109-658: Radclyffe (real name Dr. Lenora Ruth Barot , born 1950) is an American author of lesbian romance, paranormal romance, erotica, and mystery. She has authored multiple short stories, written fan fiction , and edited numerous anthologies. Radclyffe is a member of the Saints and Sinners Literary Hall of Fame and has won numerous literary awards, including the RWA/GDRWA Booksellers' Best award, the RWA/Orange County Book Buyers Best award,
218-422: A movie , is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, emotions, or atmosphere through the use of moving images that are generally accompanied by sound and (less commonly) other sensory stimulations. The word "cinema" is a shortening of the word " cinematography " and is used to refer to either filmmaking , the film industry , the overall art form, or
327-432: A movie theater . The moving images of a film are created by photographing actual scenes with a motion-picture camera , by photographing drawings or miniature models using traditional animation techniques, by means of CGI and computer animation , or by a combination of some or all of these techniques, and other visual effects . Before the introduction of digital production, a series of still images were recorded on
436-525: A "rationalist rewrite", as popularized by Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality . Stories designed to be light-hearted and romantic. Another term for this genre is WAFF, which is short for "warm and fuzzy feelings." Stories in which a character is put through a traumatic experience in order to be comforted. The climax of these stories is usually when one character witnesses another character's suffering and alleviates it. Another type of hurt/comfort
545-835: A book and movie deal with renamed characters in 2014. A movie adaptation, After , was released on April 12, 2019. On May 22, 2013, online retailer Amazon launched a new publishing service, Kindle Worlds , which allowed fan fiction of certain licensed media properties to be sold in the Kindle Store , with terms including 35% of net sales for works of 10,000 words or more and 20% for short fiction ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 words. However, this arrangement included restrictions on content, copyright violations, poor document formatting, and use of misleading titles. Amazon shut down Kindle Worlds in August 2018. A similar trend began in Japan in
654-611: A coin-operated peep-box Electrotachyscope model were manufactured by Siemens & Halske in Berlin and sold internationally. Nearly 34,000 people paid to see it at the Berlin Exhibition Park in the summer of 1892. Others saw it in London or at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair . On 25 November 1894, Anschütz introduced a Electrotachyscope projector with a 6x8 meter screening in Berlin. Between 22 February and 30 March 1895,
763-467: A common plot was a minor member of the USS Enterprise ' s crew saving the life of Kirk or Spock, often being rewarded with a sexual relationship as a result. The term "Mary Sue", which originated in a parody of stories in the wish fulfillment genre, often refers to an idealized or overpowered character who lacks flaws and is often seen as a representation of the author. An abbreviation of
872-474: A contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars. From 1931 to 1956, film was also the only image storage and playback system for television programming until the introduction of videotape recorders . In the United States, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood, California . Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, such as Mumbai -centered Bollywood ,
981-453: A darkfic. "Dead Dove Do Not Eat", sometimes abbreviated as DDDNE, is a sub-category of darkfic. It began as an AO3 tag in 2015, intended to warn people that the story contained dark themes without explicitly condemning them; because the dark themes were tagged, it served to reinforce readers' attention to them. Since 2015, it has evolved into its own tag, meaning that sometimes other dark themes are not tagged and are assumed to be present in
1090-421: A day or two to formulate their opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact on the audience response and attendance at films, especially those of certain genres . Mass marketed action , horror , and comedy films tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a film. The plot summary and description of a film and the assessment of the director's and screenwriters' work that makes up
1199-693: A different setting. The term originated in the Xena: Warrior Princess fandom and was inspired by the episode "The Xena Scrolls", which featured 1940s-era descendants of the characters Xena, Gabrielle, and Joxer, who are played by their respective actors, on an archaeological dig in an Indiana Jones pastiche . As the concept of the uberfic can be adapted into original fiction, many uberfic authors, such as Melissa Good, Radclyffe , and Lori L. Lake , have legally published their Xena uberfic as original lesbian literature . Also abbreviated as A/N, author's notes are typically found directly before
SECTION 10
#17327720867601308-466: A fandom or topic. These archives were followed by non-commercial automated databases. In 1998, the non-profit site FanFiction.Net was launched, which allowed anyone to upload content in any fandom. The ability to self-publish fan fiction in an easily accessible archive that did not require insider knowledge to join, as well as the ability to review stories directly on the site, led the site to quickly gain popularity. A popular example of modern fan fiction
1417-540: A few decades before it was successfully combined with a method to record series of sequential images in real-time. In 1878, Eadweard Muybridge eventually managed to take a series of photographs of a running horse with a battery of cameras in a line along the track and published the results as The Horse in Motion on cabinet cards . Muybridge, as well as Étienne-Jules Marey , Ottomar Anschütz and many others, would create many more chronophotography studies. Muybridge had
1526-407: A few sentences to novel-length and can be based on fictional and non-fictional media, including novels , movies , comics , television shows , musical groups , cartoons , anime and manga , and video games . Fan fiction is rarely commissioned or authorized by the original work's creator or publisher or professionally published. It may infringe on the original author's copyright , depending on
1635-551: A flashing soda can during a screening). These fields may further create derivative fields, such as a movie review section in a newspaper or a television guide. Sub-industries can spin off from film, such as popcorn makers, and film-related toys (e.g., Star Wars figures ). Sub-industries of pre-existing industries may deal specifically with film, such as product placement and other advertising within films. The terminology used for describing motion pictures varies considerably between British and American English . In British usage,
1744-764: A more dynamic and engaging experience for the viewer. The development of scene construction through mise-en-scène , editing, and special effects led to more sophisticated techniques that can be compared to those utilized in opera and ballet. The French New Wave movement of the late 1950s and 1960s also embraced the montage technique, with filmmakers such as Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut using montage to create distinctive and innovative films. This approach continues to be influential in contemporary cinema, with directors employing montage to create memorable sequences in their films. In contemporary cinema, montage continues to play an essential role in shaping narratives and creating emotional resonance. Filmmakers have adapted
1853-425: A new section or sequence within a film. This technique can be used to convey a narrative or to create an emotional or intellectual effect by juxtaposing different shots, often for the purpose of condensing time, space, or information. Montage can involve flashbacks , parallel action, or the interplay of various visual elements to enhance the storytelling or create symbolic meaning . The concept of montage emerged in
1962-830: A part of a story or the entire story. Historically, the terms "lemon", or explicit pornography, and "lime", sexually suggestive works, were euphemisms used to refer to explicit material. These terms were once common in the 2000s, but fell out of use before becoming popular again in December 2018 due to the censorship of adult content on Tumblr , as it allowed writers to circumvent "explicit terminologies" that could get their work flagged by platforms like Tumblr while still being able to tag their work as explicit. Trigger warnings are used to warn people of content in fan fiction that could be harmful or "triggering" for those who have dealt with traumatic situations, allowing them to prepare for or avoid certain content. Sometimes, content warning (CW)
2071-430: A person having their soulmate's name written on their skin at birth or a specific change that occurs when two soulmates see or touch each other for the first time. The most common trope in this genre is a character being convinced that they do not have, want, or deserve a soulmate, only to be proven wrong as they fall in love. Stories in which a character is sent back in time to get a second chance while having knowledge of
2180-416: A person is excited about a fandom. A portmanteau of fan and canon. It is an "unofficial canon" idea that is widely accepted to be true among fans, but is neither confirmed nor officially endorsed by the original author or source creator, preventing it from being considered canon. Fanon can refer to an interpretation of the original work or details within it. A fan's personal interpretation of canon, such as
2289-546: A portion of the film exclusively reserved for it, and was not projected. Contemporary films are usually fully digital through the entire process of production, distribution, and exhibition. The name "film" originally referred to the thin layer of photochemical emulsion on the celluloid strip that used to be the actual medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion-picture, including "picture", "picture show", "moving picture", "photoplay", and "flick". The most common term in
SECTION 20
#17327720867602398-466: A projection before 1882. He then further developed the device into the Théâtre Optique which could project longer sequences with separate backgrounds, patented in 1888. He created several movies for the machine by painting images on hundreds of gelatin plates that were mounted into cardboard frames and attached to a cloth band. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to
2507-562: A relationship between the content in the separate shots in the minds of the viewer. It is this relationship that makes all film storytelling possible. In a simple example, if a person is shown looking out a window, whatever the next shot shows, it will be regarded as the view the person was seeing.) Each scene was a single stationary shot with the action occurring before it. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots photographed from different distances and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were developed as effective ways to tell
2616-526: A source of profit almost as soon as the process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in
2725-415: A story with film. Until sound film became commercially practical in the late 1920s, motion pictures were a purely visual art , but these innovative silent films had gained a hold on the public imagination. Rather than leave audiences with only the noise of the projector as an accompaniment, theater owners hired a pianist or organist or, in large urban theaters, a full orchestra to play music that fit
2834-403: A strip of chemically sensitized celluloid ( photographic film stock ), usually at a rate of 24 frames per second. The images are transmitted through a movie projector at the same rate as they were recorded, with a Geneva drive ensuring that each frame remains still during its short projection time. A rotating shutter causes stroboscopic intervals of darkness, but the viewer does not notice
2943-687: A time through "peep show" devices such as the Electrotachyscope , Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope . Not much later, exhibitors managed to project films on large screens for theatre audiences. The first public screenings of films at which admission was charged were made in 1895 by the American Woodville Latham and his sons, using films produced by their Eidoloscope company, by the Skladanowsky brothers and by
3052-531: A total of circa 7,000 paying customers came to view a 1.5-hour show of some 40 scenes at a 300-seat hall in the old Reichstag building in Berlin. Émile Reynaud already mentioned the possibility of projecting the images of the Praxinoscope in his 1877 patent application. He presented a praxinoscope projection device at the Société française de photographie on 4 June 1880, but did not market his praxinoscope
3161-516: A total of over 500,000 visitors at the Musée Grévin in Paris. By the end of the 1880s, the introduction of lengths of celluloid photographic film and the invention of motion picture cameras , which could photograph a rapid sequence of images using only one lens, allowed action to be captured and stored on a single compact reel of film. Movies were initially shown publicly to one person at
3270-474: A valid fine art . André Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that film's artistic essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality, not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to realist theory . More recent analysis spurred by Jacques Lacan 's psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de Saussure 's semiotics among other things has given rise to psychoanalytic film theory , structuralist film theory , feminist film theory , and others. On
3379-453: Is E. L. James 's Fifty Shades of Grey , which was originally written as fan fiction for the Twilight series and featured Bella and Edward. To avoid copyright infringement, James changed the characters' names to Ana and Christian for the purposes of her novels, a practice known as 'pulling-to-publish'. Anna Todd 's 2013 fan fiction After , about the boy band One Direction , secured
Radclyffe - Misplaced Pages Continue
3488-399: Is fiction written in an amateur capacity by fans as a form of fan labor , unauthorized by, but based on, an existing work of fiction . The author uses copyrighted characters , settings, or other intellectual properties from the original creator(s) as a basis for their writing and can retain the original characters and settings, add their own, or both. Fan fiction ranges in length from
3597-431: Is "fusion fic", in which the two universes are merged into one. Stories that are darker or more depressing than the original, often done in contrast to them. This is sometimes done with media that is intended to be light-hearted or for children. Darkfic can also refer to content that is "intentionally disturbing", such as physical or emotional violence or abuse. However, not all stories tagged as "dark" are considered to be
3706-521: Is a combination of "song" and "fiction"; as such, it is also referred to as "songfiction". Since many song lyrics are under copyright , whether songfics are a violation of copyright law is a subject of debate. Some fan fiction sites, such as FanFiction.Net, have prevented authors from posting songfics with lyrics from songs that are not in the public domain . In an essay in Music, Sound, and Silence in Buffy
3815-457: Is a piece of writing that is exactly 100 words long, although it is commonly used to refer to any short fan fiction. A fandom is a group of fans of a work of fiction who dedicate their time and energy to their interest. Fan labor , such as fan fiction, is written by fans as a way to express their creativity and love for the original work. A person who is an enthusiastic member of one or more fandoms. The term fangirling/fanboying refers to when
3924-440: Is a variant of romance that focuses on exploring a relationship between two or more characters from the original fandom(s). It has several fandom-specific subgenres, including slash, which focuses on homosexual pairings, and femslash , which is similar but instead focuses on lesbian pairings. The term "shipping" can also refer to a fan who is heavily invested in a relationship between two characters. Writers of fan fiction often use
4033-465: Is featured in the documentary Love Between the Covers , "An entertaining and inspiring look into the billion-dollar romance fiction industry and its powerhouse of female writers and readers, a sisterhood that’s pioneering the digital revolution while finding fortune, fulfillment, and a global community." Fan fiction Fan fiction or fanfiction , also known as fan fic , fanfic , fic or FF ,
4142-411: Is having a shot that zooms in on the forehead of an actor with an expression of silent reflection that cuts to a shot of a younger actor who vaguely resembles the first actor, indicating that the first person is remembering a past self, an edit of compositions that causes a time transition. Montage is a film editing technique in which separate pieces of film are selected, edited, and assembled to create
4251-446: Is the greatest director , the one who invented a new language , true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream." An example of the language is a sequence of back and forth images of one speaking actor's left profile, followed by another speaking actor's right profile, then a repetition of this, which is a language understood by the audience to indicate a conversation. This describes another theory of film,
4360-504: Is used, either instead of or in addition to a trigger warning. Trigger warnings are usually used when the subject matter of a work deals with issues such as drug abuse, mental illness, abuse, or extreme violence. Archive of Our Own has codified a system of common warnings into its core tags , requiring authors to either disclose or explicitly choose not to disclose if their work contains graphic violence, major character death, rape, or underage sex. Movies A film , also known as
4469-453: Is whump, which focuses on the character's suffering, sometimes to the exclusion of comfort; excessive whump may also be considered darkfic. Stories in which a version of the author is transported to the fictional world that the fan fiction is based on, which are often written in the first person . Self-insert fanfiction is often compared to Mary Sue characters. Some researchers argue that self-insert characters can be found in literature from
Radclyffe - Misplaced Pages Continue
4578-460: The 180-degree rule , as a visual story-telling device with an ability to place a viewer in a context of being psychologically present through the use of visual composition and editing. The " Hollywood style " includes this narrative theory, due to the overwhelming practice of the rule by movie studios based in Hollywood, California, during film's classical era. Another example of cinematic language
4687-545: The French New Wave , New German Cinema wave, Indian New Wave , Japanese New Wave , New Hollywood , and Egyptian New Wave ) and the rise of film-school-educated independent filmmakers contributed to the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital technology has been the driving force for change throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s. Digital 3D projection largely replaced earlier problem-prone 3D film systems and has become popular in
4796-802: The Indian film industry's Hindi cinema which produces the largest number of films in the world. Though the expense involved in making films has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios , recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish. Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of filmmaking; many films have large cost overruns , an example being Kevin Costner 's Waterworld . Yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also known as "the Oscars") are
4905-543: The Lambda Literary Foundation awarded Barot with the Dr. James Duggins Outstanding Mid-Career Novelist award acknowledging her as an established author with a strong following and the promise of future high-quality work. In 2015 she was a featured author in the award-winning documentary film about the romance writing and reading community, Love Between the Covers , from Blueberry Hill Productions. In 2019 she
5014-1370: The United Kingdom , 5.6% in Canada , and 4% in Australia . A 2020 study of Archive Of Our Own users found that of the surveyed profiles that stated a nationality, 59.7% were located in North America, 16.1% in Great Britain and an additional 10% in Mainland Europe, 6.3% in Oceania, 2.8% in Scandinavia, 2.2% in Asia, 1.8% in South America and the Caribbean, and 0.2% in the Middle East. The study did not include profiles written in Chinese, Greek, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, or Turkish. A 2020 study of Harry Potter fan fiction writers on Archive of Our Own found that of
5123-421: The "regular" list of genres , there are some genres particularly associated with fan fiction. These genres can overlap and include: Stories with an angst -ridden mood that focus on a character or characters who are brooding, sorrowful, or in anguish. Stories that feature characters set in a universe other than their canonical one. There are several types of alternative universe: it may make dramatic changes to
5232-438: The 1840s and commercial success since the early 1850s, raised interest in completing the photographic medium with the addition of means to capture colour and motion. In 1849, Joseph Plateau published about the idea to combine his invention of the phénakisticope with the stereoscope, as suggested to him by stereoscope inventor Charles Wheatstone , and to use photographs of plaster sculptures in different positions to be animated in
5341-427: The 1890s. Photography was introduced in 1839, but initially photographic emulsions needed such long exposures that the recording of moving subjects seemed impossible. At least as early as 1844, photographic series of subjects posed in different positions were created to either suggest a motion sequence or document a range of different viewing angles. The advent of stereoscopic photography, with early experiments in
5450-432: The 1920s, with pioneering Soviet filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Lev Kuleshov developing the theory of montage. Eisenstein's film Battleship Potemkin (1925) is a prime example of the innovative use of montage, where he employed complex juxtapositions of images to create a visceral impact on the audience. As the art of montage evolved, filmmakers began incorporating musical and visual counterpoint to create
5559-503: The 1960s and 1970s, as dōjinshi , independently published manga and novels, were published by dōjin circles, with many being based on existing manga , anime , and video game franchises. Manga artists such as Shotaro Ishinomori and Fujiko Fujio formed dōjin groups, such as Fujio's New Manga Party ( 新漫画党 , Shin Manga-tō ) . At the time, artists used dōjin groups to make their debut as professional artists. This changed in
SECTION 50
#17327720867605668-515: The 1960s. The first Star Trek fanzine, Spockanalia (1967), contained some fan fiction; many others followed its example. These fanzines were produced using offset printing and mimeography and mailed to other fans or sold at science fiction conventions for a small fee to cover the cost of production. Unlike other aspects of fandom, women were the primary authors of fan fiction; 83% of Star Trek fan fiction authors were female by 1970, and 90% by 1973. One scholar states that fan fiction "fill[s]
5777-413: The 19th century and earlier. There are several types of self-inserts, including: "y/n" (short for [insert] your name"), "xReader," and "imagines." Several of these subgenres are unique to specific platforms. Stories based on an existing fan work. On Archive of Our Own, this type of recursive fan fiction is called a "remix". Stories which are interspersed with the lyrics of a relevant song. The term
5886-686: The 2000s is so intense, well-coordinated and well financed that reviewers cannot prevent a poorly written or filmed blockbuster from attaining market success. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily promoted films which were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent films indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Other observers note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films. Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of
5995-508: The Dolby A noise reduction system, which became a standard in the recording industry and eliminated the hissing sound associated with earlier standardization efforts. Dolby Stereo , a revolutionary surround sound system, followed and allowed cinema designers to take acoustics into consideration when designing theaters. This innovation enabled audiences in smaller venues to enjoy comparable audio experiences to those in larger city theaters. Today,
6104-1111: The RWA/New England Bean Pot award, the RWA/VCRW Laurel Wreath award, the RWA/FTHRW Lories award, the RWA/HODRW Aspen Gold award, the RWA Prism award, the Golden Crown Literary Award, and the Lambda Literary Award . She is a 2003/04 recipient of the Alice B Readers Award for her body of work as well as a member of the Golden Crown Literary Society , Pink Ink, and the Romance Writers of America . In 2014,
6213-458: The United States is "movie", while in Europe , "film" is preferred. Archaic terms include "animated pictures" and "animated photography". "Flick" is, in general a slang term, first recorded in 1926. It originates in the verb flicker, owing to the flickering appearance of early films. Common terms for the field, in general, include "the big screen", "the movies", "the silver screen", and "cinema";
6322-402: The United States, movie is the predominant term for the medium. Although the words film and movie are sometimes used interchangeably, film is more often used when considering artistic , theoretical , or technical aspects. The term movies more often refers to entertainment or commercial aspects, as where to go for fun evening on a date. For example, a book titled How to Understand
6431-545: The Vampire Slayer , University of Sydney professor Catherine Driscoll commented that the genre was "one of the least distinguished modes of fan production" and that "within fan fiction excessive attachment to or foregrounding of popular music is itself dismissed as immature and derivative". Uberfic is a form of alternative universe in which characters physically resemble and share personality traits with their canon counterparts, but have new names and backgrounds in
6540-653: The Worlds and The Time Machine by H. G. Wells ; A New Alice in the Old Wonderland , based on Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll ; and Wide Sargasso Sea , based on Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte . The modern phenomenon of fan fiction as an expression of fandom and fan interaction was popularized and defined by the Star Trek fandom and its fanzines , which were published in
6649-414: The backstory of a character or the nature of relationships between characters. It can be drawn from subtext present in the canon, but cannot directly contradict it. If other fans share this interpretation, it can become fanon. A Mary Sue , also known as MS, is a term which editors and writers credit as originating in Star Trek fan fiction and later becoming part of the mainstream. In early fan fiction,
SECTION 60
#17327720867606758-502: The beginning or after the end of a fan fiction or its chapters, but can be written at any point in the story and are used to convey direct messages from the author to the reader regarding it. Also known as a beta. Someone who edits or proofreads someone else's fan fiction. The original story. This refers to anything related to the original source, including the plot, setting, and characters. Disclaimers are author's notes which typically inform readers about who deserves credit for
6867-479: The chronophotography works of Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey . In 1886, Anschütz developed the Electrotachyscope , an early device that displayed short motion picture loops with 24 glass plate photographs on a 1.5 meter wide rotating wheel that was hand-cranked to a speed of circa 30 frames per second. Different versions were shown at many international exhibitions, fairs, conventions, and arcades from 1887 until at least 1894. Starting in 1891, some 152 examples of
6976-552: The combined device. In 1852, Jules Duboscq patented such an instrument as the "Stéréoscope-fantascope, ou Bïoscope", but he only marketed it very briefly, without success. One Bïoscope disc with stereoscopic photographs of a machine is in the Plateau collection of Ghent University, but no instruments or other discs have yet been found. By the late 1850s the first examples of instantaneous photography came about and provided hope that motion photography would soon be possible, but it took
7085-403: The contours of dozens of his chronophotographic series traced onto glass discs and projected them with his zoopraxiscope in his lectures from 1880 to 1895. Anschütz made his first instantaneous photographs in 1881. He developed a portable camera that allowed shutter speeds as short as 1/1000 of a second in 1882. The quality of his pictures was generally regarded as much higher than that of
7194-434: The copyright holder and those that were not. Fan fiction is defined by being related to its subject's canonical fictional universe , either staying within those boundaries but not being part of the canon, or being set in an alternative universe . Thus, what is considered "fanon" is separate from canon. Fan fiction is often written and published among fans, and as such does not usually cater to readers without knowledge of
7303-704: The craft of writing, and in 2013, she founded the Flax Mill Creek Writers Retreat where she offers both face-to-face and online workshops to authors at all stages of development. She lives with her partner , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute professor Dr. Lee Ligon, in Johnsonville, New York . She is a double-boarded General/Plastic and Reconstructive surgeon who retired from medicine in 2004 to devote herself full-time to writing and publishing. Barot chooses not to type, instead using speech recognition software to write her books. Barot
7412-593: The early 2010s. " Film theory " seeks to develop concise and systematic concepts that apply to the study of film as art . The concept of film as an art-form began in 1911 with Ricciotto Canudo 's manifest The Birth of the Sixth Art . The Moscow Film School , the oldest film school in the world, was founded in 1919, in order to teach about and research film theory. Formalist film theory , led by Rudolf Arnheim , Béla Balázs , and Siegfried Kracauer , emphasized how film differed from reality and thus could be considered
7521-792: The film. However, this usually backfires, as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result. Journalist film critics are sometimes called film reviewers. Critics who take a more academic approach to films, through publishing in film journals and writing books about films using film theory or film studies approaches, study how film and filming techniques work, and what effect they have on people. Rather than having their reviews published in newspapers or appearing on television, their articles are published in scholarly journals or up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities as professors or instructors. The making and showing of motion pictures became
7630-591: The following decades, as dōjinshi became more popular and dōjin groups formed in groups such as school clubs. This culminated in 1975 with the Comiket , a convention in Tokyo that helped to establish the fandom. A 2010 study found that 75.2% of account holders on FanFiction.Net allowed the website to disclose their location and that 57% of accounts originated from the United States , followed by 9.2% created in
7739-410: The future of sound in film remains uncertain, with potential influences from artificial intelligence , remastered audio, and personal viewing experiences shaping its development. However, it is clear that the evolution of sound in cinema has been marked by continuous innovation and a desire to create more immersive and engaging experiences for audiences. A significant technological advancement in film
7848-522: The future of the cinema industry, and Hollywood employment has become less reliable, particularly for medium and low-budget films. Derivative academic fields of study may both interact with and develop independently of filmmaking, as in film theory and analysis. Fields of academic study have been created that are derivative or dependent on the existence of film, such as film criticism , film history , divisions of film propaganda in authoritarian governments, or psychological on subliminal effects (e.g., of
7957-420: The genre to explore homosexual pairings for popular characters who are not in, or not specified to be in, homosexual relationships in canon. A subcategory of shipping, "curtainfic", which depicts romantic couples in mundane domestic situations such as picking out curtains, was once used but has somewhat fallen out of use. Also known as porn or erotica . Sexually explicit or pornographic fan fiction, which can be
8066-493: The innovative work of D. W. Griffith in The Birth of a Nation (1915) and Intolerance (1916). However, in the 1920s, European filmmakers such as Eisenstein , F. W. Murnau and Fritz Lang , in many ways inspired by the meteoric wartime progress of film through Griffith, along with the contributions of Charles Chaplin , Buster Keaton and others, quickly caught up with American film-making and continued to further advance
8175-432: The interruptions due to flicker fusion . The apparent motion on the screen is the result of the fact that the visual sense cannot discern the individual images at high speeds, so the impressions of the images blend with the dark intervals and are thus linked together to produce the illusion of one moving image. An analogous optical soundtrack (a graphic recording of the spoken words, music, and other sounds ) runs along
8284-486: The jurisdiction and on legal questions, such as whether or not it qualifies as " fair use " (see Legal issues with fan fiction ). The attitudes of authors and copyright owners of original works towards fan fiction have ranged from encouragement to indifference or disapproval, and have occasionally responded with legal action. The term came into use in the 20th century as copyright laws began to distinguish between stories using established characters that were authorized by
8393-452: The last of these is commonly used, as an overarching term, in scholarly texts and critical essays. In the early years, the word "sheet" was sometimes used instead of "screen". The art of film has drawn on several earlier traditions in fields such as oral storytelling , literature , theatre and visual arts . Forms of art and entertainment that had already featured moving or projected images include: The stroboscopic animation principle
8502-461: The majority of most film reviews can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film. For prestige films such as most dramas and art films , the influence of reviews is important. Poor reviews from leading critics at major papers and magazines will often reduce audience interest and attendance. The impact of a reviewer on a given film's box office performance is a matter of debate. Some observers claim that movie marketing in
8611-405: The medium. In the 1920s, the development of electronic sound recording technologies made it practical to incorporate a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. The resulting sound films were initially distinguished from the usual silent "moving pictures" or "movies" by calling them "talking pictures" or "talkies." The revolution they wrought
8720-401: The mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music to be used for this purpose, and complete film scores were composed for major productions. The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I , while the film industry in the United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood , typified most prominently by
8829-482: The most popular works for unauthorized adaptations, with a notable example of Jane Austen fan fiction being Old Friends and New Fancies . Many unauthorized stories of Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle have been created, including The Adventure of the Two Collaborators by J. M. Barrie . Other notable works include The Space Machine and Morlock Night , respectively based on The War of
8938-440: The most prominent film awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to films, based on their artistic merits. There is also a large industry for educational and instructional films made in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts. Revenue in the industry is sometimes volatile due to the reliance on blockbuster films released in movie theaters . The rise of alternative home entertainment has raised questions about
9047-477: The name of the medium is film . The word movie is understood but seldom used. Additionally, the pictures (plural) is used somewhat frequently to refer to the place where movies are exhibited; in American English this may be called the movies , but that term is becoming outdated. In other countries, the place where movies are exhibited may be called a cinema or movie theatre . By contrast, in
9156-724: The need of a mostly female audience for fictional narratives that expand the boundary of the official source products offered on the television and movie screen." Fan fiction has become more popular and widespread since the advent of the World Wide Web. According to one estimate, fan fiction comprises one-third of all book-related content on the internet. In addition to traditional fanzines and conventions, Usenet newsgroups and electronic mailing lists were established for fan fiction and fan discussion. Online, searchable archives of fan fiction were also created, with these archives initially being non-commercial hand-tended and specific to
9265-436: The number of films made in color gradually increased year after year. In the early 1950s, the proliferation of black-and-white television started seriously depressing North American theater attendance. In an attempt to lure audiences back into theaters, bigger screens were installed, widescreen processes, polarized 3D projection , and stereophonic sound were introduced, and more films were made in color, which soon became
9374-466: The original media. The term fan fiction has been used in print as early as 1938; in the earliest known citations, it refers to amateur-written science fiction , as opposed to "pro fiction". The term also appears in the 1944 Fancyclopedia , an encyclopaedia of fandom jargon , in which it is defined as "fiction about fans, or sometimes about pros, and occasionally bringing in some famous characters from [science fiction] stories". It also mentions that
9483-412: The original plot. It is also called "Peggy Sue" after the movie Peggy Sue Got Married , in which this scenario happens to the titular character. "Groundhog Day", named after the film , is a variation of this trope in which time travel happens repeatedly, usually until the time traveler "gets it right". Stories that feature characters, items, or locations from multiple fandoms. Another type of crossover
9592-434: The original source material, and often containing pseudo-legal language disavowing any intent of copyright infringement or alluding to fair use . Such "disclaimers" are legally ineffective and are based on misunderstandings of copyright law , particularly confusion between illegal copyright infringement and unethical plagiarism . Disclaimers have fallen out of use since Archive of Our Own's rise in popularity. A drabble
9701-454: The other hand, critics from the analytical philosophy tradition, influenced by Wittgenstein , try to clarify misconceptions used in theoretical studies and produce analysis of a film's vocabulary and its link to a form of life . Film is considered to have its own language . James Monaco wrote a classic text on film theory, titled "How to Read a Film," that addresses this. Director Ingmar Bergman famously said, " Andrei Tarkovsky for me
9810-523: The rule rather than the exception. Some important mainstream Hollywood films were still being made in black-and-white as late as the mid-1960s, but they marked the end of an era. Color television receivers had been available in the US since the mid-1950s, but at first, they were very expensive and few broadcasts were in color. During the 1960s, prices gradually came down, color broadcasts became common, and sales boomed. The overwhelming public verdict in favor of color
9919-492: The same dreams and hurts, then it deserves to be called great. — Roger Ebert (1986) Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. In general, these works can be divided into two categories: academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media. Film critics working for newspapers, magazines , and broadcast media mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given film once and have only
10028-438: The setting, such as a "fantasy AU" that places characters from a non-fantasy canon in a world of magic; change characterization, which is often referred to as someone being "out of character" (OOC) rather than a proper AU; or change major plot events to suit the author's purposes, such as in a fix-it fic . Stories that feature characters in a world, often very similar to canon, where soulmates are real. Common mechanics include
10137-517: The story. Stories that rewrite canonical events that the author disliked or otherwise wanted to "fix", such as major plot holes or a tragic event or ending; for instance, an alternate universe where "everyone lives". Fix-it fics that focus on correcting flaws in the original work are also known as a "rebuild fic", named after the Rebuild of Evangelion series. If it focuses heavily on critical thinking skills and deductive reasoning, it can be considered
10246-510: The street, and the view from the front of a trolley as it traveled a city's Main Street. According to legend, when a film showed a locomotive at high speed approaching the audience, the audience panicked and ran from the theater. Around the turn of the 20th century, films started stringing several scenes together to tell a story. (The filmmakers who first put several shots or scenes discovered that, when one shot follows another, that act establishes
10355-445: The television threat emerged in the 1940s and 1950s, the film industry needed to innovate to attract audiences. In terms of sound technology, this meant the development of surround sound and more sophisticated audio systems, such as Cinerama's seven-channel system. However, these advances required a large number of personnel to operate the equipment and maintain the sound experience in theaters. In 1966, Dolby Laboratories introduced
10464-463: The term "one true pairing", referring to a person's favorite ship. OT3, OT4, and so on is the term used for a polyamorous OTP. A standalone piece of writing, as opposed to a multichapter work. Stories about real people, usually celebrities, rather than fictional characters. The book After by Anna Todd , later adapted into a film of the same name , was originally a real person fan fiction about One Direction member Harry Styles . Shipping
10573-448: The term is "sometimes improperly used to mean fan science fiction; that is, ordinary fantasy published in a fan magazine ". Before the adoption of copyright in the modern sense, it was common for authors to copy characters or plots from other works. For instance, Shakespeare 's plays Romeo and Juliet , Much Ado About Nothing , Othello , As You Like It and The Winter's Tale were based on recent works by other authors of
10682-413: The time. In 1614, Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda wrote a sequel to Cervantes' Don Quixote before he had finished and published his own second volume. Among 19th-century literature that has been subject to depictions not authorized by the original author include Bram Stoker 's Dracula ' s depiction in the translated adaptation Powers of Darkness . The works of Jane Austen remain among
10791-451: The traditional montage technique to suit the evolving aesthetics and storytelling styles of modern cinema. As the medium of film continues to evolve, montage remains an integral aspect of visual storytelling, with filmmakers finding new and innovative ways to employ this powerful technique. If a movie can illuminate the lives of other people who share this planet with us and show us not only how different they are but, how even so, they share
10900-571: The users who disclosed their gender in their profiles, 50.4% were female or femme -leaning and 13.4% were masculine or masc-leaning. 11% of users were transgender , 21% identified as nonbinary , genderfluid , and/or genderqueer , and an additional 3.9% stated that they identified as agender or genderless. The study also found that fan fiction writers tend to be in their early to mid-20s. Of these writers, 56.7% were university students and young adults, 21.3% were 30 years or older, 19.8% were teenagers, and 0.2% were of retirement age. In addition to
11009-564: The various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import, and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. By 1917 Charlie Chaplin had
11118-420: The – arguably better known – French brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière with ten of their own productions. Private screenings had preceded these by several months, with Latham's slightly predating the otherss'. The earliest films were simply one static shot that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques . Typical films showed employees leaving a factory gate, people walking in
11227-765: Was valedictorian of the June 1968 graduating class of Hudson Falls High School in Hudson Falls, New York , after which she attended the State University of New York at Albany . Barot graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1976. The Provincetown Tales PMC Hospital Romances Rivers Community Romances Honor Series Justice Series First Responders Novels Romances Short Fiction Midnight Hunters Series (Writing as L.L. Raand) Edited Anthologies Radclyffe
11336-488: Was clear. After the final flurry of black-and-white films had been released in mid-decade, all Hollywood studio productions were filmed in color, with the usual exceptions made only at the insistence of "star" filmmakers such as Peter Bogdanovich and Martin Scorsese . The decades following the decline of the studio system in the 1960s saw changes in the production and style of film. Various New Wave movements (including
11445-549: Was introduced in 1833 with the stroboscopic disc (better known as the phénakisticope ) and later applied in the zoetrope (since 1866), the flip book (since 1868), and the praxinoscope (since 1877), before it became the basic principle for cinematography. Experiments with early phénakisticope-based animation projectors were made at least as early as 1843 and publicly screened in 1847. Jules Duboscq marketed phénakisticope projection systems in France from c. 1853 until
11554-588: Was named a Trailblazer in Romance by the Romance Writers of America, for her works of LGBTQ+ fiction. In 2021, she was named one of The Advocate 's Women of the Year. Barot founded the independent LGBTQ+ publishing company Bold Strokes Books in 2004, whose mission is to publish quality works of LGBTQ+ fiction and to create visibility and opportunities for own-voices authors. She has given many workshops on
11663-947: Was swift. By 1930, silent film was practically extinct in the US and already being referred to as "the old medium." The evolution of sound in cinema began with the idea of combining moving images with existing phonograph sound technology. Early sound-film systems, such as Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope and the Vitaphone used by Warner Bros ., laid the groundwork for synchronized sound in film. The Vitaphone system, produced alongside Bell Telephone Company and Western Electric , faced initial resistance due to expensive equipping costs, but sound in cinema gained acceptance with movies like Don Juan (1926) and The Jazz Singer (1927). American film studios, while Europe standardized on Tobis-Klangfilm and Tri-Ergon systems. This new technology allowed for greater fluidity in film, giving rise to more complex and epic movies like King Kong (1933). As
11772-458: Was the introduction of "natural color," where color was captured directly from nature through photography, as opposed to being manually added to black-and-white prints using techniques like hand-coloring or stencil-coloring. Early color processes often produced colors that appeared far from "natural". Unlike the rapid transition from silent films to sound films, color's replacement of black-and-white happened more gradually. The crucial innovation
11881-485: Was the three-strip version of the Technicolor process, first used in animated cartoons in 1932. The process was later applied to live-action short films, specific sequences in feature films, and finally, for an entire feature film, Becky Sharp, in 1935. Although the process was expensive, the positive public response, as evidenced by increased box office revenue, generally justified the additional cost. Consequently,
#759240