwater . Many wetlands are directly linked to groundwater and they can be a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands that have permeable substrates like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables have especially important roles in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. Substrates that are porous allow water to filter down through

1824-414: A protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and storm surges is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters. Internal drainage board An internal drainage board ( IDB )

1938-463: A series of violent storms broke through the coastal shingle banks, flooding significant areas and returning it to marsh, and destroying the harbour at New Romney . In 1287, water destroyed the port town of Old Winchelsea (now located some 2 mi (3 km) out in Rye bay), which had been endangered because of its proximity to the sea since at least 1236. Winchelsea, the third-largest port in England and

2052-582: A sister project to the White Cliffs Countryside Partnership. With the help of volunteers, it manages and maintains various sites across the Marsh. The non-profit organisation aims to care for the special landscape and wildlife of the Romney Marsh and Dungeness while encouraging people to enjoy and understand the countryside through volunteer work, guided walks, cycle rides, countryside events and children's activities. In

2166-422: A strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in coastal wetlands and in arid and semiarid regions with large precipitation deficits. Natural salinity is regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human activity. Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such as sulfur , phosphorus , carbon , and nitrogen are found within

2280-404: A substantial facility just outside Lydd, where a mock urban 'townscape' complete with full-size houses, streets, etc., provides an appropriate environment for counter-terrorism and civil disorder training. Some of the lost communities on the Marsh are instances of the modern decline of the rural communities; others occurred over the centuries. In 1348, for example, many villages were decimated by

2394-490: A two-stage or bermed channel. These have been extensively created in the Lindsey Marsh Drainage Board area of East Lincolnshire to accommodate the three elements of lowland watercourse sustainability. [REDACTED] Berms are created at or near to the normal retained water level in the system. It is sometimes replanted with vegetation removed from the watercourse prior to improvement works but

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2508-410: A unique kind of wetland where lush plant growth and slow decay of dead plants (under anoxic conditions) results in organic peat accumulating; bogs, fens, and mires are different names for peatlands. Variations of names for wetland systems: Some wetlands have localized names unique to a region such as the prairie potholes of North America's northern plain, pocosins , Carolina bays and baygalls of

2622-515: A wetland is "an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic and aerobic processes, which, in turn, forces the biota, particularly rooted plants, to adapt to flooding". Sometimes a precise legal definition of a wetland is required. The definition used for regulation by the United States government is: 'The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at

2736-422: A wetland system includes its plants ( flora ) and animals ( fauna ) and microbes (bacteria, fungi). The most important factor is the wetland's duration of flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity of the water or soils. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water, the geological material that it flows through and the nutrients discharged from organic matter in

2850-403: A wetland) affects hydro-periods (temporal fluctuations in water levels) by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland. Landscape characteristics control wetland hydrology and water chemistry. The O 2 and CO 2 concentrations of water depend upon temperature , atmospheric pressure and mixing with the air (from winds or water flows). Water chemistry within wetlands

2964-558: A whole. To replace these wetland ecosystem services , enormous amounts of money would need to be spent on water purification plants, dams, levees, and other hard infrastructure, and many of the services are impossible to replace. Floodplains and closed-depression wetlands can provide the functions of storage reservoirs and flood protection. The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major rivers downstream from their headwaters . "The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over

3078-594: A wide area, which reduces its depth and speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it does not run straight off the land into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream." Notable river systems that produce wide floodplains include the Nile River , the Niger river inland delta, the Zambezi River flood plain,

3192-519: Is a long-distance footpath which starts at Gravesend , Kent . It traces the coast as it was in Roman times as far as Hastings , East Sussex . It is 153 miles (246 km) long, and its route crosses the northern edge of the Marsh. The idea for the path was conceived in the 1970s and it was officially opened on 22 June 1980 by the Archbishop of Canterbury . Throughout its history, the proximity of

3306-404: Is a modelling tool developed through a Defra / Environment Agency research collaboration. IDBs use CES to estimate the seasonal variation of conveyance owing to vegetation growth and other physical parameters which they use to assess the impact of varying the timing of vegetation clearance operations. This is critical during the spring and early summer, the prime nesting season for aquatic birds,

3420-417: Is a type of operating authority which is established in areas of special drainage need in England and Wales with permissive powers to undertake work to secure clean water drainage and water level management within drainage districts . The area of an IDB is not determined by county or metropolitan council boundaries, but by water catchment areas within a given region. IDBs are geographically concentrated in

3534-440: Is determined by the pH , salinity , nutrients, conductivity , soil composition, hardness , and the sources of water. Water chemistry varies across landscapes and climatic regions. Wetlands are generally minerotrophic (waters contain dissolved materials from soils) with the exception of ombrotrophic bogs that are fed only by water from precipitation. Because bogs receive most of their water from precipitation and humidity from

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3648-633: Is either freshwater , brackish or saltwater . The main types of wetland are defined based on the dominant plants and the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation such as reeds , cattails and sedges . Swamps are dominated by woody vegetation such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees). Mangrove forest are wetlands with mangroves , halophytic woody plants that have evolved to tolerate salty water . Examples of wetlands classified by

3762-412: Is hydrology, or flooding . The duration of flooding or prolonged soil saturation by groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation . Other important factors include soil fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory , burial, and salinity. When peat from dead plants accumulates, bogs and fens develop. Wetland hydrology is associated with

3876-471: Is multiplied by the annual value to produce the amount of drainage rate due on each property. Under Section 141 of the Water Resources Act 1991 the Environment Agency may issue a precept to an IDB to recover a contribution that the agency considers fair towards their expenses. Under Section 57 of the Land Drainage Act 1991, in cases where a drainage district receives water from land at

3990-406: Is often left to re-colonise naturally. In all cases this additional part of the channel profile allows for enhanced environmental value to develop. The area created above the berm also provides additional flood storage capacity whilst the low level channel can be maintained in such a manner that design conveyance conditions are achieved and flood risk controlled. By widening the channel and the berm,

4104-435: Is particularly good for hand spinning. A flock book for the breed has been maintained since 1895. Romney sheep were exported around the world from the early 19th century onwards. The first flocks were sent to New Zealand, where they adapted to their new environment well, and are still the most prolific breed in the country. They have since been shipped to many parts of England, Australia, Patagonia , Canada, Brazil, Portugal,

4218-520: Is possible to find two or three lanes apparently leading to the same village. Many of these lanes are built on the remains of enclosures used to "in" the Marsh. There is a dramatic section near Brookland , where a lane linking the Woolpack pub to Lydd is perched 2 or 3 m above the surrounding farmland, on the "Hook" wall. The section of road between Brenzett and Lydd Lane end is built on the Rhee wall,

4332-640: Is still in place about a mile short of Dungeness. In the early 21st century, it is used to transfer spent fuel from the nuclear power plant. The Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway , a 15 in ( 381 mm )-gauge miniature railway and the only miniature railway in the British Isles ever to have been incorporated under the Light Railways Act 1896 , has been operating along the Romney Marsh coast since 1927. It runs for 13.75 miles (22.13 km) from Hythe to Dungeness. The Saxon Shore Way

4446-402: Is that each property has been allotted an "annual value" which were last revised in the early 1990s. The annual value is an amount equal to the yearly rent, or the rent that might be reasonably expected if let on a tenancy from year to year commencing 1 April 1988. The annual value remains the same from year to year. Each year the board lays a rate "in the £" to meet its estimated expenditure. This

4560-578: Is the Middle Level Commissioners . The majority of internal drainage boards are members of the Association of Drainage Authorities (ADA) their representative organisation. Through ADA the collective views of drainage authorities and other members involved in water level management are represented to government, regulators, other policy makers and stakeholders. At a European level ADA represents IDBs through EUWMA . In 2013 it

4674-451: Is the only place in the world where both crocodiles and alligators coexist. The saltwater crocodile inhabits estuaries and mangroves. Snapping turtles also inhabit wetlands. Birds , particularly waterfowl and waders use wetlands extensively. Mammals of wetlands include numerous small and medium-sized species such as voles , bats , muskrats and platypus in addition to large herbivorous and apex predator species such as

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4788-545: Is usually saturated with water". More precisely, wetlands are areas where "water covers the soil , or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season". A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain storm would not necessarily be considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands have unique characteristics: they are generally distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level and on

4902-522: The Black Death . The few survivors moved to other places. The villages, shown below with the modern Ordnance Survey map information on Sheet 189, were: The flat, almost empty landscape and numerous waterways created an ideal environment for smuggling from the 17th until the early 19th century. The traffic was two-way, since wool was smuggled from this area to the Continent. The main gangs on

5016-671: The Broads , Fens in East Anglia and Lincolnshire , Somerset Levels and Yorkshire . In comparison with public bodies in other countries, IDBs are most similar to the Waterschappen of the Netherlands , Consorzi di bonifica e irrigazione of Italy , wateringen of Flanders and Northern France, Watershed Districts of Minnesota , United States and Marsh Bodies of Nova Scotia , Canada. Much of their work involves

5130-546: The Cinque Ports . The Romney Marsh has been gradually built up over the centuries. The most significant feature of the Marsh is the Rhee Wall (Rhee is a word for river), forming a prominent ridge. This feature was extended as a waterway in three stages from Appledore to New Romney in the 13th century. Sluices controlled the flow of water, which was then released to flush silt from the harbour at New Romney. Ultimately,

5244-523: The Falkland Islands and the United States. However, for Downland sheep that were often taken to the marshes to be fattened before sale, 19th-century reports suggest the Romney pastures were highly likely to result in the animals becoming ill with liver fluke and thus their meat becoming contaminated. Whitlaw suggests that this was probably due to the cultivation of buttercups in the region during

5358-767: The Lincolnshire Coast, the lower reaches of the Trent and the Yorkshire Ouse , the Somerset Levels and the Fens have concentrations of adjacent IDBs covering broad areas of lowland. In other parts of the country IDBs stretch in narrow ‘fingers’ up river valleys, separated by less low-lying areas, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk , Sussex , Kent , West Yorkshire , Herefordshire / Shropshire and

5472-568: The Mapp and Lucia novels; Russell Thorndike , author of the Doctor Syn novels; and the children's writer Monica Edwards , author of Romney Marsh books. She changed the name of Rye Harbour to "Westling", Rye is renamed "Dunsford", and Winchelsea is known as "Winklesea". Rosemary Sutcliff 's 1955 historical novel Outcast depicts Roman efforts to build the Rhee Wall and reclaim land from

5586-505: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005. Methods exist for assessing wetland ecological health . These methods have contributed to wetland conservation by raising public awareness of the functions that wetlands can provide. Since 1971, work under an international treaty seeks to identify and protect " wetlands of international importance ." A simplified definition of wetland is "an area of land that

5700-688: The Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta. Wetlands contribute many ecosystem services that benefit people. These include for example water purification , stabilization of shorelines, storm protection and flood control . In addition, wetlands also process and condense carbon (in processes called carbon fixation and sequestration ), and other nutrients and water pollutants . Wetlands can act as

5814-668: The RSPB , National Trust and the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust . Many smaller conservation projects are co-ordinated with Wildlife Trusts and local authorities. Current projects include: The Great Fen Project (Middle Level Commissioners), Newport Wetlands Reserve (Caldicot and Wentlooge Levels IDB) and WWT Welney (MLC). Middle Level Commissioners launched a three-year Otter Recovery Project in December 2007. It will build 33 otter holts and 15 other habitat areas. All properties within

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5928-775: The River Rother and the River Brede . Martello towers are fortifications that were built by the British Army for coastal defence during the early nineteenth century and the Napoleonic Wars . Seventy-four towers were built along the south coast; Tower 1 was at Folkestone, overlooking the harbour, and Tower 74 guarded the beach at Seaford in East Sussex . Six were built in pairs in Dymchurch to protect

6042-590: The Romney Marshes Area IDB . Romney Marsh is adjacent to the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , which is less developed than many other areas in Kent and Sussex. The decline in sheep prices meant that even the local stock (sold around the world for breeding for over two centuries) became unsustainable. Turfing had always been a lesser practice due to the grassland kept short by

6156-444: The atmosphere , their water usually has low mineral ionic composition. In contrast, wetlands fed by groundwater or tides have a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients and minerals. Fen peatlands receive water both from precipitation and ground water in varying amounts so their water chemistry ranges from acidic with low levels of dissolved minerals to alkaline with high accumulation of calcium and magnesium . Salinity has

6270-576: The beavers , coypu , swamp rabbit , Florida panther , jaguar , and moose . Wetlands attract many mammals due to abundant seeds, berries, and other vegetation as food for herbivores, as well as abundant populations of invertebrates, small reptiles and amphibians as prey for predators. Invertebrates of wetlands include aquatic insects such as dragonflies , aquatic bugs and beetles , midges, mosquitos , crustaceans such as crabs, crayfish, shrimps, microcrustaceans, mollusks like clams, mussels, snails and worms. Invertebrates comprise more than half of

6384-453: The 1830s. In the 18th and 19th centuries, men known as lookers were hired to look after the large flocks of sheep in the expanses of Romney Marsh. The lookers' huts were their temporary accommodation and store for tools. A hut was about 10 feet (3.0 m) square with a tiled roof and a chimney, a small window and a fireplace. The hut was particularly important at lambing time: the looker's family would regularly visit him, bringing supplies for

6498-461: The 18th-century Sussex smugglers. According to Norman Wright's book The Famous Five: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know , Rye's history inspired Enid Blyton when she wrote Five Go to Smuggler's Top. The 1947 British historical drama film The Loves of Joanna Godden , based on the novel by Sheila Kaye-Smith and directed by Charles Frend , is set in Romney Marsh. The 1963 a three-part television series entitled The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh,

6612-485: The English Channel. They were important for both trade and defence. Romney and Hythe were two of the ports within the Romney Marsh; Rye and Winchelsea were later added as "Antient Towns". Rye replaced Romney as one of the main five when Romney's port was silted in. The Royal Military Canal stretches for 28 miles hugging the old cliff line that borders the Romney Marsh from Hythe in the north east to Cliff End in

6726-519: The Marsh Link Line is the Ashford to Hastings line, with stations at Hamstreet , Appledore , Rye , and Winchelsea . The one-time branch to New Romney from Appledore (its small offshoot to Dungeness closed in 1937) was closed to passenger traffic in 1967. It was possible to travel directly from Dungeness to London, and the 2-hr journey time was quicker than by road and rail today. The line

6840-497: The Marsh are operated by Stagecoach in East Kent and link it to Ashford, Canterbury , Dover , Folkestone, Hastings , Northiam and Tenterden . National Cycle Route 2 passes through the area; the section between Rye and Lydd is mostly off-road. From Lydd to Hythe, it uses quiet lanes; from Hythe it is possible to cycle along the sea wall to Folkestone, and ultimately (off-road) to reach Dover. The main line railway known as

6954-539: The Marsh became the property of the Priory of Canterbury in the 9th century, when the lands owned by the double minster of Lyminge were transferred to Christ Church, Canterbury . Prior Wilbert granted a tenancy on their land in Misleham, now part of Brookland parish, to a man called Baldwin, sometime between 1155 and 1167, for "all their land in Misleham which lies in the Marsh, in so far as Baldwin can inclose it against

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7068-732: The Marsh were the Hawkhurst Gang , the Mayfield Gang, and the Aldington Gang , known also as "the Blues". Smugglers on the Marshes were known as Owlers . The name was rumoured to be derived from the owl-like sounds they used to communicate at night. Romney Marsh has been represented in a distinguished literary history. Three authors who specifically used the marsh as settings for their works were E. F. Benson , author of

7182-639: The Okavango River inland delta, the Kafue River flood plain, the Lake Bangweulu flood plain (Africa), Mississippi River (US), Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China), Danube River (Central Europe) and Murray-Darling River (Australia). Groundwater replenishment can be achieved for example by marsh , swamp , and subterranean karst and cave hydrological systems. The surface water visibly seen in wetlands only represents

7296-707: The Pipe Line Under The Ocean. It was to pass under the English Channel, and was intended to supply fuel to the Allied forces that would be involved in Operation Overlord (the 1944 invasion of Normandy). There are two military establishments on the Marsh: the Hythe and Lydd Ranges . The latter has a large danger area marked on maps south of Lydd towards the sea. The Metropolitan Police also have

7410-544: The RSPB were concerned about possible detrimental effects of the wind farm on bird populations, as the location is close to a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a European Union Special Protection Area (SPA), because if provides habitat for large numbers of migratory birds . Bewick swans and shovellers spend the winter there, while there are large breeding populations of common terns , little terns and Mediterranean gulls . The enquiry concluded that

7524-871: The Romney Marsh sluices from potential invading French forces. One of these, Martello Tower No. 24 is closest to its original condition, and has its cannon. It is open to the public during the summer months. The towers were built between 1805 and 1808, when Napoleon was a threat. Prior to World War II, experiments to detect enemy aircraft with huge concrete acoustic mirrors were conducted at Greatstone . The large concrete mirrors were built between 1928 and 1930 as an early warning system in case of approaching German aircraft. While they could detect slow moving aircraft before they were visible, they were less effective as aircraft got faster, and operators struggled to distinguish between aeroplanes and seagoing ships. They were superseded by radar technology in 1935, and abandoned in 1939. Germany's Operation Sea Lion plan included crossing

7638-522: The Southeastern US, mallines of Argentina, Mediterranean seasonal ponds of Europe and California, turloughs of Ireland, billabongs of Australia, among many others. Wetlands are found throughout the world in different climates. Temperatures vary greatly depending on the location of the wetland. Many of the world's wetlands are in the temperate zones , midway between the North or South Poles and

7752-502: The US, the best known classifications are the Cowardin classification system and the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system. The Cowardin system includes five main types of wetlands: marine (ocean-associated), estuarine (mixed ocean- and river-associated), riverine (within river channels), lacustrine (lake-associated) and palustrine (inland nontidal habitats). Peatlands are

7866-610: The United States' commercial fish and shellfish stocks depend solely on estuaries to survive. Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders need both terrestrial and aquatic habitats in which to reproduce and feed. Because amphibians often inhabit depressional wetlands like prairie potholes and Carolina bays, the connectivity among these isolated wetlands is an important control of regional populations. While tadpoles feed on algae, adult frogs forage on insects. Frogs are sometimes used as an indicator of ecosystem health because their thin skin permits absorption of nutrients and toxins from

7980-414: The area had now been reclaimed from the sea. Today, shingle continues to be deposited in the harbour. As a result, all the original Cinque Ports of the Marsh are now far from the sea. Dungeness Point is still being added to (especially near Dungeness and Hythe ), though a daily operation is in place to counter the reshaping of the shingle banks, using boats to dredge and move the drifting shingle. Much of

8094-457: The battle was lost: the harbour silted up and New Romney declined in importance. The Rhee kept part of the old port open until the 15th century. The wall at Dymchurch was built around the same time: storms had breached the shingle barrier, which had protected it until that time. It is a common misconception that both these structures were built by the Romans. In 1250 and in the following years,

8208-475: The berm can be safely used as access for machinery carrying out channel maintenance. While in-channel habitat that develops can be retained for a much longer period during the summer months, flood storage is provided for rare or extreme events and a buffer zone between the channel and any adjacent land use is created. The timing of vegetation clearance works is essential to striking a sustainable balance in lowland watercourses. The Conveyance Estimating System (CES)

8322-575: The breeding season for many protected mammal species such as water voles and the season when many rare species of plant life flower and seed. Many IDBs have developed vegetation control strategies in co-ordination with Natural England . 111 IDB districts require pumping to some degree for water level management and 79 are purely gravity boards (where no pumping is required). 53 IDBs have more than 95% of their area dependent on pumping. This means in England some 635,722 hectares (2,454.54 sq mi) of land in IDB districts rely on pumping, almost 51% of

8436-537: The district (for instance the Middle Level Commissioners are also a navigation authority). IDBs are responsible to Defra from whom all legislation/regulations affecting them are issued. The work of an IDB is closely linked with that of the Environment Agency which has a range of functions providing a supervisory role over them. Defra brought IDBs under the jurisdiction of the Local Government Ombudsman (LGO) from 1 April 2004, and introduced

8550-583: The effects of this activity and have worked in close collaboration with the coal companies and the Coal Authority. The fundamental role of an internal drainage board is to manage the water level within its district. The majority of lowland rivers and watercourses have been heavily modified by man or are totally artificial channels. All are engineered structures designed and constructed for the primary function of conveying surplus run-off to their outfall efficiently and safely, managing water levels to sustain

8664-541: The end of the Last Glacial Period , around or before the time of the Roman occupation. The strain responsible was most probably Plasmodium vivax , as records and texts describe agues or fevers at three or four-day intervals. Prior Anselm , of nearby Canterbury, recorded in the 1070s and 1080s a case that had every appearance of malaria. Although five indigenous mosquito species are capable of being hosts for

8778-634: The equator. In these zones, summers are warm and winters are cold, but temperatures are not extreme. In subtropical zone wetlands, such as along the Gulf of Mexico , average temperatures might be 11 °C (52 °F). Wetlands in the tropics are subjected to much higher temperatures for a large portion of the year. Temperatures for wetlands on the Arabian Peninsula can exceed 50 °C (122 °F) and these habitats would therefore be subject to rapid evaporation. In northeastern Siberia , which has

8892-469: The flat marsh during an invasion across the English Channel . The government planned to flood the area to prevent troops and equipment from crossing the area. Thousands of concrete pillboxes were built in Kent; 6,500 of the crumbling structures remain standing to this day. The ancient Royal Military Canal was well guarded with troops, pillboxes and barbed wire. Training was provided in the area for

9006-504: The following areas: According to the Ramsar Convention: The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them to 'more valuable' intensive land use – particularly as the profits from unsustainable use often go to relatively few individuals or corporations, rather than being shared by society as

9120-468: The interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems, making them inherently different from each other, yet highly dependent on both." In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty , wetlands are defined as follows: An ecological definition of

9234-782: The internal drainage board for one internal drainage district in East Sussex. In Wales internal drainage districts are managed by Natural Resources Wales . Internal drainage districts in England Key to abbreviations: IDB = internal drainage board IDD = internal drainage district (Environment Agency administered) WLMB = water level management board WMB = water management board IDBs have an important role in reducing flood risk through management of water levels and drainage in their districts. The water level management activities of internal drainage boards cover 1.2 million hectares of England which represents 9.7% of

9348-462: The known animal species in wetlands, and are considered the primary food web link between plants and higher animals (such as fish and birds). Depending on a wetland's geographic and topographic location, the functions it performs can support multiple ecosystem services , values, or benefits. United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be of biosphere significance and societal importance in

9462-534: The low-tide to let it run dry by means of one-way drains set into the new seawall, running off into a network of dykes called locally "sewers". In 1462, the Romney Marsh Corporation was established to install drainage and sea defences for the marsh, which it continued to build into the 16th century. By that time, the course of the Rother had been changed to its channel today; most of the remainder of

9576-484: The maintenance of rivers, drainage channels ( rhynes ), ordinary watercourses , pumping stations and other critical infrastructure , facilitating drainage of new developments, the ecological conservation and enhancement of watercourses , monitoring and advising on planning applications and making sure that any development is carried out in line with legislation ( NPPF ). IDBs are not responsible for watercourses designated as main rivers within their drainage districts ;

9690-489: The malarial parasite, only the Anopheles atroparvus species breeds in sufficient numbers here to act as an efficient vector. However, P. vivax likes brackish waters and, with the recreation of the old coastal wetlands coming into favour, this could expand the future malarial parasite host reserve. Together with the average temperatures in England increasing due to climate change, English malaria may become re-established in

9804-460: The marsh to the European mainland meant that this area was in the front line whenever invasion threatened. In AD 892, one such invasion was successful. The Danish fleet of 250 ships sailed right into the Rother and took the fortress at Appledore (allegedly built by King Arthur ), which they destroyed. The importance of the Cinque Ports was in their strategic location at the narrowest part of

9918-408: The marshes. Roads across the Marsh have always been narrow and winding. This is partly because of the hundreds of sewers and smaller drainage ditches, and because the grazing land is far more important than the roads. The lack of road signs and few villages can make navigating across the marsh very confusing for outsiders. Several minor roads have no finger posts at junctions at all and at others, it

10032-478: The most successful and important sheep breeds. Featuring numerous waterways, and with some areas lying below sea level, the Marsh has over time sustained a gradual level of reclamation, both through natural causes and by human intervention. An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward had a population of 2,358 at the 2011 census. Romney Marsh is flat and low-lying, with parts below sea level. It consists of several areas: The River Rother today flows into

10146-464: The northern Vale of York . The largest IDB (Lindsey Marsh DB) covers 52,757 hectares and the smallest (Cawdle Fen IDB) 181 hectares. 24 of the county councils in England include one or more IDB in their area as do six metropolitan districts , and 109 unitary authorities or district councils . The Association of Drainage Authorities holds a definitive record of all IDBs within England and Wales and their boundaries. The Environment Agency acts as

10260-474: The past, people who lived in the marsh frequently suffered from malaria , then known as ague or marsh fever , which caused high mortality rates until the 1730s. It remained a major problem until the completion of the Royal Military Canal in 1806, which greatly improved the drainage of the area. This disease probably arrived here with mosquitoes as soon as the weather became warm enough after

10374-837: The plants and animals controlled by the wetland hydrology are often additional components of the definitions. Wetlands can be tidal (inundated by tides) or non-tidal. The water in wetlands is either freshwater , brackish , saline , or alkaline . There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh , swamp , bog , and fen (bogs and fens being types of peatlands or mires ). Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types. Sub-types include mangrove forests , carrs , pocosins , floodplains , peatlands, vernal pools , sinks , and many others. The following three groups are used within Australia to classify wetland by type: Marine and coastal zone wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. In

10488-414: The project would not adversely affect the conservation areas, and the two organisations entered into a formal agreement with Npower Renewables to monitor and manage the area, with Npower funding the programme. Sheep have formed an important part of the economy of Romney Marsh for over 700 years. Romney Marsh sheep were bred from European white face, long-tailed sheep, but by 1800 they were considered to be

10602-701: The rise and fall of a smuggling gang leader in Deal, Kent , a notorious smuggling town further down the coast. Many other well-known writers have been associated with the area: Henry James lived in Rye; Daphne du Maurier lived in Hythe for a few years during World War II; H. G. Wells , Joseph Conrad , Ford Madox Ford , Stephen Crane , Radclyffe Hall , Noël Coward , Edith Nesbit , Rumer Godden , Malcolm Saville , and Conrad Aiken also lived in marsh towns. Conrad's daughter, Joan Aiken , set her children's book, Cold Shoulder Road, in Romney Marsh. Rudyard Kipling and his poem, "A Smugglers' Song", are also associated with

10716-471: The sea below Rye , but until 1287 its mouth lay between Romney and Lydd . It was tidal far upstream, almost to Bodiam . The river mouth was wide with a huge lagoon , making Rye a port at its western end. That lagoon lay behind a large island, which now makes up a large part of the Denge Marsh, on which stood the ports of Lydd and the old Winchelsea . All these ports were affiliated to (as "limbs" of)

10830-402: The sea"; Baldwin's Sewer (drainage ditch) remains in use. The marsh has since become covered by a dense network of drainage ditches that once supported large farming communities. These watercourses have been maintained and managed by internal drainage boards (IDBs) for sustainable water levels since the 1930s. In April 2001, the five drainage boards responsible for the marsh amalgamated to form

10944-525: The sea. A fictitious Romney Marsh estate near Charbury is a key setting in The Eagle Has Flown (1991) by Jack Higgins , the quasi-sequel to The Eagle Has Landed . Both are related to World War II. The latter novel was adapted as a successful motion picture starring Michael Caine . Modern-day novelist George Chittenden captures smuggling on the Kent coast in his highly praised debut children's novel, The Boy Who Led Them (2012). It follows

11058-474: The secret Auxiliary Units , men who would be deployed in case of an invasion. Four advanced landing ground airstrips were built on Romney Marsh in 1942, for use by fighters and light bombers; these were used for flights in 1944 against the German flying bombs . The miniature Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway was used by the government to run armoured trains during construction of Operation Pluto , known as

11172-425: The sheep reared upon it, but farms are increasing in size to compensate for the decline in sustainable livestock farming. Some view this as unsustainable due to the damage to soil ecology of the Marsh. The only other alternative, since 1946, has been for farmers to turn to arable farming, changing the landscape from a patchwork of small family farms to a few extensive arable production units. A 59.8 MW wind farm

11286-429: The soil and underlying rock into aquifers which are the source of much of the world's drinking water . Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is high. Mangroves , coral reefs , salt marsh can help with shoreline stabilization and storm protection. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide

11400-537: The soil of wetlands. Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with low pH and saline conductivity may reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with average salinity levels can be heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical processes in wetlands are determined by soils with low redox potential. The life forms of

11514-412: The soils and plants at higher elevations. Plants and animals may vary within a wetland seasonally or in response to flood regimes. There are four main groups of hydrophytes that are found in wetland systems throughout the world. Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach

11628-530: The sources of water include tidal wetlands , where the water source is ocean tides ); estuaries , water source is mixed tidal and river waters; floodplains , water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and bogs and vernal ponds , water source is rainfall or meltwater . The world's largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain ,

11742-598: The south west. It was conceived by Lt-Col Brown of the Royal Staff Corps of field engineers in 1804, the time of the Napoleonic Wars , as a way to ensure that an invasion by the French could not use the marsh as a bridgehead. John Rennie acted as consultant engineer, and the work was completed in April 1809. A military road was built on the inland side of the canal, which consisted of two parts, joined by sections of

11856-406: The spatial and temporal dispersion, flow, and physio-chemical attributes of surface and ground waters. Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are predominantly precipitation , surface water (saltwater or freshwater), and groundwater. Water flows out of wetlands by evapotranspiration , surface flows and tides , and subsurface water outflow. Hydrodynamics (the movement of water through and from

11970-661: The supervision of these watercourses is undertaken by the Environment Agency . The precursors to internal drainage boards date back to 1252; however, the majority of today's IDBs were established by the national government following the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 and today predominantly operate under the Land Drainage Act 1991 under which, an IDB is required to exercise a general supervision over all matters relating to water level management of land within its district. Some IDBs may also have other duties, powers and responsibilities under specific legislation for

12084-719: The surface of the water. When trees and shrubs comprise much of the plant cover in saturated soils, those areas in most cases are called swamps . The upland boundary of swamps is determined partly by water levels. This can be affected by dams Some swamps can be dominated by a single species, such as silver maple swamps around the Great Lakes . Others, like those of the Amazon basin , have large numbers of different tree species. Other examples include cypress ( Taxodium ) and mangrove swamps. Many species of fish are highly dependent on wetland ecosystems. Seventy-five percent of

12198-496: The surface. Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass . Floating water plants or floating vegetation are usually small, like those in the Lemnoideae subfamily (duckweeds). Emergent vegetation like the cattails ( Typha spp.), sedges ( Carex spp.) and arrow arum ( Peltandra virginica ) rise above

12312-464: The surrounding environment resulting in increased extinction rates in unfavorable and polluted environmental conditions. Reptiles such as snakes , lizards , turtles , alligators and crocodiles are common in wetlands of some regions. In freshwater wetlands of the Southeastern US, alligators are common and a freshwater species of crocodile occurs in South Florida. The Florida Everglades

12426-496: The total land area. Reducing the flood risk to ~600,000 people who live or work, and ~879,000 properties located in IDB districts. Whilst many thousands of people outside of these boundaries also derive reduced flood risk from IDB water level management activities. Several forms of critical infrastructure fall within IDB districts including; 56 major power stations (28%) are located within an Internal Drainage District, 68 other major industrial premises and 208 km of motorway. In fact

12540-569: The total. A new pumping station was commissioned in April 2011 by the Middle Level Commissioners at Wiggenhall St Germans, Norfolk. The station replaced its 73-year-old predecessor and is vital to the flood risk management of 700 km (270 sq mi) of surrounding Fenland and 20,000 residential properties. When running at full capacity, it is capable of draining five Olympic-size swimming pools every 2 minutes. During times of heavy rainfall and high river levels IDBs: An IDB's priorities during flooding are: Some IDBs are able to provide

12654-440: The types of plants that live within them. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants . A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil and hydrophytes . Wetlands have also been described as ecotones , providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. Wetlands exist "...at

12768-619: The week. There were 356 lookers' huts recorded in 1870; the practice of living out on the Marsh at certain times of the year was ending in the 1930s, and few are now left. A hut at Cold Harbour Farm near Brookland , built about 1900, is a Grade II listed building . There is a reconstructed hut at the Visitor Centre in Romney Warren Country Park . The Romney Marsh Countryside Partnership was set up in June 1996, as

12882-585: Was constructed by Npower Renewables at Little Cheyne Court, 7 kilometres (4.3 miles) west of Lydd and commissioned in March 2009. There were objections to the planned development from Kent County Council , Shepway District Council , English Nature and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), and so a public enquiry was held to consider the application and objections. English Nature and

12996-667: Was produced for the Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color TV series. It described the adventures of Dr. Syn . Parts of it were filmed at St Clement's Church in Old Romney, Romney Marsh. The three-part series was edited into a motion picture and released in the United Kingdom and subsequently Europe, Central America and South America. It debuted on American television in 1964. Wetland Wetlands exist on every continent , except Antarctica . The water in wetlands

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