130-483: Libertarian Party Radical Caucus (sometimes abbreviated as "LPRadicals") is a caucus formed in 2006 within the United States Libertarian Party by Susan Hogarth and other party members who opposed removal of much of the material in the party platform during the 2006 national party convention . The caucus generally subscribes to an ideology of anarcho-capitalism . The caucus was active at
260-453: A dame school , conducted at a teacher's home and centered on The New England Primer . He then attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer, but his father commanded that he remain in school. Deacon Adams hired
390-419: A de facto Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly. He authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements for a treaty with France. He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and
520-648: A commercial treaty with France. He was appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, Benjamin Harrison from Virginia , and Robert Morris from Pennsylvania , "to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the Model Treaty , which authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. The treaty adhered to
650-417: A common table, the disputants retreat to a more private setting to process information, agree on negotiation strategy, confer privately with counsel or with the mediator, or simply gain "breathing room" after the often emotionally difficult interactions that can occur in the common area where all parties are present. The degree to which caucuses are used can be a key defining element, and often an identifier, of
780-498: A continuing correspondence. He and Abigail started the Adams political family , which includes their son John Quincy Adams , the sixth president. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. New Englanders Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve who never owned slaves . Historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration . John Adams
910-645: A homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend Benjamin Waterhouse . In August, shortly after being removed from his position of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams had "a major nervous breakdown." That November, he learned that American and French troops had decisively defeated the British at Yorktown . The victory was in large part due to the assistance of the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance. News of
1040-537: A joke which soon became popular. On May 14, 1789, the Senate decided that the title of " Mr. President " would be used. Privately, Adams conceded that his vice presidency had begun poorly and that perhaps he had been out of the country too long to know the sentiment of the people. Washington quietly expressed his displeasure with the fuss. As vice president, Adams largely sided with the Washington administration and
1170-456: A lack of news of progress from home. The news he received of tumult at home, such as Shays' Rebellion , heightened his anxiety. He asked Jay to be relieved; in 1788, he took his leave of George III, who promised to uphold his end of the treaty once America did the same. Adams then went to The Hague to take formal leave of his ambassadorship there and to secure refinancing from the Dutch, allowing
1300-562: A large House, and he has a moveable Partition in his Garrett, which he takes down and the whole Clubb meets in one Room. There they smoke tobacco till you cannot see from one End of the Garrett to the other. There they drink Phlip I suppose, and there they choose a Moderator, who puts Questions to the Vote regularly, and Selectman , Assessors , Collectors , Wardens, Fire Wards , and Representatives are Regularly chosen before they are chosen in
1430-627: A larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city. In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant John Hancock , who was accused of violating British acts of trade in the Liberty Affair . With the death of Jeremiah Gridley and the mental collapse of James Otis Jr. , Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer. Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led
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#17327721143951560-674: A list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority. Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success. He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress. Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of
1690-541: A minor role in politics as vice president. He attended few cabinet meetings, and the President sought his counsel infrequently. While Adams brought energy and dedication to the office, by mid-1789 he had already found it "not quite adapted to my character ... too inactive, and mechanical." He wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived." Adams's initial behavior in
1820-763: A model for other towns. Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the Boston Gazette . The articles were republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America , or A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law . He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing
1950-411: A new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively. Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children." At age sixteen, Adams entered Harvard College in 1751, studying under Joseph Mayhew . As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying
2080-533: A number of warm disputes are prepared, to entertain the lower sort … William Gordon commented in 1788: The word caucus , and its derivative caucusing, are often used in Boston […] It seems to mean, a number of persons, whether more or less, met together to consult upon adopting or presenting some scheme of policy, for carrying a favorite point. The word is not of novel invention. More than fifty years ago, Mr. Samuel Adams 's father, and twenty others, one or two from
2210-487: A packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defense was helped by a weak prosecution, he "performed brilliantly." Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the Massachusetts legislature , and Adams
2340-486: A particular party in Parliament, including senators, or a provincial legislature. These members elect among themselves a caucus chair who presides over their meetings. This person is an important figure when the party is in opposition , and is an important link between cabinet and the backbench when the party is in government . In such contexts, a party caucus can be quite powerful, as it can elect or dismiss
2470-547: A political party to nominate candidates, plan policy, etc., in the United States Congress , or other similar representative organs of government. It has spread to certain Commonwealth countries, including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and South Africa , where it generally refers to a regular meeting of all members of Parliament (MPs) who belong to a parliamentary party : a party caucus may have
2600-792: A private note of "that American system called caucus". The Liberal Caucus was also vilified by socialists and trade unionists , who (prior to the establishment of the Independent Labour Party ) sought a route to parliamentary representation through the Liberal Party via the Labour Representation League and the Labour Electoral Association , but found their way barred by the party's management structures. Moisey Ostrogorsky devoted some nine chapters of his Democracy and
2730-653: A rapport with delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary. On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the Lee Resolution , which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states." Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized a Committee of Five charged with drafting a Declaration of Independence . He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman . Jefferson thought Adams should write
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#17327721143952860-528: A tie-breaking vote. Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as "George Washington, President of the United States", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the style of Highness (as well as
2990-499: A town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman. With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased. Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a house on Brattle Street that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; later they moved again to
3120-593: Is " parliamentary party ". When the term is used, it generally refers to a subgroup, faction or pressure group within a political party. For example, in 2019 the One Nation Conservatives and Blue Collar Conservatives were established as factions within the Conservative Party , both being described as "caucuses". In conventions , where the membership from different parts of the organization may gather, each separate group within
3250-461: Is a sub grouping of officials with shared affinities or ethnicities who convene, often but not always to advocate, agitate, lobby or to vote collectively, on policy. At the highest level, in Congress and many state legislatures, Democratic and Republican members organize themselves into a caucus (occasionally called a "conference"). There can be smaller caucuses in a legislative body, including those that are multi- partisan or even bicameral . Of
3380-631: Is more usually a collective term for all members of a party sitting in Parliament, otherwise called a parliamentary group , rather than a word for a regular meeting of these members of Parliament . Thus, the Australian Federal Parliamentary Labor Party is commonly called "the Labor Caucus ". The word was used in New Zealand from at least the 1890s, when organized political parties began to emerge:
3510-590: Is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution . In the first two presidential elections, the Electoral College handled nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 which selected George Washington . After that, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party's presidential candidates. Nationally, these caucuses were replaced by the party convention starting in 1832 following
3640-575: The 2008 and 2010 Libertarian National Conventions . The radical caucus was revived and was extraordinarily active during the 2016 Libertarian National Convention . The LPRadicals remained informally organized from 2006 through 2016 at which time it organized with bylaws and a new website under the Libertarian Party Radical Caucus moniker--the term LPRadicals being used interchangeably. The founding caucus members are Susan Hogarth and Marc Montoni. The first iteration of
3770-596: The Boston arrived in France, where Adams learned that France had agreed to an alliance with the United States on February 6. Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the popular and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly deferential to the French. He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping. Frustrated by
3900-719: The Boston Massacre . Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a diplomat, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced
4030-615: The Founding Fathers , persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the view of remaining part of Great Britain was preferable. His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in
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4160-664: The Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. John Adams, Samuel, and Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by the House of Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that
4290-782: The Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton . Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in an undeclared naval war with France. He was the first president to reside in the White House . In his bid in 1800 for reelection to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating
4420-540: The Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11. Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject." Adams learned many years later that his name was on
4550-605: The United States Constitution , as did his essay Thoughts on Government . Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796 . He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party . Adams's term was dominated by the issue of the French Revolutionary Wars , and his insistence on American neutrality led to fierce criticism from both
4680-630: The debate over the Revolution within Britain. Adams corresponded with his sons John Quincy and Charles, both of whom were at Harvard, cautioning the former against the "smell of the midnight lamp" while admonishing the latter to devote sufficient time to study. Jefferson visited Adams in 1786 while serving as Minister to France; the two toured the countryside and saw many historical sites. While in London, Adams met his old friend Jonathan Sewall , but
4810-496: The " Braintree Instructions " in 1765, in a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. It explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as
4940-565: The American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in Amsterdam in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived,
5070-518: The American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents, and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts , rather than common law courts. These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked. The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement. Adams authored
5200-605: The American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. In January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague to demand that the States General answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment. Several provinces began recognizing American independence. On April 19, the States General formally recognized American independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador. On June 11, with
5330-521: The British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance. In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be named commissioner to France, replacing Silas Deane and joining Franklin and Arthur Lee in Paris to negotiate an alliance with the French. James Lovell invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the need to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's age. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. Abigail
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5460-537: The British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline. A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress as the leader of
5590-492: The British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans and authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of Mammon ." He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to
5720-441: The British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead dealing directly with the British. During these negotiations, Adams mentioned to the British that his proposed fishing terms were more generous than those offered by France in 1778 and that accepting would foster goodwill between Britain and
5850-495: The British to dispatch more troops to the colonies. On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob, eight of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, in the infamous Boston Massacre . The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams
5980-440: The Dutch government at The Hague on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams thwarted an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the war without consulting the United States. In July, Adams consented to the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary Francis Dana to Saint Petersburg as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from Russia , and
6110-474: The Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew frustrated by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing substantial aid. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their hands "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but not to lift our heads out of water." In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue
6240-417: The French. The alliance had been made over two years before. During that period, an army under the comte de Rochambeau had been sent to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. However, the French Navy had been sent not to
6370-544: The LP Radical Caucus was active from 1972 to 1974. The creator of the caucus, Samuel Edward Konkin III , used it in a brief attempt to steer the fledgling movement away from participating in the political process. While some members of the recent iterations of the caucus, including left-wing market anarchists and agorists , identify with the views of Konkin, the present membership requirements include participation in
6500-603: The Libertarian Party in 1983, returning to the Republican Party . That Radical Caucus was dissolved in 1984. Caucus A caucus is a meeting or grouping of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement. The exact definition varies between different countries and political cultures. The term originated in the United States , where it can refer to a meeting of members of
6630-471: The Massachusetts colonial elite. Adams was initially less well known than his older cousin Samuel Adams , but his influence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his analysis of history, and his dedication to republicanism . Adams often found his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career. In the late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; he was poised to propose but
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#17327721143956760-459: The Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway , James Duane , and Peter Oliver who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time aligned with those of conservative John Dickinson . Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining
6890-435: The Massachusetts delegation. He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between Loyalists , those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position. He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with Benjamin Franklin 's confidential observation that independence
7020-460: The Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General Jonathan Sewall , not to. Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia , Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to King George III . The committee soon split into conservative and radical factions. Although
7150-518: The Name of the New and Grand Corcas , tho' of declared Principles directly opposite to all that have heretofore been known: And whereas it is vehemently suspected, by some, that their Design is nothing less, than totally to overthrow the ancient Constitution of our Town-Meetings, as being popular and mobbish … The writer goes on to argue that this body's underhand attempts to influence voters are in opposition to
7280-695: The Organization of Political Parties (1902) to discussion of the development and operation of the "Caucus" in this sense. The word "caucus" is only occasionally encountered in contemporary politics in the British Isles. In contrast to other Anglosphere nations, it is never used for all members of a party in Parliament: the usual term for that concept, both in the UK and in the Republic of Ireland ,
7410-722: The Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative." Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals. The Congress disbanded in October after sending the petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the Suffolk Resolves , which called for a boycott of British goods. Adams's absence was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for
7540-401: The Same Language, a Similar Religion and kindred Blood," and the King agreed to "receive with Pleasure, the Assurances of the friendly Dispositions of the United States." The King added that although "he had been the last to consent" to American independence, he had always done what he thought was right. He startled Adams by commenting that "There is an Opinion, among Some People, that you are not
7670-413: The Senate made him a target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, he grew accustomed to a marginal role, and rarely intervened in debate. Adams never questioned Washington's courage or patriotism, but Washington did join Franklin and others as the object of Adams's ire or envy. "The History of our Revolution will be one continued lie," Adams declared. "The essence of
7800-436: The Senate. In 1790, Jefferson, James Madison , and Hamilton struck a bargain guaranteeing Republican support for Hamilton's debt assumption plan in exchange for the capital being temporarily moved from New York to Philadelphia , and then to a permanent site on the Potomac River to placate Southerners. In the Senate, Adams cast a tie-breaking vote against a last-minute motion to keep the capital in New York. Adams played
7930-428: The Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament. He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister Jonathan Mayhew , invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection. While Adams strongly opposed the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations. In 1766,
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#17327721143958060-503: The Town … The following month, a writer signing himself "E. J." and claiming to be "a late Member" of the Boston "Corkass", explained in greater detail how the inner circle of the "Petty Corkass" manipulated the business of the broader "Grand Corkass": At present the heads of this venerable Company meet some weeks before a Town-Meeting, and consult among themselves, appoint town officers, and settle all other affairs that are to be transacted at town meeting; after these few have settled
8190-448: The United States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more fully to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal only with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress critical of Adams. Adams then left France of his own accord. In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the Dutch Republic . One of the few other republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to
8320-419: The United States to meet obligations on earlier loans. On June 17, 1788, Adams returned to a triumphant welcome in Massachusetts. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first presidential election was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on
8450-485: The United States while putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when he learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did not demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations also allowed the French to plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for Gibraltar might have caused significant problems. On September 3, 1783,
8580-426: The ability to elect or dismiss the party's parliamentary leader . The term was used historically in the United Kingdom to refer to the Liberal Party 's internal system of management and control. The word caucus came into use in the British colonies of North America to describe clubs or private meetings at which political matters were discussed. It is first found in reference to the Caucus Club of Boston , which
8710-405: The affairs, they communicate them to the next better sort of their brethren; when they have been properly sounded and instructed, they meet with the heads; these are called the Petty Corkass: Here each recommends his friends, opposes others, juggle and trim, and often have pretty warm disputes; but by compounding and compromising, settle every thing before the Grand Corkass meets; tho' for form sake …
8840-416: The aid of the Dutch Patriotten leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol , Adams negotiated a loan of five million guilders. In October, he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce. The house that Adams bought during this stay in the Netherlands became the first American embassy on foreign soil. After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate
8970-463: The already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt." After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he
9100-430: The apparent slight, he departed France with John Quincy on March 8, 1779. On August 2, they arrived in Braintree. In late 1779, Adams was appointed as the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a commercial treaty with Britain and end the war. Following the Massachusetts constitutional convention, he departed for France in November, accompanied by his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles. A leak forced
9230-542: The colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament : their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King. The Boston Tea Party , a demonstration against the Tea Act and the British East India Company 's tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. Protestors demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds on the British schooner Dartmouth , anchored in Boston harbor. The Dartmouth owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for
9360-692: The destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that it was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. In 1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response to the Intolerable Acts , a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by
9490-416: The dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence." Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients. According to biographer John E. Ferling , during jury selection Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to
9620-589: The distinctions were necessary because the highest office of the United States must be marked with "dignity and splendor". He was widely derided for his combative nature and stubbornness, especially as he actively debated and lectured the senators. "For forty minutes he harangued us from the chair," wrote Senator William Maclay of Pennsylvania. Maclay became Adams's fiercest opponent and repeatedly expressed personal contempt for him in public and private. He likened Adams to "a monkey just put into breeches." Ralph Izard suggested that Adams be referred to as "His Rotundity,"
9750-407: The document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson: "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." The Committee left no minutes, and
9880-476: The dollar. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps." Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming that the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with
10010-556: The drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory. Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role. On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption. Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on
10140-402: The emerging Federalist Party . He supported Washington's policies against opposition from anti-Federalist Republicans . He cast 29 tie-breaking votes , and is one of only three vice presidents who have cast more than 20 during their tenure. He voted against a bill sponsored by Maclay that would have required Senate consent for the removal of executive branch officials who had been confirmed by
10270-462: The family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together." News of the opening hostilities with
10400-458: The final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland. This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly inform
10530-577: The first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence. In the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations for the provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee Resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee . He developed
10660-478: The first man in the House." In June 1776, Adams became head of the Board of War and Ordnance , charged with recording the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition. He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control. Adams functioned as
10790-458: The floor of Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered." On July 2, Congress officially voted for independence. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent. On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never
10920-399: The government systems of the American states. Adams's tenure in Britain was complicated by both countries failing to follow their treaty obligations. The American states had been delinquent in paying debts owed to British merchants, and in response, the British refused to vacate forts in the northwest as promised. Adams's attempts to resolve this dispute failed, and he was often frustrated by
11050-680: The growth and advancement of the Internet. Other congressional caucuses such as the Out of Iraq Caucus , are openly organized tendencies or political factions (within the House Democratic Caucus , in this case), and strive to achieve political goals, similar to a European "platform", but generally organized around a single issue. The term is also used in certain Commonwealth nations, including Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa . When used in these countries, "caucus"
11180-610: The ladies; in short, he has none of those essential arts or ornaments which constitute a courtier. There are thousands who, with a tenth of his understanding and without a spark of his honesty, would distance him infinitely in any court in Europe. While in London Adams wrote his three-volume A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America , a response to those he had met in Europe who criticized
11310-675: The largest of them, the Liberal Party , used it to refer to its parliamentary members. In New Zealand, the term is now used by all political parties, but in Australia, it continues to be used only by the Labor Party . For the Australian Liberal , National and Green parties, the usual equivalent term is "party room". In South Africa all parties use the term "caucus". In Canada, "caucus" refers to all members of
11440-588: The lead of the Anti-Masonic Party 1831 convention. The term caucus is frequently used to discuss the procedures used by some states to select presidential nominees such as the Iowa caucuses , the first of the modern primary presidential election cycle , and the Texas caucuses . Since 1980 such caucuses have become, in the aggregate, an important component of the nomination process. Another meaning
11570-475: The legality of British writs of assistance , which allowed British officials to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument against the writs inspired Adams to the cause of the American colonies . In 1763, Adams explored aspects of political theory in seven essays written for Boston newspapers. Under the pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger", he ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he perceived among
11700-548: The manipulation but not Hamilton's role in it, Adams wrote to Benjamin Rush that his election was "a curse rather than a blessing." Although his term started on March 4, 1789, Adams did not begin serving as vice president until April 21, because he did not arrive in New York in time. The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the vice president is to preside over the U.S. Senate , where they were empowered to cast
11830-672: The many Congressional caucuses , one of the best-known is the Congressional Black Caucus , a group of African-American members of Congress. Another prominent example is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus , whose members voice and advance issues affecting Hispanics in the United States, including Puerto Rico . In a different vein, the Congressional Internet Caucus is a bipartisan group of Members who wish to promote
11960-412: The matter, Adams was the primary contender. Each state's presidential electors gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their two votes for the president . The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president. Adams received 34 electoral college votes in the election, second behind Washington, who was a unanimous choice with 69 votes. As a result, Washington became
12090-447: The mediation model being used. For example, "facilitative mediation" tends to discourage the use of caucuses and tries to keep the parties talking at a single table, while "evaluative mediation" may allow parties to separate more often and rely on the mediator to shuttle information and offers back and forth. [REDACTED] Media related to Caucus at Wikimedia Commons John Adams John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826)
12220-602: The money that he received as a delegate failed to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post. After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, British Admiral Richard Howe determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at
12350-697: The more laudable activities of "the old and true Corcas". A February 1763 entry in the diary of John Adams demonstrates that the word already held its modern connotations of a " smoke-filled room " where candidates for public election were pre-selected in private: This day learned that the Caucas Clubb meets at certain Times in the Garret of Tom Daws , the Adjutant of the Boston Regiment. He has
12480-450: The most attached of all Your Countrymen, to the manners of France." Adams replied, "That Opinion sir, is not mistaken... I have no Attachments but to my own Country." King George responded, "An honest Man will never have any other." Adams was joined by Abigail in London. Suffering the hostility of the King's courtiers, they escaped when they could by seeking out Richard Price , minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church and instigator of
12610-461: The nation's first president , and Adams became its first vice president . Adams finished well ahead of all others except Washington, but was still offended by Washington receiving more than twice as many votes. In an effort to ensure that Adams did not accidentally become president and that Washington would have an overwhelming victory, Alexander Hamilton convinced at least 7 of the 69 electors not to cast their vote for Adams. After finding out about
12740-501: The north end of the town, where all the ship business is carried on, used to meet, make a caucus, and lay their plan for introducing certain persons into places of trust and power. An analogical Latin-type plural "cauci" is occasionally used. In United States politics and government, caucus has several related but distinct meanings. Members of a political party or subgroup may meet to coordinate members' actions, choose group policy, or nominate candidates for various offices. There
12870-513: The office of vice president of the United States , serving from 1789 to 1797. He was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with important contemporaries, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and his friend and political rival Thomas Jefferson . A lawyer and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence . He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from
13000-474: The opposition of Abigail's mother. The pair shared a love of books and proved honest in their praise and criticism of each other. After his father's death in 1761, Adams had inherited a 9 + 1 ⁄ 2 -acre (3.8 ha) farm and a house where they lived until 1783. John and Abigail had six children: Abigail (known "Nabby") in 1765, John Quincy in 1767, Susanna in 1768, Charles in 1770, Thomas in 1772, and Elizabeth in 1777. Susanna died when she
13130-437: The organization may meet prior to the convention as a caucus. Each caucus may decide how the group would vote on various issues that may come up at the convention. Unless the votes are made binding, however, each delegate is still free to vote in any fashion. The term caucus is also used in mediation , facilitation and other forms of alternative dispute resolution to describe circumstances wherein, rather than meeting at
13260-617: The party is in government. For example, this is traditionally so in the Australian Labor Party and the New Zealand Labour Party . The word "caucus" had a wide currency in the United Kingdom in the late 19th century, meaning a highly structured system of management and control within a political party, equivalent to a " party machine " in the United States. It was used with specific reference to
13390-474: The party's parliamentary leader. The caucus system is a departure from the Westminster tradition in giving members of the upper house a say in the election of the party leader, who may become head of government. The caucus also determines some matters of policy, parliamentary tactics, and disciplinary measures against disobedient MPs. In some parties, the caucus also has the power to elect MPs to Cabinet when
13520-487: The perceived lack of commitment on the part of the French, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister Vergennes in December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Franklin toned down the letter, but Vergennes ignored it. In September 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him minister plenipotentiary to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams received no instructions. Frustrated by
13650-461: The provision that " free ships make free goods ," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British army had defeated General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. and France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed. The defeat of
13780-409: The rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street , not far from his office. In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home. Adams, who had been among the more conservative of
13910-566: The secretary of the Birmingham Liberal Association, William Harris (later dubbed the "father of the Caucus") devised a four-tier organizational structure (of ward committees, general committee, executive committee, and management committee) through which Liberal voters in different wards could be instructed in the precise combinations in which to cast their votes. In 1877 the newly formed National Liberal Federation
14040-580: The ship to land in Ferrol, Spain , and Adams and his party spent six weeks travelling overland to Paris. Constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on commission business. He increased his usefulness by mastering French. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while writing to Abigail about once every ten days. In contrast to Franklin, Adams viewed
14170-460: The state and national libertarian parties and emphasize political involvement as a purpose of the Caucus. The second and best known Radical Caucus was founded by anarcho-capitalist paleolibertarians Justin Raimondo , Eric Garris and Bob Costello in 1979 in order "to unify the party around radical and hardcore libertarian programs." Raimondo led the caucus from inception until he abandoned
14300-585: The structure of the Liberal Party . Originally a pejorative term, used by detractors of the system with overtones of corrupt American practices, the name was soon adopted by the Liberals themselves. The system had originated at a local level in Birmingham in preparation for the 1868 general election , when, under the 1867 Reform Act , the city had been allocated three parliamentary seats , but each elector had only two votes. In order to spread votes evenly,
14430-496: The ties with Britain. He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial. He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass
14560-500: The title of Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties ) for the president. Some senators favored a variant of Highness or the lesser Excellency . Anti-federalists in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them as "superlatively ridiculous." They argued that these "distinctions," as Adams called them, violated the Constitution's prohibition on titles of nobility . Adams said that
14690-544: The treaty was signed and American independence was recognized. Adams was appointed the first American ambassador to Great Britain in 1785. After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first audience with King George III on June 1, which he meticulously recorded in a letter to Foreign Minister Jay the next day. The pair's exchange was respectful; Adams promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality "between People who, tho Seperated [ sic ] by an Ocean and under different Governments have
14820-403: The two discovered that they had grown too far apart to renew their friendship. Adams considered Sewall one of the war's casualties, and Sewall critiqued him as an ambassador: His abilities are undoubtedly equal to the mechanical parts of his business as ambassador, but this is not enough. He cannot dance, drink, game, flatter, promise, dress, swear with the gentlemen, and small talk and flirt with
14950-574: The war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris . Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, Anne-César de La Luzerne , disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay , and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London. In
15080-481: The works of ancient writers such as Thucydides , Plato , Cicero , and Tacitus in their original languages. Though his father expected him to be a minister, after his 1755 graduation with an A.B. degree , he taught school temporarily in Worcester , while pondering his permanent vocation. In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving "Honour or Reputation" and "more defference from [his] fellows", and
15210-557: Was an American Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency , he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain . During the latter part of the Revolutionary War and in the early years of the new nation, he served the U.S. government as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first person to hold
15340-766: Was born on October 30, 1735, to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston . He had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams was born on the family farm in Braintree , Massachusetts. His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts . His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church , a farmer, a cordwainer , and a lieutenant in the militia . Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship. Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams immigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, Essex , England, around 1638. Adams's formal education began at age six at
15470-473: Was determined to be "a great Man". He decided to become a lawyer, writing his father that he found among lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, the "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations about his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness of [his] fellow men". When the French and Indian War began in 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he
15600-572: Was established in c. 1719, although the name is not documented until c. 1760. There are three main theories for the word's origins: The Boston Gazette of May 5, 1760, includes an essay commenting: Whereas it is reported, that certain Persons, of the Modern Air and Complexion , to the Number of Twelve at least, have divers Times of late been known to combine together, and are called by
15730-660: Was for a time largely ostracized. Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain." In October 1775, Adams was appointed chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777. In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet Thoughts on Government , which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions. Throughout
15860-532: Was given a similar structure, on the initiative of Joseph Chamberlain , and again worked out in detail by Harris. Shortly afterwards the term "caucus" was applied to this system by The Times newspaper, which referred to "the 'caucus' with all its evils", and by the Conservative prime minister, Benjamin Disraeli . In 1880 Queen Victoria , following a meeting with Disraeli, wrote disapprovingly in
15990-632: Was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation. He believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool. The week-long trial of the commander, Captain Thomas Preston , began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire. The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or
16120-490: Was inevitable. In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston. He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character." Adams opposed various attempts, including the Olive Branch Petition , aimed at finding peace. Invoking
16250-406: Was interrupted by friends, and the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old Abigail Smith , his third cousin, through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid". In time, Adams grew close to Abigail. They were married on October 25, 1764, despite
16380-559: Was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, for the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation. On February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate Boston , commanded by Captain Samuel Tucker . The trip was stormy and treacherous. The ship was pursued by British vessels, with Adams personally taking up arms to help capture one. A cannon malfunction wounded several sailors and killed one. On April 1,
16510-422: Was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be celebrated annually. Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4. During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be
16640-560: Was one year old, while Elizabeth was stillborn. All three of Adams's sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died at a relatively young age. In contrast, John Quincy excelled and launched a political career, eventually becoming president himself. Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act . The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting
16770-482: Was the first in his family not to be a militia officer; he said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer". In 1756, Adams began reading law under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he earned an A.M. from Harvard, and in 1759 was admitted to the bar. He developed an early habit of diary writing; this included his impressions of James Otis Jr. 's 1761 challenge to
16900-411: Was the town's choice to fill the vacancy. The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to Braintree, Massachusetts , but kept his office in Boston ; he noted "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office." After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with
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