151-517: Romney Marshes Area internal drainage board is the successor to a long line on organisations who have managed land drainage and flood defence on Romney Marsh in the counties of Kent and East Sussex in the south-east of England. Romney Marshes, along with The Fens and the Somerset Levels , is one of the three major areas of marshland in southern England. It covers some 100 square miles (260 km) of land, and stretches from Hythe in
302-467: A common ancestor, King Edward I of England . During his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine's lady-in-waiting . There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Henry Carey and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry but this has never been proven. King Henry never acknowledged them as he did in the case of Henry FitzRoy. In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine's inability to produce
453-621: A consequence, the King was excommunicated by Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year. In 1540, Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints. In 1542, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords . Consequently, the Lords Spiritual – as members of
604-399: A considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding his brother Arthur's marriage to Catherine , the youngest child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine . He was further honoured on 9 February 1506 by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , who made him a Knight of
755-569: A court, he never had any intention of empowering his legate, Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry's favour. This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Emperor Charles V, but it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope. After less than two months of hearing evidence, Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529, from which it was clear that it would never re-emerge. With
906-629: A diplomatic coup by convincing Emperor Maximilian to join the Holy League. Remarkably, Henry had secured the promised title of " Most Christian King of France" from Julius and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris, if only Louis could be defeated. On 30 June 1513, Henry invaded France, and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result, but one which
1057-538: A distinct breed. Some cross-breeding with Leicester sheep took place at around that time, to improve their characteristics. They are dual-purpose animals, producing good meat and quality wool. They are particularly adapted to wet conditions, being resistant to foot rot, while their fleeces stay healthy in the harsh conditions found on the Marsh. They are also resistant to the liver fluke parasite. Their wool has fibres which are finer than all other breeds of longwool sheep, and
1208-613: A document issued by them in 1243 stated that rent would no longer be payable if the land was overwhelmed by the sea. There are no surviving records of reclamation taking place subsequently. A significant advance occurred in 1252, when Henry III issued the Charter of Romney Marsh. This prevented the Sheriff or his officers from taking any action which might prevent the Jurats of Romney Marsh from carrying out their responsibilities to protect
1359-503: A fall from grace included the King's new mistress, the 28-year-old Jane Seymour , being moved into new quarters, and Anne's brother, George Boleyn , being refused the Order of the Garter , which was instead given to Nicholas Carew . Between 30 April and 2 May, five men, including George Boleyn, were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with
1510-457: A major importer of wine, was relocated on higher land, with a harbour consisting of 82 wharfs. Those same storms, however, helped to build up more shingle; such beaches now ran along practically the whole seaward side of the marshland. By the 14th century, much of the Walland and Denge Marshes had been reclaimed by "innings", the process of throwing up an embankment around the sea-marsh and using
1661-659: A medieval canal that brought water from higher up the river Rother . The main road is the A259 from Rye , which is narrow and winding to Brookland and Brenzett, where it splits in two. One arm becomes the A2070 and runs parallel to the railway to link the Marsh to Hamstreet , Ashford and the wider world. The other, still the A259, is good only as far as the junction with Lydd Lane (B2075) and leads to New Romney , Dymchurch , Hythe and eventually, Folkestone . The local bus routes on
SECTION 10
#17327730897011812-590: A reality. The attack, however, following a formal declaration of war in April 1512, was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends, and it strained the Anglo-Spanish alliance. Nevertheless, the French were pushed out of Italy soon after, and the alliance survived, with both parties keen to win further victories over the French. Henry then pulled off
1963-522: A second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid. Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, becoming instead "princess dowager" as
2114-518: A series of violent storms broke through the coastal shingle banks, flooding significant areas and returning it to marsh, and destroying the harbour at New Romney . In 1287, water destroyed the port town of Old Winchelsea (now located some 2 mi (3 km) out in Rye bay), which had been endangered because of its proximity to the sea since at least 1236. Winchelsea, the third-largest port in England and
2265-404: A substantial facility just outside Lydd, where a mock urban 'townscape' complete with full-size houses, streets, etc., provides an appropriate environment for counter-terrorism and civil disorder training. Some of the lost communities on the Marsh are instances of the modern decline of the rural communities; others occurred over the centuries. In 1348, for example, many villages were decimated by
2416-538: A tenancy on land in Misleham, now part of Brookland parish, to a man called Baldwin Scudaway for "all their land in Misleham which lies in the Marsh, in so far as Baldwin can inclose it against the sea". Baldwin was required to pay for the sea defences himself, and the main drainage channel near Misleham is still called Baldwin's Sewer. The Doudeman family are one of the best-documented groups involved in reclamation of
2567-616: A territorial possession of Charles, and the continued support of the Emperor. A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground. Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia and could dictate peace, but he believed he owed Henry nothing. Sensing this, Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally, signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525. King Henry VIII and all six of his wives were related through
2718-653: A time that his life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the Queen, she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child at about 15 weeks' gestation, on the day of Catherine's funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of this royal marriage. Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council , Anne had many enemies, including Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk . Even her own uncle,
2869-464: A treaty was signed for their marriage, and they were betrothed two days later. A papal dispensation was only needed for the "impediment of public honesty" if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed, but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for " affinity ", which took account of the possibility of consummation. Cohabitation
3020-457: A two-pronged attack. One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil . The other, under Suffolk, laid siege to Boulogne . Henry later took personal command, and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544. However, Henry had refused Charles's request to march against Paris. Charles's own campaign fizzled, and he made peace with France that same day. Henry was left alone against France, unable to make peace. Francis attempted to invade England in
3171-553: A very limited extent", whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs. Catherine is not known to have protested. In 1518, she fell pregnant again with another girl, who was also stillborn. Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation. FitzRoy married Mary Howard in 1533, but died childless three years later. At
SECTION 20
#17327730897013322-520: Is a long-distance footpath which starts at Gravesend , Kent . It traces the coast as it was in Roman times as far as Hastings , East Sussex . It is 153 miles (246 km) long, and its route crosses the northern edge of the Marsh. The idea for the path was conceived in the 1970s and it was officially opened on 22 June 1980 by the Archbishop of Canterbury . Throughout its history, the proximity of
3473-488: Is a sparsely populated wetland area in the counties of Kent and East Sussex in the south-east of England. It covers about 100 square miles (260 km ). The Marsh has been in use for centuries, though its inhabitants commonly suffered from malaria until the 18th century. Due to its location, geography and isolation, it was important for smugglers between the 17th and 19th centuries. The area has long been used for sheep pasture: Romney Marsh sheep are considered one of
3624-436: Is particularly good for hand spinning. A flock book for the breed has been maintained since 1895. Romney sheep were exported around the world from the early 19th century onwards. The first flocks were sent to New Zealand, where they adapted to their new environment well, and are still the most prolific breed in the country. They have since been shipped to many parts of England, Australia, Patagonia , Canada, Brazil, Portugal,
3775-520: Is possible to find two or three lanes apparently leading to the same village. Many of these lanes are built on the remains of enclosures used to "in" the Marsh. There is a dramatic section near Brookland , where a lane linking the Woolpack pub to Lydd is perched 2 or 3 m above the surrounding farmland, on the "Hook" wall. The section of road between Brenzett and Lydd Lane end is built on the Rhee wall,
3926-702: Is still in place about a mile short of Dungeness. In the early 21st century, it is used to transfer spent fuel from the nuclear power plant. The Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway , a 15 in ( 381 mm )-gauge miniature railway and the only miniature railway in the British Isles ever to have been incorporated under the Light Railways Act 1896 , has been operating along the Romney Marsh coast since 1927. It runs for 13.75 miles (22.13 km) from Hythe to Dungeness. The Saxon Shore Way
4077-499: Is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Madge Shelton in 1535, although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton . Opposition to Henry's religious policies was at first quickly suppressed in England. Some dissenting monks, including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, both of whom refused to take
4228-474: Is unclear exactly why, for there is little evidence of differences in domestic or foreign policy. Despite his role, he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry's failed marriage. Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court, with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece Catherine's position. Cromwell was charged with treason, selling export licences, granting passports, and drawing up commissions without permission, and may also have been blamed for
4379-574: The Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate; Henry's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate; and Anne's issue declared to be next in the line of succession. With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, Parliament recognised the King's status as head of the church in England and, together with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532, abolished the right of appeal to Rome. It
4530-523: The Black Death . The few survivors moved to other places. The villages, shown below with the modern Ordnance Survey map information on Sheet 189, were: The flat, almost empty landscape and numerous waterways created an ideal environment for smuggling from the 17th until the early 19th century. The traffic was two-way, since wool was smuggled from this area to the Continent. The main gangs on
4681-546: The Cinque Ports . The Romney Marsh has been gradually built up over the centuries. The most significant feature of the Marsh is the Rhee Wall (Rhee is a word for river), forming a prominent ridge. This feature was extended as a waterway in three stages from Appledore to New Romney in the 13th century. Sluices controlled the flow of water, which was then released to flush silt from the harbour at New Romney. Ultimately,
Romney Marshes Area IDB - Misplaced Pages Continue
4832-588: The Falkland Islands and the United States. However, for Downland sheep that were often taken to the marshes to be fattened before sale, 19th-century reports suggest the Romney pastures were highly likely to result in the animals becoming ill with liver fluke and thus their meat becoming contaminated. Whitlaw suggests that this was probably due to the cultivation of buttercups in the region during
4983-465: The Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull. Knight was unsuccessful; the Pope could not be misled so easily, and he did not want to antagonise Catherine's nephew, Charles V, whose troops had recently sacked Rome . Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England, with a representative from Clement VII. Although Clement agreed to the creation of such
5134-532: The Italian War in favour of his new ally. An invasion of France was planned for 1543. In preparation for it, Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under his young nephew, James V . The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542, and James died on 15 December. Henry now hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marrying his son Edward to James's successor, Mary . The Scottish regent Lord Arran agreed to
5285-479: The King's "great matter" . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy, which would need the involvement of the Pope and would be open to challenge; marrying off Mary, his daughter with Catherine, as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly, but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry's death, or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child-bearing age. Probably seeing
5436-709: The Laws in Wales Act 1535 , which legally annexed Wales , uniting England and Wales into a single nation. This was followed by the Second Succession Act (the Succession to the Crown Act 1536), which declared Henry's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The King was granted the power to further determine
5587-568: The Mapp and Lucia novels; Russell Thorndike , author of the Doctor Syn novels; and the children's writer Monica Edwards , author of Romney Marsh books. She changed the name of Rye Harbour to "Westling", Rye is renamed "Dunsford", and Winchelsea is known as "Winklesea". Rosemary Sutcliff 's 1955 historical novel Outcast depicts Roman efforts to build the Rhee Wall and reclaim land from
5738-675: The Oath of Supremacy to the King. Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought at that stage to have the men executed; rather, they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves. Fisher openly rejected Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church, but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treasons Act 1534 , which (unlike later acts) did not forbid mere silence. Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason, however – More on
5889-646: The Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , Kent, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of the young Henry's six (or seven) siblings, only three – his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales , and sisters Margaret and Mary – survived infancy. He was baptised by Richard Foxe , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to
6040-455: The Palace of Whitehall , Whitehall , London, in Anne's closet, by Stephen Gardiner , Bishop of Winchester . With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats, and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms, domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry's priority in the first half of the 1530s. In 1536, for example, Henry granted his assent to
6191-523: The Priory of Canterbury in the 9th century, when the lands owned by the double minster of Lyminge were transferred to Christ Church, Canterbury . In the early 1100s, Christ Church granted land near Appledore to tenants, who had to maintain sea walls and drainage ditches known as sewers to prevent salt and fresh water flooding the land. Another early reference to flood prevention occurred sometime between 1155 and 1167, when Prior Wilbert of Canterbury granted
Romney Marshes Area IDB - Misplaced Pages Continue
6342-776: The River Rother and the River Brede . Martello towers are fortifications that were built by the British Army for coastal defence during the early nineteenth century and the Napoleonic Wars . Seventy-four towers were built along the south coast; Tower 1 was at Folkestone, overlooking the harbour, and Tower 74 guarded the beach at Seaford in East Sussex . Six were built in pairs in Dymchurch to protect
6493-591: The Romney Marshes Area IDB . Romney Marsh is adjacent to the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , which is less developed than many other areas in Kent and Sussex. The decline in sheep prices meant that even the local stock (sold around the world for breeding for over two centuries) became unsustainable. Turfing had always been a lesser practice due to the grassland kept short by
6644-564: The Third Succession Act put them back in the line of succession after Edward. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will. In 1538, the chief minister Thomas Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what the government termed "idolatry" practised under the old religion, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral . As
6795-415: The male heir he desired, he became enamoured of Mary Boleyn's sister, Anne Boleyn , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen's entourage. Anne, however, resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister had. It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as
6946-454: The 1830s. In the 18th and 19th centuries, men known as lookers were hired to look after the large flocks of sheep in the expanses of Romney Marsh. The lookers' huts were their temporary accommodation and store for tools. A hut was about 10 feet (3.0 m) square with a tiled roof and a chimney, a small window and a fireplace. The hut was particularly important at lambing time: the looker's family would regularly visit him, bringing supplies for
7097-461: The 18th-century Sussex smugglers. According to Norman Wright's book The Famous Five: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know , Rye's history inspired Enid Blyton when she wrote Five Go to Smuggler's Top. The 1947 British historical drama film The Loves of Joanna Godden , based on the novel by Sheila Kaye-Smith and directed by Charles Frend , is set in Romney Marsh. The 1963 a three-part television series entitled The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh,
7248-467: The Duke of Norfolk, had come to resent her attitude to her power. The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally, but the King's favour had swung towards the latter (partly because of Cromwell), damaging the family's influence. Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary (among them the former supporters of Catherine), who had reached maturity. A second annulment
7399-485: The English Channel. They were important for both trade and defence. Romney and Hythe were two of the ports within the Romney Marsh; Rye and Winchelsea were later added as "Antient Towns". Rye replaced Romney as one of the main five when Romney's port was silted in. The Royal Military Canal stretches for 28 miles hugging the old cliff line that borders the Romney Marsh from Hythe in the north east to Cliff End in
7550-608: The English army, overseen by Queen Catherine, decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513. Among the dead was the Scottish king, thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war. These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired. However, despite initial indications, he decided not to pursue a 1514 campaign. He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during
7701-526: The Golden Fleece . In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15, just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Arthur's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother. The 10-year-old Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1504. Henry VII gave his second son few responsibilities even after the death of Arthur. Young Henry
SECTION 50
#17327730897017852-496: The King. Soon after marrying Henry, Catherine conceived. She gave birth to a stillborn girl on 31 January 1510. About four months later, Catherine again became pregnant. On 1 January 1511, New Year's Day, a son Henry was born. After the grief of losing their first child, the couple were pleased to have a boy and festivities were held, including a two-day joust known as the Westminster Tournament . However,
8003-519: The Marsh Link Line is the Ashford to Hastings line, with stations at Hamstreet , Appledore , Rye , and Winchelsea . The one-time branch to New Romney from Appledore (its small offshoot to Dungeness closed in 1937) was closed to passenger traffic in 1967. It was possible to travel directly from Dungeness to London, and the 2-hr journey time was quicker than by road and rail today. The line
8154-497: The Marsh are operated by Stagecoach in East Kent and link it to Ashford, Canterbury , Dover , Folkestone, Hastings , Northiam and Tenterden . National Cycle Route 2 passes through the area; the section between Rye and Lydd is mostly off-road. From Lydd to Hythe, it uses quiet lanes; from Hythe it is possible to cycle along the sea wall to Folkestone, and ultimately (off-road) to reach Dover. The main line railway known as
8305-432: The Marsh became the property of the Priory of Canterbury in the 9th century, when the lands owned by the double minster of Lyminge were transferred to Christ Church, Canterbury . Prior Wilbert granted a tenancy on their land in Misleham, now part of Brookland parish, to a man called Baldwin, sometime between 1155 and 1167, for "all their land in Misleham which lies in the Marsh, in so far as Baldwin can inclose it against
8456-732: The Marsh were the Hawkhurst Gang , the Mayfield Gang, and the Aldington Gang , known also as "the Blues". Smugglers on the Marshes were known as Owlers . The name was rumoured to be derived from the owl-like sounds they used to communicate at night. Romney Marsh has been represented in a distinguished literary history. Three authors who specifically used the marsh as settings for their works were E. F. Benson , author of
8607-404: The Pipe Line Under The Ocean. It was to pass under the English Channel, and was intended to supply fuel to the Allied forces that would be involved in Operation Overlord (the 1944 invasion of Normandy). There are two military establishments on the Marsh: the Hythe and Lydd Ranges . The latter has a large danger area marked on maps south of Lydd towards the sea. The Metropolitan Police also have
8758-430: The Pope had lacked the authority to grant a dispensation from this impediment. It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled, forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack. In going public, all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet was lost. Henry sent his secretary, William Knight , to appeal directly to
8909-410: The Queen. Anne was arrested, accused of treasonous adultery and incest. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death. On 17 May 1536, Henry and Anne's marriage was annulled by Archbishop Cranmer at Lambeth Palace and the accused men were executed. Cranmer appears to have had difficulty finding grounds for an annulment and probably based it on
9060-495: The RSPB were concerned about possible detrimental effects of the wind farm on bird populations, as the location is close to a designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a European Union Special Protection Area (SPA), because if provides habitat for large numbers of migratory birds . Bewick swans and shovellers spend the winter there, while there are large breeding populations of common terns , little terns and Mediterranean gulls . The enquiry concluded that
9211-440: The River Rother, the River Tillingham and the River Brede, while the Romney and Denge Marsh Main Drains Catchment Board were responsible for major waterways on the marsh itself. Within those catchment areas, internal drainage districts were created, to be managed by internal drainage boards (IDBs). They were responsible for the management of land drainage, and the network of channels that supported it. Six IDBs were created to manage
SECTION 60
#17327730897019362-873: The Romney Marsh sluices from potential invading French forces. One of these, Martello Tower No. 24 is closest to its original condition, and has its cannon. It is open to the public during the summer months. The towers were built between 1805 and 1808, when Napoleon was a threat. Prior to World War II, experiments to detect enemy aircraft with huge concrete acoustic mirrors were conducted at Greatstone . The large concrete mirrors were built between 1928 and 1930 as an early warning system in case of approaching German aircraft. While they could detect slow moving aircraft before they were visible, they were less effective as aircraft got faster, and operators struggled to distinguish between aeroplanes and seagoing ships. They were superseded by radar technology in 1935, and abandoned in 1939. Germany's Operation Sea Lion plan included crossing
9513-411: The Scottish regency under the Earl of Arran and Mary of Guise . He founded the Royal Navy , oversaw the annexation of Wales to England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , and was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 . Henry's contemporaries considered him an attractive, educated, and accomplished king. He has been described as "one of
9664-432: The Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light, it is more likely that the portrait was accurate; Holbein remained in favour at court. After seeing Holbein's portrait, and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, the 49-year-old King agreed to wed Anne. When Henry met Anne, however, he
9815-585: The allegations, Dereham confessed. It took another meeting of the council, however, before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage, blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Catherine's relationship with Culpeper. Culpeper and Dereham were both executed, and Catherine too
9966-414: The area had now been reclaimed from the sea. Today, shingle continues to be deposited in the harbour. As a result, all the original Cinque Ports of the Marsh are now far from the sea. Dungeness Point is still being added to (especially near Dungeness and Hythe ), though a daily operation is in place to counter the reshaping of the shingle banks, using boats to dredge and move the drifting shingle. Much of
10117-437: The area to pay for maintaining the land drainage and sea defences, and this practice continued until 1932. Extreme weather during the 13th century caused numerous issues in the marshes, and the processes for dealing with them were gradually formulated into the Laws and Customs of Romney Marsh . Subsequently, commissions dealing with a number of other areas of marshland in England commanded that they should be managed according to
10268-404: The battle was lost: the harbour silted up and New Romney declined in importance. The Rhee kept part of the old port open until the 15th century. The wall at Dymchurch was built around the same time: storms had breached the shingle barrier, which had protected it until that time. It is a common misconception that both these structures were built by the Romans. In 1250 and in the following years,
10419-402: The campaign but had received little in return; England's coffers were now empty. With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France, Henry signed his own treaty with Louis: his sister Mary would become Louis's wife, having previously been pledged to the younger Charles, and peace was secured for eight years, a remarkably long time. Charles V ,
10570-482: The ceremony, there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father, "our time is spent in continuous festival". Two days after his coronation, Henry arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. Politically motivated executions would remain one of Henry's primary tactics for dealing with those who stood in his way. Henry returned some of
10721-450: The chance for an annulment lost, Cardinal Wolsey bore the blame. He was charged with praemunire in October 1529, and his fall from grace was "sudden and total". Briefly reconciled with Henry (and officially pardoned) in the first half of 1530, he was charged once more in November 1530, this time for treason, but died while awaiting trial. After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders, Thomas More took on
10872-443: The child died seven weeks later. Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1513 and 1515, but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl, Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained, but they eased slightly after Mary's birth. Although Henry's marriage to Catherine has since been described as "unusually good", it is known that Henry took mistresses. It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of
11023-532: The clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known – were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal . The 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured, eventually degenerating into renewed war. With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead, relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably, and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter
11174-453: The courtier Thomas Culpeper . She also employed Francis Dereham , who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. The Privy Council was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away; Thomas Cranmer was dispatched to investigate, and he brought evidence of Queen Catherine's previous affair with Dereham to the King's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe
11325-478: The different areas of the marsh, but two of them amalgamated. The Romney Marsh Levels IDB managed the central area of the marsh, while Walland IDB managed Walland Marsh, bounded by Rye to the west, Lydd to the east and Brookland to the north. Denge and Southbrooks IDB managed Denge Marsh , to the east of Lydd, Pett IDB managed the Pett Level, to the south of Winchelsea , and Rother IDB were responsible for
11476-580: The dissolution of the monasteries, Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco-German invasion. Having considered the matter, Cromwell suggested Anne , the 25-year-old sister of William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg , who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England, for the Duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism . Other potential brides included Christina of Denmark, Anna of Lorraine , Louise of Guise and Amalia of Cleves . Hans Holbein
11627-423: The disturbances ended. On 8 January 1536, news reached the King and Queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. The following day, Henry dressed all in yellow, with a white feather in his bonnet. Queen Anne was pregnant again, and she was aware that there might be consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Later that month, the King was thrown from his horse in a tournament and was badly injured; it seemed for
11778-542: The end of the Last Glacial Period , around or before the time of the Roman occupation. The strain responsible was most probably Plasmodium vivax , as records and texts describe agues or fevers at three or four-day intervals. Prior Anselm , of nearby Canterbury, recorded in the 1070s and 1080s a case that had every appearance of malaria. Although five indigenous mosquito species are capable of being hosts for
11929-698: The evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General – and both were executed in the summer of 1535. These suppressions, as well as the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 , in turn, contributed to a more general resistance to Henry's reforms, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536. Some 20,000 to 40,000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of
12080-635: The extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ("Defence of the Seven Sacraments") earned him the title of Fidei Defensor (Defender of the Faith) from Pope Leo X. The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy, albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms. It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage. Certainly, by 1527, he had convinced himself that Catherine had produced no male heir because their union
12231-532: The extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat. The chronic wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated , preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry's mood swings , which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament. The theory that Henry had syphilis has been dismissed by most historians. Historian Susan Maclean Kybett ascribes his demise to scurvy , which
12382-456: The failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne. He was subsequently attainted and beheaded. On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed), Henry married the young Catherine Howard, a first cousin and lady-in-waiting of Anne Boleyn. He was delighted with his new queen and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery. Soon after the marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with
12533-469: The flat marsh during an invasion across the English Channel . The government planned to flood the area to prevent troops and equipment from crossing the area. Thousands of concrete pillboxes were built in Kent; 6,500 of the crumbling structures remain standing to this day. The ancient Royal Military Canal was well guarded with troops, pillboxes and barbed wire. Training was provided in the area for
12684-588: The friars' church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509. Henry claimed descent from Constantine the Great and King Arthur and saw himself as their successor. On 23 June 1509, Henry led the now 23-year-old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation, which took place the following day. It was a grand affair: the King's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth. Following
12835-471: The ideas of the Protestant Reformers, but the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position. This was approved by the Pope, unaware of the King's nascent plans for the Church. Henry
12986-470: The infant Edward would marry one of Charles's daughters. It was suggested the widowed Henry might marry Christina, Dowager Duchess of Milan . However, when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539, Henry became increasingly paranoid, perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom (real or imaginary, minor or serious) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster. Enriched by
13137-590: The kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat, and it seemed that peace might be secured. Henry met King Francis on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment. Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade. The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London, however, and conflict
13288-503: The land from sea or fresh water flooding. This was one of the first pieces of legislation to recognise that land drainage was a bigger issue than could successfully be dealt with by individuals, and the resultant commission was the forerunner of many local authorities to control the drainage of low-lying areas of England. The charter allowed the Bailiff, Jurats and Commonality of the Marsh of Romney to levy rates, called scots, on occupants of
13439-638: The land surrounding the River Rother, River Tillingham and River Brede. The Romney Marshes Area IDB was formed in April 2001, when these five boards amalgamated. The IDB is responsible for an area of 130 square miles (340 km), although water drains into it from higher ground around its edges, resulting in a catchment area of 360 square miles (930 km). Much of the marsh is lower than the mean tide level, and would be flooded if it were not protected by sea walls. Within their area, they maintain 220 miles (350 km) of drainage ditches, which feed water to
13590-404: The largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne's constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. Henry
13741-523: The laws and customs of Romney Marsh. Edward IV issued another charter to Romney Marsh Corporation in 1462, to introduce liberties which would enable the population to increase, as the area had become depopulated. The ruling body became known as the Lords, Bailiff, Jurats and Commonalty of the Level and Liberty of Romney Marsh, and they were empowered to raise taxes in addition to the scots. The next major advance
13892-492: The line of succession in his will, should he have no further issue. On 12 October 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI . The birth was difficult, and Queen Jane died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor. The euphoria that had accompanied Edward's birth became sorrow, but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife. At the time, Henry recovered quickly from
14043-534: The low-tide to let it run dry by means of one-way drains set into the new seawall, running off into a network of dykes called locally "sewers". In 1462, the Romney Marsh Corporation was established to install drainage and sea defences for the marsh, which it continued to build into the 16th century. By that time, the course of the Rother had been changed to its channel today; most of the remainder of
14194-552: The main rivers. The IDB owns five pumping stations, but most of the ditches feed water to pumping stations owned by the Environment Agency . They manage a further 31 pumping stations, together with 201 miles (323 km) of main river and 82 miles (132 km) of embankments and flood walls. The IDB also maintains 140 structures which control water levels. [REDACTED] Media related to Romney Marshes Area IDB at Wikimedia Commons Romney Marsh Romney Marsh
14345-489: The malarial parasite, only the Anopheles atroparvus species breeds in sufficient numbers here to act as an efficient vector. However, P. vivax likes brackish waters and, with the recreation of the old coastal wetlands coming into favour, this could expand the future malarial parasite host reserve. Together with the average temperatures in England increasing due to climate change, English malaria may become re-established in
14496-636: The marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543, but it was rejected by the Parliament of Scotland on 11 December. The result was eight years of war between England and Scotland, a campaign later dubbed "the Rough Wooing ". Despite several peace treaties, unrest continued in Scotland until Henry's death. Despite the early success with Scotland, Henry hesitated to invade France, annoying Charles. Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with
14647-460: The marsh to the European mainland meant that this area was in the front line whenever invasion threatened. In AD 892, one such invasion was successful. The Danish fleet of 250 ships sailed right into the Rother and took the fortress at Appledore (allegedly built by King Arthur ), which they destroyed. The importance of the Cinque Ports was in their strategic location at the narrowest part of
14798-490: The marshes in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. They reclaimed a large swathe of land in the parish of Broomhill over four generations. Battle Abbey and Robertsbridge Abbey began buying up land, including some of the Doudeman's, shortly after 1200, and in 1222 joined forces to enclose another 1,400 acres (570 ha). The favourable weather conditions of this period were followed by a long period of stormy weather, and
14949-409: The marshes. Roads across the Marsh have always been narrow and winding. This is partly because of the hundreds of sewers and smaller drainage ditches, and because the grazing land is far more important than the roads. The lack of road signs and few villages can make navigating across the marsh very confusing for outsiders. Several minor roads have no finger posts at junctions at all and at others, it
15100-466: The money supposedly extorted by the two ministers. By contrast, Henry's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father's had been. Several who had been imprisoned by his father, including Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned. Others went unreconciled; Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk was eventually beheaded in 1513, an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against
15251-404: The most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne" and his reign described as the "most important" in English history. He was an author and composer. As he aged, he became severely overweight and his health suffered. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, paranoid, and tyrannical monarch. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI . Born on 28 June 1491 at
15402-479: The most successful and important sheep breeds. Featuring numerous waterways, and with some areas lying below sea level, the Marsh has over time sustained a gradual level of reclamation, both through natural causes and by human intervention. An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward had a population of 2,358 at the 2011 census. Romney Marsh is flat and low-lying, with parts below sea level. It consists of several areas: The River Rother today flows into
15553-535: The nephew of Henry's wife Catherine, inherited a large empire in Europe, becoming king of Spain in 1516 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. When Louis XII of France died in 1515, he was succeeded by his cousin Francis I . These accessions left three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate. The careful diplomacy of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey had resulted in the Treaty of London (1518) , aimed at uniting
15704-496: The new reforms from challenge, convincing the public of their legitimacy, and exposing and dealing with opponents. Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others, these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself. With this process complete, in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. With
15855-496: The north east to Fairlight in the south west. To the west, the marshland extends along the valleys of the River Rother , River Tillingham and River Brede . Most of it is low-lying, below the level of high tides, and is susceptible to flooding from the sea and from fresh water. To some extent, it is protected from the English Channel on its south and east sides by large banks of shingle, consisting of flint pebbles, but these are constantly being altered by wave action. Dungeness, at
16006-517: The northern nobility. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues. Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises to them, so when further violence occurred after Henry's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. In total, about 200 rebels were executed, and
16157-593: The palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three and was made a Knight of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony, he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495, he
16308-406: The papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father's dying wish that he marry Catherine. Whether or not this was true, it was convenient. Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter Eleanor , Catherine's niece, to Henry; she had now been jilted. Henry's wedding to Catherine was kept low-key and was held at
16459-474: The past, people who lived in the marsh frequently suffered from malaria , then known as ague or marsh fever , which caused high mortality rates until the 1730s. It remained a major problem until the completion of the Royal Military Canal in 1806, which greatly improved the drainage of the area. This disease probably arrived here with mosquitoes as soon as the weather became warm enough after
16610-414: The possibility of marrying Anne, the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34-year-old Henry, and it soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40-year-old Catherine. Henry's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on. Henry himself, at least in the early part of his reign, was a devout and well-informed Catholic to
16761-437: The prior liaison between Henry and Anne's sister Mary, which in canon law meant that Henry's marriage to Anne was, like his first marriage, within a forbidden degree of affinity and therefore void. At 8 am on 19 May 1536, Anne was executed on Tower Green . The day after Anne's execution the 45-year-old Henry became engaged to Seymour, who had been one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting . They were married ten days later at
16912-416: The project would not adversely affect the conservation areas, and the two organisations entered into a formal agreement with Npower Renewables to monitor and manage the area, with Npower funding the programme. Sheep have formed an important part of the economy of Romney Marsh for over 700 years. Romney Marsh sheep were bred from European white face, long-tailed sheep, but by 1800 they were considered to be
17063-438: The rest. I can have none appetite for displeasant airs. I have left her as good a maid and I found her. Henry wished to annul the marriage as soon as possible so he could marry another. Anne did not argue, and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated. Anne's previous betrothal to Francis of Lorraine provided further grounds for the annulment. The marriage was subsequently dissolved in July 1540, and Anne received
17214-753: The rise and fall of a smuggling gang leader in Deal, Kent , a notorious smuggling town further down the coast. Many other well-known writers have been associated with the area: Henry James lived in Rye; Daphne du Maurier lived in Hythe for a few years during World War II; H. G. Wells , Joseph Conrad , Ford Madox Ford , Stephen Crane , Radclyffe Hall , Noël Coward , Edith Nesbit , Rumer Godden , Malcolm Saville , and Conrad Aiken also lived in marsh towns. Conrad's daughter, Joan Aiken , set her children's book, Cold Shoulder Road, in Romney Marsh. Rudyard Kipling and his poem, "A Smugglers' Song", are also associated with
17365-472: The role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister. Intelligent and able, but a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment, More initially cooperated with the King's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament. A year later, Catherine was banished from court, and her rooms were given to Anne Boleyn. Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time and was keenly absorbed and engaged with
17516-471: The sea below Rye , but until 1287 its mouth lay between Romney and Lydd . It was tidal far upstream, almost to Bodiam . The river mouth was wide with a huge lagoon , making Rye a port at its western end. That lagoon lay behind a large island, which now makes up a large part of the Denge Marsh, on which stood the ports of Lydd and the old Winchelsea . All these ports were affiliated to (as "limbs" of)
17667-403: The sea"; Baldwin's Sewer (drainage ditch) remains in use. The marsh has since become covered by a dense network of drainage ditches that once supported large farming communities. These watercourses have been maintained and managed by internal drainage boards (IDBs) for sustainable water levels since the 1930s. In April 2001, the five drainage boards responsible for the marsh amalgamated to form
17818-525: The sea. A fictitious Romney Marsh estate near Charbury is a key setting in The Eagle Has Flown (1991) by Jack Higgins , the quasi-sequel to The Eagle Has Landed . Both are related to World War II. The latter novel was adapted as a successful motion picture starring Michael Caine . Modern-day novelist George Chittenden captures smuggling on the Kent coast in his highly praised debut children's novel, The Boy Who Led Them (2012). It follows
17969-475: The secret Auxiliary Units , men who would be deployed in case of an invasion. Four advanced landing ground airstrips were built on Romney Marsh in 1942, for use by fighters and light bombers; these were used for flights in 1944 against the German flying bombs . The miniature Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway was used by the government to run armoured trains during construction of Operation Pluto , known as
18120-425: The sheep reared upon it, but farms are increasing in size to compensate for the decline in sustainable livestock farming. Some view this as unsustainable due to the damage to soil ecology of the Marsh. The only other alternative, since 1946, has been for farmers to turn to arable farming, changing the landscape from a patchwork of small family farms to a few extensive arable production units. A 59.8 MW wind farm
18271-507: The shock. Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry, which, at the insistence of Cromwell and the Privy Council, were focused on the European continent. In 1538, as part of the negotiation of a secret treaty by Cromwell with Charles V, a series of dynastic marriages were proposed: Mary would marry a son of King John III of Portugal , Elizabeth would marry one of the sons of King Ferdinand I of Hungary and
18422-425: The sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years, starting in 1516, was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses, considered by some to be few for a virile young king. Exactly how many Henry had is disputed: David Loades believes Henry had mistresses "only to
18573-493: The south west. It was conceived by Lt-Col Brown of the Royal Staff Corps of field engineers in 1804, the time of the Napoleonic Wars , as a way to ensure that an invasion by the French could not use the marsh as a bridgehead. John Rennie acted as consultant engineer, and the work was completed in April 1809. A military road was built on the inland side of the canal, which consisted of two parts, joined by sections of
18724-466: The south-eastern tip, is a large promontary made of shingle. The gaps between the shingle banks have been plugged with sea walls, built over centuries, without which most of the area would quickly revert to salt marsh. Furthest west is Pett Wall, followed by Broomhill Wall, while between Dungeness and Hythe are the Littlestone Wall and Dymchurch Wall. Much of the marshes became the property of
18875-502: The summer of 1545 but his forces reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed in the Battle of the Solent . Financially exhausted, France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546. Henry secured Boulogne for eight years. The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns (£750,000). Henry needed the money; the 1544 campaign had cost £650,000, and England
19026-539: The time of his death in July 1536, parliament was considering the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king. In 1510, France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council. Certainly, war with the combined might of
19177-447: The title of "The King's Sister", two houses, and a generous allowance. It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17-year-old Catherine Howard , the Duke of Norfolk's niece. This worried Cromwell, for Norfolk was his political opponent. Shortly after, the religious reformers (and protégés of Cromwell) Robert Barnes , William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour although it
19328-443: The two powers would have been exceedingly difficult. Shortly thereafter, however, Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand II of Aragon. After Pope Julius II created the anti-French Holy League in October 1511, Henry followed Ferdinand's lead and brought England into the new League. An initial joint Anglo-Spanish attack was planned for the spring to recover Aquitaine for England, the start of making Henry's dreams of ruling France
19479-546: The week. There were 356 lookers' huts recorded in 1870; the practice of living out on the Marsh at certain times of the year was ending in the 1930s, and few are now left. A hut at Cold Harbour Farm near Brookland , built about 1900, is a Grade II listed building . There is a reconstructed hut at the Visitor Centre in Romney Warren Country Park . The Romney Marsh Countryside Partnership
19630-529: The widow of Arthur. In her place, Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The Queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Following the marriage, there was a period of consolidation, taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues, whilst protecting
19781-595: Was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon ) annulled . His disagreement with Pope Clement VII about such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation , separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries , for which he
19932-699: Was excommunicated by the pope. Henry brought radical changes to the Constitution of England , expanding royal power and ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings in opposition to papal supremacy . He frequently used charges of treason and heresy to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial using bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , and Thomas Cranmer all figured prominently in his administration. Henry
20083-543: Was "blighted in the eyes of God". Indeed, in marrying Catherine, his brother's wife, he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20:21, a justification Thomas Cranmer used to declare the marriage null. Martin Luther , on the other hand, had initially argued against the annulment, stating that Henry VIII could take a second wife in accordance with his teaching that the Bible allowed for polygamy but not divorce . Henry now believed
20234-458: Was an extravagant spender, using proceeds from the dissolution of the monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament . He converted money that was formerly paid to Rome into royal revenue. Despite the money from these sources, he was often on the verge of financial ruin due to personal extravagance and costly and largely unproductive wars, particularly with King Francis I of France , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , King James V of Scotland , and
20385-576: Was appointed to the Order of the Garter . The reason for giving such appointments to a small child was to enable his father to retain personal control of lucrative positions and not share them with established families. Not much is known about Henry's early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, but it is known that he received a first-rate education from leading tutors. He became fluent in Latin and French and learned at least some Italian. In November 1501, Henry played
20536-476: Was beheaded on 13 February 1542. Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr , in July 1543. A reformer at heart, she argued with Henry over religion. Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism; the reactionary mood that had gained ground after Cromwell's fall had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it. Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth. In 1543,
20687-586: Was constructed by Npower Renewables at Little Cheyne Court, 7 kilometres (4.3 miles) west of Lydd and commissioned in March 2009. There were objections to the planned development from Kent County Council , Shepway District Council , English Nature and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), and so a public enquiry was held to consider the application and objections. English Nature and
20838-523: Was inevitable. Henry had more in common with Charles, whom he met once before and once after Francis. Charles brought his realms into war with France in 1521; Henry offered to mediate, but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles. He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France but sought to secure an alliance with the Netherlands , then
20989-399: Was married to Catherine for 24 years. Their divorce has been described as a "deeply wounding and isolating" experience for Henry. In the winter of 1532, Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted Francis's support for his new marriage. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry, now 41, and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant, and there was
21140-424: Was much displeased with her appearance. The King was reportedly taken aback and told his courtiers "I promise you, I see no such thing as hath been shown me of her, by pictures and report. I am ashamed that men have praised her as they have done, and I love her not!" Despite his protests, Henry knew that the situation was too far gone and he would have to wed his bride. The marriage took place in January 1540, but it
21291-439: Was never consummated. The morning after their wedding night, Henry complained about his new wife to Cromwell, stating: Surely, my lord, I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse! She is nothing fair, and have very evil smells about her. I took her to be no maid by reason of the closeness of her breasts and other tokens, which, when I felt them, strake me so to the heart, that I had neither will nor courage to prove
21442-543: Was not possible because Henry was too young. Isabella's death in 1504, and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters. Ferdinand II preferred Catherine to stay in England, but Henry VII's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated. Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time, culminating in Prince Henry's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able, at the age of 14. Ferdinand's solution
21593-402: Was now a real possibility, although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell's anti-Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed. Anne's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage. Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy, adultery, or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians. Early signs of
21744-478: Was once again facing bankruptcy. Late in life, Henry became obese , with a waist measurement of 54 inches (140 cm), and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical devices. He was covered with painful, pus -filled boils and possibly had gout . His obesity and other medical problems can be traced to the jousting accident on 24 January 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. The accident reopened and aggravated an injury he had sustained years earlier, to
21895-462: Was only then that Pope Clement VII took the step of excommunicating the King and Cranmer, although the excommunication was not made official until some time later. The King and Queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for
22046-649: Was produced for the Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color TV series. It described the adventures of Dr. Syn . Parts of it were filmed at St Clement's Church in Old Romney, Romney Marsh. The three-part series was edited into a motion picture and released in the United Kingdom and subsequently Europe, Central America and South America. It debuted on American television in 1964. Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547)
22197-402: Was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes. Soon after, the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximilian; Tournai , a more significant settlement, followed. Henry had led the army personally, complete with a large entourage. His absence from the country, however, had prompted his brother-in-law James IV of Scotland to invade England at the behest of Louis. Nevertheless,
22348-550: Was set up in June 1996, as a sister project to the White Cliffs Countryside Partnership. With the help of volunteers, it manages and maintains various sites across the Marsh. The non-profit organisation aims to care for the special landscape and wildlife of the Romney Marsh and Dungeness while encouraging people to enjoy and understand the countryside through volunteer work, guided walks, cycle rides, countryside events and children's activities. In
22499-415: Was strictly supervised and did not appear in public. As a result, he ascended the throne "untrained in the exacting art of kingship". Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering his son Henry in marriage to the widowed Catherine. Henry VII and Queen Isabella were both keen on the idea, which had arisen very shortly after Arthur's death. On 23 June 1503,
22650-541: Was the passing of a Land Drainage Act by Henry VIII in 1531. This act created Commissions of Sewers in all of the marshlands of England, apart from Romney Marsh, where the existing system worked so well that the Lords, Bailiff and Jurats continued to manage the land as they had previously done. Following the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 , Catchment Boards were set up to manage the main rivers. The Rother and Jury's Gut Catchment Board were responsible for
22801-469: Was to make his daughter ambassador, allowing her to stay in England indefinitely. Devout, she began to believe that it was God's will that she marry the Prince despite his opposition. Henry VII died in April 1509, and the 17-year-old Henry succeeded him as king. Soon after his father's burial on 10 May, Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine, leaving unresolved several issues concerning
#700299