159-478: Reading Abbey is a large, ruined abbey in the centre of the town of Reading , in the English county of Berkshire . It was founded by Henry I in 1121 "for the salvation of my soul, and the souls of King William, my father , and of King William, my brother , and Queen Maud, my wife , and all my ancestors and successors." In its heyday the abbey was one of Europe's largest royal monasteries . The traditions of
318-569: A volcanic eruption in the 1st century CE, and its uncovered ruins are now preserved as a World Heritage Site . The city of Lisbon in Portugal was also completely destroyed in 1755 by a massive earthquake and tsunami ; and the 1906 San Francisco earthquake in the United States had left the city in almost complete ruin. Apart from acts of war, some important historic buildings have fallen victim to deliberate acts of destruction as
477-407: A book rather than the entertainments of tournaments or troubadours. He also had concern for ordinary people, ordaining early in his reign that those shipwrecked should be well-treated and prescribing heavy penalties for anyone who plundered their goods. The chronicler Ralph of Diceto records that when famine struck Anjou and Maine in 1176, Henry emptied his private stores to relieve distress among
636-640: A cabaret under marquee in the ruins. The evening offered music and performance acts combined with food, much of which cooked by contributing performers. In 1994, a large scale performance event "From the Ruins" was held in the abbey ruins, the finale event for the "Art in Reading" (AIR) festival, funded in part by Reading Borough Council . This was organised by and featured a large number of artists and performers living or working in Reading, and combined specially created music, dance, paintings, poetry and culminated in
795-485: A chaotic and troubled period, with all these problems resulting from Stephen's usurpation of the throne. Henry was also careful to show that, unlike his mother, he would listen to the advice and counsel of others. Various measures were immediately carried out although, since Henry spent six and a half years out of the first eight years of his reign in France, much work had to be done at a distance. The process of demolishing
954-583: A consequence of social, political and economic factors. The spoliation of public monuments in Rome was under way during the fourth century, when it was covered in protective legislation in the Theodosian Code and in new legislation of Majorian . The dismantling increased once popes were free of imperial restrictions. Marble was still being burned for agricultural lime in the Roman Campagna into
1113-458: A cultural elite, as examples for a consciously revived and purified architecture all' antica , and for a new aesthetic appreciation of their innate beauty as objects of venerable decay. The chance discovery of Nero's Domus Aurea at the turn of the sixteenth century, and the early excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii had marked effects on current architectural styles, in Raphael's Rooms at
1272-534: A few weeks, but the entire site was instead closed in May 2009 due to the risk of falling masonry. In late 2010, Reading Borough Council was reported as estimating that the ruins could cost £3m to repair, but it was also stated that the extent of the damage was yet to be determined. A survey was carried out in October 2010, using three-dimensional scans to build up a detailed view of each elevation, thus helping to identify
1431-514: A final rebellion. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from a bleeding ulcer , Henry retreated to Chinon Castle in Anjou. He died soon afterwards and was succeeded by his son Richard I. Henry's empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his son John (who succeeded Richard in 1199), but many of the changes Henry introduced during his lengthy rule had long-term consequences. Henry's legal changes are generally considered to have laid
1590-515: A group of royal justices to visit all the counties in England over a given period of time, with authority to cover both civil and criminal cases. A local jury had been used occasionally in previous reigns, but Henry made much wider use of them. Juries were introduced in petty assizes from around 1176, where they were used to establish the answers to particular pre-established questions, and in grand assizes from 1179, where they were used to determine
1749-421: A heraldic design: a signet ring with either a leopard or a lion engraved on it. The design would be altered in later generations to form the royal arms of England . By the late 1140s, the active phase of the civil war was over, barring the occasional outbreak of fighting. Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with one another to secure their war gains and it increasingly appeared as though
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#17328017849621908-700: A key fortress loyal to Henry along the Thames Valley , under siege, possibly in an attempt to force a successful end to the English conflict while Henry was still fighting for his territories in France. Henry moved quickly in response, avoiding open battle with Louis in Aquitaine and stabilising the Norman border, pillaging the Vexin and then striking south into Anjou against Geoffrey, capturing one of his main castles, Montsoreau . Louis fell ill and withdrew from
2067-406: A more direct result, such as the case of Beverston Castle , in which the English parliament ordered significant destruction of the castle to prevent it being used by opposition Royalists . Ireland has encouraged the ruin of grand Georgian houses, seen as symbols of Britain. As a rule, towers built of steel are dismantled, when not used any more, because their construction can be either rebuilt on
2226-504: A new site or if the state of construction does not allow a direct reuse, the metal can be recycled economically. However, sometimes tower basements remain, because their removal can be expensive. One example of such a basement is the basement of the former radio mast of Deutschlandsender Herzberg/Elster . The basements of large wooden towers such as Transmitter Ismaning may also be left behind, because removing them would be difficult. The contemplation of " rust belt " post-industrial ruins
2385-399: A number of major cities around the world – such as Beirut , Kabul , Sarajevo , Grozny , and Baghdad – have been partially or completely ruined in recent years as a result of more localized warfare. Entire cities have also been ruined, and some occasionally lost completely, to natural disasters . The ancient Roman city of Pompeii in modern-day Italy was completely destroyed during
2544-438: A partial collapse during a storm in 1861. It was extensively restored again after some decorative stonework came loose and fell into the street in 2010, reopening in 2018. The room above the gateway is now used by Reading Museum as part of its learning programme for local schools, whilst the arch below is available for use by pedestrian and cycle traffic. The abbey's hospitium , or dormitory for pilgrims, also survives. Known as
2703-642: A policy, it was to generally resist papal influence, increasing his own local authority. The 12th century saw the continuation of the ongoing reform movement within the Catholic Church, advocating greater clerical autonomy from royal authority and more influence for the papacy. This trend had already caused tensions in England, for example when King Stephen forced Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury, into exile in 1152. There were also long-running concerns over royal jurisdiction over members of
2862-407: A possible future rival to Henry. Rumours of a plot to kill Henry were circulating and, possibly as a consequence, Henry returned to Normandy for a period. Stephen fell ill with a stomach disorder and died on 25 October 1154, allowing Henry to inherit the throne sooner than had been expected. On landing in England on 8 December 1154, Henry quickly took oaths of loyalty from some of the barons and
3021-700: A rather half-hearted fashion, while the English Church attempted to broker a permanent peace between the two sides. In November the two leaders ratified the terms of a permanent peace. Stephen announced the Treaty of Winchester in Winchester Cathedral : he recognised Henry as his adopted son and successor, in return for Henry paying homage to him; Stephen promised to listen to Henry's advice, but retained all his royal powers; Stephen's son William would pay homage to Henry and renounce his claim to
3180-421: A siege. At the start of 1161 war seemed likely to spread across the region until a fresh peace was negotiated at Fréteval that autumn, followed by a second peace treaty in 1162, overseen by Pope Alexander III . Despite this temporary halt in hostilities, Henry's seizure of the Vexin started a second long-running dispute between him and the kings of France. Henry controlled more of France than any ruler since
3339-539: A similarly undignified fate. However, the borough council's press release stated, "The graves are located behind the High Altar in an apse at the east end of the Abbey. They are located east of the area where King Henry I's grave is believed to be. No direct connection between these features and King Henry can be made using these results alone." Besides the ruins of the abbey itself, there are several other remains of
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#17328017849623498-487: A spectacular evening performance involving large scale puppetry and pyrotechnics loosely based upon the history of Reading Abbey from the foundation by Henry I through the rise of the merchant classes to the dissolution and eventual sacking of the Abbey under Henry VIII. In 1995, the ruined South Transept was used as the setting for the first Abbey Ruins Open Air Shakespeare production by MDM Productions and Progress Theatre in partnership with Reading Borough Council. In 1996,
3657-466: A state of partial or total disrepair over time due to a variety of factors, such as lack of maintenance, deliberate destruction by humans, or uncontrollable destruction by natural phenomena . The most common root causes that yield ruins in their wake are natural disasters , armed conflict , and population decline , with many structures becoming progressively derelict over time due to long-term weathering and scavenging . There are famous ruins all over
3816-517: A term that described his ability to punish or financially destroy particular barons or clergy. In England, Henry initially relied on his father's former advisers whom he brought with him from Normandy and on some of Henry I's remaining officials, reinforced with some of Stephen's senior nobility who made their peace with Henry in 1153. During his reign, Henry, like his grandfather, increasingly promoted " new men ", minor nobles without independent wealth and lands, to positions of authority in England. By
3975-573: A trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots, and Bretons, and attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against
4134-410: A way of securing his other French territories and as a potential inheritance for one of his sons. Initially Henry's strategy was to rule indirectly through proxies, and accordingly, Henry supported Conan IV 's claims over most of the duchy, partly because Conan had strong English ties and could be easily influenced. Conan's uncle, Hoël , continued to control the county of Nantes in the east until he
4293-463: Is icumen in , which was first written down in the abbey about 1240, is the earliest known six-part harmony from Britain. The original document is held in the British Library . Reading Abbey was frequently visited by kings and others, most especially by Henry III who often visited three or four times a year staying several weeks on each visit. It also hosted important state events, including
4452-625: Is in its infancy. In the Middle Ages Roman ruins were inconvenient impediments to modern life, quarries for pre-shaped blocks for building projects, or marble to be burnt for agricultural lime, and subjects for satisfying commentaries on the triumph of Christianity and the general sense of the world's decay, in what was assumed to be its last age, before the Second Coming . With the Renaissance , ruins took on new roles among
4611-464: Is laid out as a private garden and to the south is a surviving wall of the refectory . The ruins are Grade I listed and a Scheduled monument Over the years the ruins have been repaired and maintained in a piecemeal fashion leading to their deterioration. In April 2008, the cloister arch, chapter house and treasury were closed to the public. Repair work began in March 2009 and was expected to take only
4770-461: Is not supported by French chronicles. If the agreements at Montmirail had been followed up, the acts of homage could potentially have confirmed Louis's position as king while undermining the legitimacy of any rebellious barons within Henry's territories and the potential for an alliance between them and Louis. In practice, Louis perceived himself to have gained a temporary advantage. Immediately after
4929-527: Is often termed the Henrician phase of the civil war. This time, Henry planned to form a northern alliance with King David I of Scotland , his great-uncle, and Ranulf of Chester , a powerful regional leader who controlled most of the north-west of England. Under this alliance, Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack York , probably with the help of Scots. The planned attack disintegrated after Stephen marched north to York, and Henry returned to Normandy. Henry
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5088-697: Is partly because, to contemporaries, the differences between founding and patronizing a house was blurred; in the scholar Elizabeth Hallam 's words, "Henry II was 'patron and founder' of many houses where he had inherited this right from his ancestors and predecessors". In England, he provided steady patronage to the monastic houses, but established few new monasteries. Of those he did, three – Witham Charterhouse in Somerset, Waltham Abbey in Essex and Amesbury in Wiltshire – were founded as part of his penance for
5247-411: Is the concept that a building be designed such that if it eventually collapsed, it would leave behind aesthetically pleasing ruins that would last far longer without any maintenance at all. Joseph Michael Gandy completed for Sir John Soane in 1832 an atmospheric watercolor of the architect's vast Bank of England rotunda as a picturesquely overgrown ruin, that is an icon of Romanticism . Ruinenwert
5406-426: Is uncertain if Henry had a grand vision for his new legal system and the reforms seem to have proceeded in a steady, pragmatic fashion. Indeed, some scholars believe that in most cases he was probably not personally responsible for creating the new processes, but he was greatly interested in the law, seeing the delivery of justice as one of the key tasks for a king and carefully appointing good administrators to conduct
5565-459: The Duchy of Brittany , which neighboured his lands and retained strong traditions of independence. The Breton dukes held little power across most of the duchy, which was mostly controlled by local lords. In 1148, Duke Conan III died and civil war broke out. Henry claimed to be the overlord of Brittany, on the basis that the duchy had owed loyalty to Henry I, and saw controlling the duchy both as
5724-462: The Hospitium of St. John and founded in 1189, the surviving building is the main building of a larger range of buildings that could accommodate 400 people. Much of the remainder of this range of buildings was located where Reading Town Hall now stands. Today the surviving building occupies a rather isolated site, with no direct street access. It abuts the main concert hall of Reading Town Hall to
5883-581: The River Avon , preventing Stephen from forcing a decisive battle. In the face of the increasingly wintry weather, the two men agreed to a temporary truce, leaving Henry to travel north through the Midlands , where the powerful Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester, announced his support for the cause. Henry was then free to turn his forces south against the besiegers at Wallingford. Despite only modest military successes, he and his allies now controlled
6042-522: The River Kennet near the village of Theale , passes just to the south of the Abbey, and returns to its parent river just downstream of the Abbey Mill. The ruins of Reading Abbey have a history of live performance. From early impromptu artist-led events, the site has established a history of open-air theatre. In the late 1980s, the food art and performance collective La Grande Bouche organised
6201-463: The River Kennet . The ruins are grade II listed . It is situated just to the south of the ruins of the Abbey itself. The water mill originally belonged to Reading Abbey, whose monks are believed to have created the Holy Brook as a water supply to this and other mills owned by them and to the abbey's fish ponds . The mill was built straddling the Holy Brook which marked the southern boundary of
6360-609: The Young Henry , to Louis's daughter Margaret . The marriage deal would have involved Louis granting the disputed territory of the Vexin to Margaret on her marriage to the Young Henry: while this would ultimately give Henry the lands that he claimed, it also implied that the Vexin was Louis's to give away in the first place, in itself a political concession. For a short while, a permanent peace between Henry and Louis looked plausible. Meanwhile, Henry turned his attention to
6519-487: The shire courts , hundred courts and in particular seignorial courts — to deal with most of these cases, hearing only a few personally. This process was far from perfect, and in many cases claimants were unable to pursue their cases effectively. While interested in the law, during the first years of his reign Henry was preoccupied with other political issues, and even finding the King for a hearing could mean travelling across
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6678-490: The 1180s this new class of royal administrators was predominant in England, supported by various illegitimate members of Henry's family. The links between the nobility in Normandy and England had weakened during the first half of the 12th century and continued to do so under Henry. Henry drew his close advisers from the ranks of the Norman bishops and, as in England, recruited many "new men" as Norman administrators: few of
6837-520: The 11th century and the county became largely autonomous. Henry's mother was the legitimate daughter of Henry I , King of England and Duke of Normandy . She was born into a powerful ruling class of Normans , who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy, and her first husband had been Holy Roman Emperor Henry V . Henry I had during his own lifetime obtained pledges of fealty from his nobility, including from his nephew Stephen of Blois , promising to support Matilda's claim to
6996-497: The 12th century. Some of their income came from their private estates, called demesne ; other income came from imposing legal fines and arbitrary amercements , and from taxes, which at that time were raised only intermittently. Kings could also raise funds by borrowing; Henry did this far more than earlier English rulers, initially through moneylenders in Rouen , turning later in his reign to Jewish and Flemish lenders. Ready cash
7155-594: The 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. During the Victorian expansion of the British Empire , historians were keenly interested in the formation of Henry's own empire, but they also criticised certain aspects of his private life and treatment of Becket. Henry was born in Maine at Le Mans on 5 March 1133,
7314-464: The 20th century, a number of European historic buildings fell into ruin as a result of taxation policies, which required all structures with roofs to pay substantial property tax . The owners of these buildings, like Fetteresso Castle (now restored) and Slains Castle in Scotland , deliberately destroyed their roofs in protest at, and defiance of, the new taxes. Other decrees of government have had
7473-604: The 9th century Carolingians ; these lands, combined with his possessions in England, Wales, Scotland and later parts of Ireland, produced a vast domain often referred to by historians as the Angevin Empire . The empire lacked a coherent structure or central control; instead, it consisted of a loose, flexible network of family connections and lands. Different local customs applied within each of Henry's different territories although common principles underpinned some of these local variations. Henry travelled constantly across
7632-547: The Abbey Church. After this, the buildings of the abbey were extensively robbed, with lead, glass and facing stones removed for reuse elsewhere. Some twenty years after the Dissolution, Reading town council created a new town hall by inserting an upper floor into the former refectory of the hospitium of the abbey. The lower floor of this building continued to be used by Reading School , as it had been since 1486. For
7791-583: The Abbey St Nicolas in Angers in the early 1140s. Henry founded houses in England and France; he had done this sporadically before Becket's death, but, in Hallam's words, they "accelerated dramatically" following it. As part of his penance following the death of Becket, he built and endowed various hospitals—particularly for lepers —in France, for example at Mont-Saint-Aignan , which was dedicated to
7950-478: The Abbey are continued today by the neighbouring St James's Church , which is partly built using stones of the Abbey ruins. Reading Abbey was the focus of a major £3 million project called "Reading Abbey Revealed" which conserved the ruins and Abbey Gateway and resulted in them being re-opened to the public on 16 June 2018. Alongside the conservation, new interpretation of the Reading Abbey Quarter
8109-638: The Abbey. There are also some findings probably related to the Abbey's construction, as well as some other potential archaeological targets. News reports seized on the fact that the grave sites were found underneath the Ministry of Justice car park at Reading Gaol. Said the Telegraph: Britain’s kings appear to be making a habit of this. First it was Richard III, whose bones were found under a car park in Leicester. Now it appears that Henry I may have met
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#17328017849628268-525: The Anarchy by historians, dragged on and degenerated into a stalemate. Henry most likely spent part of his childhood in his mother's household. In the late 1130s, he accompanied Matilda to Normandy, which would only be fully taken by Geoffrey around 1144. Henry's later childhood, probably from the age of seven, was spent in Anjou, where he was educated by Peter of Saintes, a noted grammarian . In late 1142, Geoffrey sent his nine-year-old son to Bristol ,
8427-649: The Becket murder, and built at considerable cost. Cirencester was also a foundation of significance, and comparable to those of his forebears. He was relatively conservative in religion, and when he did intervene in monastic affairs, it usually regarded houses with established links to his family, such as Reading Abbey, founded by his grandfather Henry I. In the struggle with Becket, contemporaries believed that he could have been influenced by his mother. Before his accession several charters, including to religious institutions, were issued in their joint names, such as that to
8586-477: The Channel and locating his peripatetic court. Nonetheless, he was prepared to take action to improve the existing procedures, intervening in cases which he felt had been mishandled and creating legislation to improve both ecclesiastical and civil court processes. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Henry delivered justice through the courts run by his officials across the duchy, and occasionally these cases made their way to
8745-745: The Conqueror , to be transferred to Reading Abbey, in return for some of his land at Appledram in Sussex. Following its royal foundation, the abbey was established by a party of monks from Cluny Abbey in Burgundy , together with monks from the Cluniac priory of St Pancras at Lewes in Sussex. The abbey was dedicated to the Virgin Mary and St John the Evangelist . The first abbot, in 1123,
8904-519: The Count in an attempt to secure his southern frontiers; nonetheless, when Henry and Louis discussed the matter of Toulouse, Henry left believing that he had the French king's support for military intervention. Henry invaded Toulouse, only to find Louis visiting Raymond in the city. Henry was not prepared to directly attack Louis, who was still his feudal lord, and withdrew, contenting himself with ravaging
9063-419: The Count of Champagne and Odo II, Duke of Burgundy . Three years later the new Count of Flanders, Philip , concerned about Henry's growing power, openly allied himself with the French king. Louis's wife Adèle gave birth to a male heir, Philip Augustus , in 1165, and Louis was more confident of his own position than for many years previously. As a result, relations between Henry and Louis deteriorated again in
9222-511: The Duchy of Aquitaine, had become increasingly independent and was now ruled by Count Raymond V . The rulers of Aquitaine had made tenuous claims on the county by hereditary right; Henry now hoped to claim it on Eleanor's behalf, and encouraged by her, Henry first allied himself with Raymond's enemy Raymond Berenguer of Barcelona and then in 1159 threatened to invade himself to depose the Count of Toulouse. Louis married his sister Constance to
9381-464: The Duchy of Aquitaine. Thus, he controlled most of France. Henry's military expedition to England in 1153 resulted in King Stephen agreeing, by the Treaty of Wallingford , to leave England to Henry, and he inherited the kingdom at Stephen's death a year later. Henry was an energetic and ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the royal lands and prerogatives of his grandfather Henry I. During
9540-517: The English church was considering promoting a peace treaty. On Louis VII 's return from the Second Crusade in 1149, he became concerned about the growth of Geoffrey's power and the potential threat to his own possessions, especially if Henry could acquire the English crown. In 1150, Geoffrey made Henry the Duke of Normandy and Louis responded by putting forward King Stephen's son Eustace as
9699-472: The English king and publicly gave homage for Toulouse to Henry and his heirs. One of the major international events surrounding Henry during the 1160s was the Becket controversy. When the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, died in 1161 Henry saw an opportunity to reassert his rights over the Church in England. Henry appointed Thomas Becket , his English Chancellor , as archbishop in 1162. According to
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#17328017849629858-675: The HAP was to perform a modern comprehensive study, including a non-invasive analysis of the grounds using ground-penetrating radar (GPR). The first phase of the GPR survey, focusing on the Abbey Church, St James’ Church, the Forbury Gardens, and the Reading Gaol car park, began in June 2016. Initial results indicate some potential grave sites behind the high altar in an apse at the east end of
10017-434: The King himself. He also operated an exchequer court at Caen that heard cases relating to royal revenues and maintained king's justices who travelled across the duchy. Between 1159 and 1163, Henry spent time in Normandy conducting reforms of royal and church courts, and some measures later introduced in England are recorded as existing in Normandy as early as 1159. In 1163 Henry returned to England, intent on reforming
10176-694: The Loire and in western Touraine, but Henry had few officials elsewhere in the region. In Aquitaine, ducal authority remained very limited, despite increasing substantially during Henry's reign, largely owing to Richard's efforts in the late 1170s. Henry's wealth allowed him to maintain what was probably the largest curia regis , or royal court, in Europe. His court attracted huge attention from contemporary chroniclers, and typically comprised several major nobles and bishops, along with knights, domestic servants, prostitutes, clerks, horses and hunting dogs. Within
10335-540: The Ruins" returned to the Chapter House in July 2018 after the ruins reopened to the public after extensive conservation in June 2018. As an abbey, Reading was ruled by an abbot . The abbey had 27 abbots between 1123 and 1539. Ruins Ruins (from Latin ruina 'a collapse') are the remains of a civilization 's architecture. The term refers to formerly intact structures that have fallen into
10494-824: The Vatican and in neoclassical interiors , respectively. The new sense of historicism that accompanied neoclassicism led some artists and designers to conceive of the modern classicising monuments of their own day as they would one day appear as ruins. In the period of Romanticism ruins (mostly of castles ) were frequent object for painters, place of meetings of romantic poets, nationalist students etc. (e.g. Bezděz Castle in Bohemia , Hambach Castle in Germany, Devin Castle in Slovakia). Ruin value ( German : Ruinenwert )
10653-584: The abbey established wharves on the River Kennet . The Kennet also provided power for the abbey water mills , most of which were established on the Holy Brook , a channel of the Kennet of uncertain origin. When Henry I died in Lyons-la-Forêt , Normandy in 1135 his body was returned to Reading, and was buried in the front of the altar of the then incomplete abbey. Because of its royal patronage,
10812-458: The abbey was one of the pilgrimage centres of medieval England, and one of its richest and most important religious houses, with possessions as far away as Herefordshire and Scotland. The abbey also held over 230 relics including the hand of St James . A shrivelled human hand was found in the ruins during demolition work in 1786 and is now in St Peter's RC Church, Marlow . The song Sumer
10971-419: The age of fourteen. Taking his immediate household and a few mercenaries, he left Normandy and landed in England, striking into Wiltshire . Despite initially causing considerable panic, the expedition had little success, and Henry found himself unable to pay his forces and therefore unable to return to Normandy. Neither his mother nor his uncle was prepared to support him, implying that they had not approved of
11130-454: The average was around £22,000. One economic effect of these changes was a substantial increase in the amount of money in circulation in England and, post-1180, a long-term increase in both inflation and trade. Long-running tensions between Henry and Louis VII continued during the 1160s, the French king slowly becoming more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. In 1160 Louis strengthened his alliances in central France with
11289-534: The basis for the English Common Law , while his intervention in Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland shaped the development of their societies, histories, and governmental systems. Historical interpretations of Henry's reign have changed considerably over time. Contemporary chroniclers such as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , though sometimes unfavourable, generally laud his achievements. In
11448-654: The campaign, and Geoffrey was forced to come to terms with Henry. In response to Stephen's siege, Henry returned to England again at the start of 1153. Bringing only a small army of mercenaries, probably financed with borrowed money, Henry was supported in the north and east of England by the forces of Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod , two local aristocrats, and had hopes of a military victory. A delegation of senior English clergy met with Henry and his advisers at Stockbridge, Hampshire , shortly before Easter in April. Details of their discussions are unclear, but it appears that
11607-583: The central focus of armed conflict and would be sacked and ruined in defeat. Delhi , the capital of India , has been destroyed and ransacked seven to ten times and subsequently rebuilt. Every ruler decided to build the city in their own way either overlapping the ruins or next to the ruins. Ruins of seven cities of Delhi can still be traced in the modern-day city. Although less central to modern conflict, vast areas of 20th-century cities such as Warsaw , Dresden , Coventry , Stalingrad , Königsberg , and Berlin were left in ruins following World War II , and
11766-458: The centre of Angevin opposition to Stephen in the south-west of England, accompanied by Robert of Gloucester. Although having children educated in relatives' households was common among noblemen of the period, sending Henry to England also had political benefits, as Geoffrey was coming under criticism by Matilda's supporters for refusing to join the war in England. For about a year, Henry lived alongside Roger of Worcester , one of Robert's sons, and
11925-467: The children being only five and three years old respectively—and promptly seized the Vexin. Now it was Louis's turn to be furious, as the move broke the spirit of the 1160 treaty. Military tensions between the two leaders immediately increased. Theobald mobilised his forces along the border with Touraine . Henry responded by attacking Chaumont in Blois in a surprise attack and took Theobald's castle in
12084-437: The churchmen emphasised that while they supported Stephen as king, they sought a negotiated peace; Henry reaffirmed that he would avoid the English cathedrals and would not expect the bishops to attend his court. To draw Stephen's forces away from Wallingford, Henry besieged Stephen's castle at Malmesbury , and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it. Henry successfully evaded Stephen's larger army along
12243-485: The clergy. By contrast with the tensions in England, in Normandy Henry had occasional disagreements with the Church but generally enjoyed very good relations with the bishops there. In Brittany, he had the support of the local Church hierarchy and rarely intervened in clerical matters, except occasionally to cause difficulties for his rival Louis of France. Further south, the power of the dukes of Aquitaine over
12402-486: The coinage in 1180, with royal officials taking direct control of the mints and passing the profits directly to the treasury. A new penny, called the Short Cross, was introduced, and the number of mints reduced substantially to ten across the country. Driven by the reforms, the royal revenues increased considerably; during the first part of the reign, Henry's average exchequer income was only around £18,000; after 1166,
12561-503: The conference, he began to encourage tensions between Henry's sons. Meanwhile, Henry's position in the south of France continued to improve, and by 1173 he had agreed to an alliance with Humbert III, Count of Savoy , which betrothed Henry's son John and Humbert's daughter Alicia. Henry's daughter Eleanor was married to Alfonso VIII of Castile in 1170, enlisting an additional ally in the south. In February 1173, after unremitting pressure from Henry since 1159, Raymond finally capitulated to
12720-433: The consent of Louis; accordingly the kings held fresh peace talks in 1169 at Montmirail . The talks were wide-ranging, culminating with Henry's sons giving homage to Louis for their future inheritances in France. Also at this time, Richard was betrothed to Louis's young daughter Alys . Alys came to England and was rumoured to have later become the mistress of King Henry, but the rumour originates from prejudiced sources and
12879-538: The conservation of the refectory wall. Work began in September 2016 and the ruins reopened to the public on 16 June 2018. In spring 2014, historian-screenwriter Philippa Langley , MBE, best known for her contribution to the exhumation of Richard III in 2012, together with local historians John and Lindsay Mullaney, put together a complementary effort called the Hidden Abbey Project (HAP). The goal of
13038-538: The court were his officials, ( ministeriales ); his friends ( amici ), and his small inner circle of confidants and trusted servants ( familiares regis ). Henry's familiares were particularly important to the operation of his household and government as they drove government initiatives and filled the gaps between the official structures and the King. Henry tried to maintain a sophisticated household that combined hunting and drinking with cosmopolitan literary discussion and courtly values. Nonetheless, Henry's passion
13197-417: The dead Archbishop. Since travel by sea during the period was dangerous, he would also take full confession before setting sail and use auguries to determine the best time to travel. The historian Nicholas Vincent argues that Henry's movements may also have been planned to take advantage of saints' days and other fortuitous occasions. Medieval rulers such as Henry enjoyed various sources of income during
13356-621: The early years of his reign Henry restored the royal administration in England, which had almost collapsed during Stephen's reign, and re-established hegemony over Wales. Henry's desire to control the English Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury . This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Becket's murder in 1170. Soon after his accession Henry came into conflict with Louis VII of France , his feudal overlord , and
13515-538: The eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou . The French county of Anjou was formed in the 10th century and its Angevin rulers attempted for several centuries to extend their influence and power across France through careful marriages and political alliances. In theory, the county answered to the French king , but royal power over Anjou weakened during
13674-482: The empire, producing what the historian John Edward Austin Jolliffe describes as a "government of the roads and roadsides". His journeys coincided with regional governmental reforms and other local administrative business although messengers were able to connect him to all of his domains wherever he went. In his absence the lands were ruled by seneschals and justiciars , and beneath them, local officials in each of
13833-473: The expedition in the first place. Henry instead turned to King Stephen, who paid the outstanding wages and thereby allowed Henry to retire gracefully. Stephen's reasons for doing so are unclear. One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully, and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry. Henry intervened once again in 1149, commencing what
13992-626: The extent of the conservation required. In April 2011 plans for an £8m revamp were unveiled, with the aim to create an Abbey Quarter cultural area in Reading. In June 2014 the Council secured initial funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF); more detailed plans for the project, Reading Abbey Revealed, were then developed and submitted to the HLF in September 2015. In October 2014, a temporary scaffold roof, not visible from ground level,
14151-477: The failure of Henry and Eleanor's parenting, have been put forward to explain Henry's family's bitter disputes. Other theories focus on the personalities of Henry and his children. Historians such as Matthew Strickland have argued that Henry made sensible attempts to manage the tensions within his family, and that had he died younger, the succession might have proved much smoother. Henry's reign saw important legal changes, particularly in England and Normandy. By
14310-410: The first time and greatly reducing the number of moneyers licensed to produce coins. These measures were successful in improving Henry's income, but on his return to England in the 1160s he took further steps. New taxes were introduced and the existing accounts re-audited, and the reforms of the legal system brought in new streams of money from fines and amercements. There was a wholesale reform of
14469-719: The frequent face-to-face meetings to attempt to resolve them have led the historian Jean Dunbabin to liken the situation to the 20th-century Cold War in Europe. On his return to the Continent from England in the 1150s, Henry sought to secure his French lands and quash any potential rebellion. To this end, in 1154 Henry and Louis agreed to a peace treaty, under which Henry bought back Vernon and Neuf-Marché from Louis. The treaty appeared shaky, and tensions remained — in particular, Henry had not given homage to Louis for his French possessions. They met at Paris and Mont-Saint-Michel in 1158, agreeing to betroth Henry's eldest living son,
14628-852: The future inheritance of the empire, encouraged by Louis VII and his son Philip II , who ascended to the French throne in 1180. In 1173 Henry's heir apparent, "Young Henry", rebelled against his father; he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother. Several European states allied themselves with the rebels, and the Great Revolt was only defeated by Henry's vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them " new men " appointed for their loyalty and administrative skills. Young Henry and Geoffrey led another revolt in 1183, during which Young Henry died of dysentery . Geoffrey died in 1186. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for Henry's youngest son, John . By 1189, Philip swayed Richard to his side, leading to
14787-451: The guilt of a defendant. Other methods of trial continued, including trial by combat and trial by ordeal . After the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, royal justice was extended into new areas through the use of new forms of assizes, in particular novel disseisin , mort d'ancestor and dower unde nichil habet , which dealt with the wrongful dispossession of land, inheritance rights, and
14946-466: The historian Thomas M. Jones, Henry probably believed that Becket, in addition to being an old friend, would be politically weakened within the Church because of his former role as Chancellor, and would therefore have to rely on his support. Both Henry's mother and wife appear to have had doubts about the appointment, but nevertheless, he went ahead. His plan did not achieve the desired result, as Becket promptly changed his lifestyle, abandoned his links to
15105-553: The inheritance of Louis and Eleanor's two daughters, Marie and Alix , who might otherwise have had claims to Aquitaine on Eleanor's death. With his new lands, Henry now possessed a much larger proportion of France than Louis. Louis organised a coalition against Henry, including King Stephen; his son Eustace; Henry I, Count of Champagne ; and Robert, Count of Perche . Louis's alliance was joined by Henry's younger brother Geoffrey , who rose in revolt, claiming that Henry had dispossessed him of his inheritance. Their father's plans for
15264-572: The inheritance of his lands had been ambiguous, making the veracity of Geoffrey's claims hard to assess. Contemporaneous accounts suggest he left the main castles in Poitou to Geoffrey, implying that he may have intended Henry to retain Normandy and Anjou but not Poitou. Fighting immediately broke out again along the Normandy borders, where Henry of Champagne and Robert captured the town of Neufmarché-sur-Epte . Louis's forces moved to attack Aquitaine. Stephen responded by placing Wallingford Castle ,
15423-451: The king. A great council was supposed to advise the King and give assent to royal decisions, yet it is unclear how much freedom they actually enjoyed to oppose Henry's intentions. Henry also appears to have consulted with his court when making legislation; the extent to which he then took their views into account is unclear. As a powerful ruler, Henry was able to provide either valuable patronage or impose devastating harm on his subjects. He
15582-406: The lands and the rights of his grandfather Henry I; it reaffirmed the betrothal of Young Henry and Margaret and the Vexin deal; and it involved Young Henry giving homage to Louis, a way of reinforcing the young boy's position as heir and Louis's position as king. Almost immediately after the peace conference, Louis shifted his position considerably. His wife Constance died and he married Adèle ,
15741-477: The larger abbey complex still extant. The Abbey's Inner Gateway, also known as the Abbey Gateway, adjoins Reading Crown Court and Forbury Gardens . It is one of only two abbey buildings that have survived intact, and is a grade I listed building . The Inner Gateway marked the division between the area open to the public and the section accessible only to monks. Hugh Faringdon , the last abbot of Reading
15900-445: The larger landowners in Normandy benefited from the King's patronage. He frequently intervened with the Norman nobility through arranged marriages or the treatment of inheritances, either using his authority as duke or his influence as king of England over their lands there. Across the rest of France, local administration was less developed. Anjou was governed through a combination of officials called prévôts and seneschals based along
16059-445: The local church was much less than in the north, and Henry's efforts to extend his influence over local appointments created tensions. During the disputed papal election of 1159, Henry, like Louis, supported Alexander III over his rival Victor IV . The contemporary chronicler Gerald of Wales promulgated the perception that Henry was a founder of monasteries, but overall, Henry's religious convictions are difficult to assess. This
16218-525: The meeting between Henry II and the Patriarch of Jerusalem in 1185, the wedding of John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster in 1359 and a meeting of Parliament in 1453. The abbey was mostly destroyed in 1538 during Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries . The last abbot, Hugh Faringdon , was subsequently tried and convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered in front of
16377-446: The mid-1160s. Meanwhile, Henry had begun to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and started to exert more direct control. In 1164 he intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and in 1166 invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan III to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his daughter Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement
16536-460: The middle of the 12th century, England had many different ecclesiastical and civil law courts, with overlapping jurisdictions resulting from the interaction of diverse legal traditions. Henry greatly expanded the role of royal justice in England, producing a more coherent legal system, summarised at the end of his reign in the Treatise of Glanvill , an early legal handbook. Despite these reforms it
16695-427: The monastic enclosure. It continued to grind corn into the 1950s. Today, all that remains is a section of wall, pierced by three arches. The wall is built of flint with caen stone ashlar dressings and brick filling. The two side arches are round headed, whilst the centre arch over the Holy Brook is larger and pointed. The Holy Brook is a 6 miles (9.7 km) long, largely artificial, watercourse which flows out of
16854-486: The most prominent of these were Geoffrey (later Archbishop of York ) and William (later Earl of Salisbury ). Henry was expected to provide for the future of his legitimate children by granting lands to his sons and marrying his daughters well. His family was divided by rivalries and violent hostilities, more so than many other royal families of the day, in particular the relatively cohesive French Capetians . Various suggestions, from their inherited family genetics to
17013-402: The next 200 years, the old monastic building continued to serve as Reading's town hall, but by the 18th century it was suffering from structural weakness. Between 1785 and 1786, the old hall was dismantled and replaced on the same site by the first of several phases of building that were to make up today's Reading Town Hall . Around 1787, Henry Seymour Conway removed a large amount of stone from
17172-419: The next few years, leaving Henry's position secure. Nonetheless, Henry inherited a difficult situation in England, as the kingdom had suffered extensively during the civil war. In many parts of the country the fighting had caused serious devastation, although some other areas remained largely unaffected. Numerous " adulterine ", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords. The authority of
17331-467: The nineteenth century. In Europe, many religious buildings suffered as a result of the politics of the day. In the 16th century, the English monarch Henry VIII set about confiscating the property of monastic institutions in a campaign which became known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Many abbeys and monasteries fell into ruin when their assets, including lead roofs, were stripped. In
17490-412: The opportunity to speak together privately about a potential end to the war; conveniently for Henry, Stephen's son Eustace fell ill and died shortly afterwards. This removed the most obvious other claimant to the throne, as while Stephen had another son, William, he was only a second son and appeared unenthusiastic about making a plausible claim on the throne. Fighting continued after Wallingford, but in
17649-435: The outdoor production moved to the ruined chapter house and since 1999 has been staged by Progress Theatre in partnership with Reading Borough Council. This annual event expanded to the "Reading Abbey Ruins Open Air Festival" in 2007. Because of the access limitations during the restoration project, the 2009 and 2010 festivals could not be held, and the event has since relocated to the gardens of Caversham Court . "Shakespeare in
17808-407: The poor. Henry had a passionate desire to rebuild his control of the territories that his grandfather Henry I had once governed. He took back territories, regained estates and re-established influence over the smaller lords that had once provided what the historian John Gillingham describes as a "protective ring" around his core territories. He was probably the first king of England to use
17967-540: The pre-civil war borders. Henry had a difficult relationship with Louis VII of France throughout the 1150s. The two men had already clashed over Henry's succession to Normandy and the remarriage of Eleanor, and the relationship was not repaired. Louis invariably attempted to take the moral high ground in respect to Henry, capitalising on his own reputation as a crusader and circulating malicious rumours about his rival's ungovernable temper. Henry had greater resources than Louis, particularly after taking England, and Louis
18126-406: The rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high. As the decade progressed, Henry increasingly desired to resolve the question of the inheritance. He decided that he would divide his empire after his death, with Young Henry receiving England and Normandy, Richard being given the Duchy of Aquitaine, and Geoffrey acquiring Brittany. This would require
18285-412: The reforms. In the aftermath of the disorders of Stephen's reign in England there were many legal cases concerning land to be resolved: many religious houses had lost land during the conflict, while in other cases owners and heirs had been dispossessed of their property by local barons, which in some cases had since been sold or given to new owners. Henry relied on traditional, local courts — such as
18444-425: The regions carried on with the business of government. Nonetheless, many of the functions of government centred on Henry himself, and he was often surrounded by petitioners requesting decisions or favours. From time to time, Henry's royal court became a magnum concilium , a great council, which was sometimes used to take major decisions, but the term was loosely applied whenever many barons and bishops attended
18603-463: The rest of his portion of the abbey site to Reading Corporation to create the Forbury Gardens , which were opened in 1861. The inner rubble cores of the walls of many of the major buildings of the abbey still stand. The only parts of the Abbey Church that still exist are fragments of the piers of the central tower, together with parts of transepts, especially the south transept. In a range to
18762-441: The restoration of royal finances in England, reviving Henry I's financial processes and institutions and attempting to improve the quality of the royal accounting. Revenue from the demesne formed the bulk of Henry's income in England during much of his reign, although taxes were relied upon heavily in the first 11 years. Aided by the capable Richard FitzNeal , he reformed the currency in 1158, putting his name on English coins for
18921-715: The rightful heir to the duchy and launching a military campaign to remove Henry from the province. Geoffrey advised Henry to come to terms with Louis and peace was made between them in August 1151 after mediation by Bernard of Clairvaux . Under the settlement Henry did homage to Louis for Normandy, accepting Louis as his feudal lord, and gave him the disputed lands of the Norman Vexin ; in return, Louis recognised him as duke. Geoffrey died in September 1151, and Henry postponed his plans to return to England, as he first needed to ensure that his succession, particularly in Anjou,
19080-442: The rights of widows respectively. In making these reforms Henry both challenged the traditional rights of barons in dispensing justice and reinforced key feudal principles, but over time they greatly increased royal power in England. Henry's relationship with the Church varied considerably across his lands and over time: as with other aspects of his rule, there was no attempt to form a common ecclesiastical policy. Insofar as he had
19239-578: The role of the royal courts. He cracked down on crime, seizing the belongings of thieves and fugitives, and travelling justices were dispatched to the north and the Midlands. After 1166 Henry's exchequer court in Westminster, which had previously only heard cases connected with royal revenues, began to take wider civil cases on behalf of the King. The reforms continued and Henry created the General Eyre , probably in 1176, which involved dispatching
19398-437: The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country. The King's income had declined seriously and royal control over the coin mints remained limited. Henry presented himself as the legitimate heir to Henry I and began rebuilding the kingdom in his image. Although Stephen had tried to continue Henry I's method of government during his reign, the younger Henry's new government characterised those nineteen years as
19557-541: The ruined Dunnottar Castle in Scotland was used for filming of Hamlet . Henry II of England Henry II ( ( 1133-March-05 ) ( 1189-July-06 ) 5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189 ), also known as Henry Fitzempress and Henry Curtmantle , was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189. During his reign he controlled England , substantial parts of Wales and Ireland , and much of France (including Normandy , Anjou , and Aquitaine ), an area that altogether
19716-512: The siege, arriving with a small army and placing Stephen's besieging forces under siege themselves. Upon news of this, Stephen returned with a large army, and the two sides confronted each other across the River Thames at Wallingford in July. By this point in the war, the barons on both sides were eager to avoid an open battle, so members of the clergy brokered a truce , to the annoyance of both Henry and Stephen. Henry and Stephen took
19875-595: The sister of the Counts of Blois and Champagne. Louis also betrothed daughters by Eleanor to Adèle's brothers Theobald V, Count of Blois, and Henry I, Count of Champagne. This represented an aggressive containment strategy towards Henry rather than the agreed rapprochement and caused Theobald to abandon his alliance with Henry. Henry, who had custody of both Young Henry and Margaret, reacted angrily, and in November he bullied several papal legates into marrying them—despite
20034-534: The son of a count. He opposed the holding of tournaments , probably because of the security risk that such gatherings of armed knights posed in peacetime. The Angevin Empire and court were, as Gillingham describes it, "a family firm". His mother, Matilda, played an important role in his early life and exercised influence for many years later. Henry's relationship with his wife Eleanor was complex: Henry trusted Eleanor to manage England for several years after 1154 and
20193-400: The south of this transept are, in order, the remains of the vestry , the chapter house , the infirmary passage and the ground floor of the dorter or monks dormitory and reredorter or toilet block. The best preserved of these ruins are those of the chapter house, which is apsidal and has a triple entrance and three great windows above. To the west of this range, the site of the cloister
20352-421: The south-west, the Midlands and much of the north of England. Meanwhile, Henry was attempting to act the part of a legitimate king, witnessing marriages and settlements and holding court in a regal fashion. Stephen amassed troops over the following summer to renew the siege of Wallingford Castle in a final attempt to take the stronghold. The fall of Wallingford seemed imminent and Henry marched south to relieve
20511-466: The surrounding county, seizing castles and taking the province of Quercy . The episode proved to be a long-running point of dispute between the two kings and the chronicler William of Newburgh called the ensuing conflict with Toulouse a "forty years' war". In the aftermath of the Toulouse episode, Louis made an attempt to repair relations with Henry through an 1160 peace treaty. This promised Henry
20670-527: The throne, in exchange for promises of the security of his lands; key royal castles would be held on Henry's behalf by guarantors whilst Stephen would have access to Henry's castles, and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home. Henry and Stephen sealed the treaty with a kiss of peace in the cathedral. In early 1154 Stephen became more active. He attempted to exert his authority and started demolishing unauthorised castles. The peace remained precarious, and Stephen's son William remained
20829-465: The throne. After her father's death in 1135, Matilda hoped to claim the English throne, but instead, Stephen was crowned king and recognised as the Duke of Normandy, resulting in a civil war between their rival supporters. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no direct role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her powerful illegitimate half-brother Robert, Earl of Gloucester . The war, termed
20988-469: The treasuries; and a team of royal officials called "the chamber" who followed the King's travels, spending money as necessary and collecting revenues along the way. The long civil war had caused considerable disruption to this system and calculations based on incomplete pipe rolls suggest that royal income fell by 46 per cent between 1129–30 and 1155–56. A new coin, called the Awbridge silver penny ,
21147-660: The two rulers fought, over several decades, what has been termed a " cold war ". Henry expanded his empire at Louis's expense, taking Brittany and pushing east into central France and south into Toulouse ; despite numerous peace conferences and treaties, no lasting agreement was reached. Henry and Eleanor had eight children. Three of their sons would rule as king, though Henry the Young King only as co-ruler rather than sole monarch, as he predeceased his father. As his sons grew up, Henry struggled to find ways to satisfy their desires for land and immediate power, and tensions rose over
21306-437: The unauthorised castles from the war continued. Efforts were made to restore the system of royal justice and the royal finances. Henry also invested heavily in the construction and renovation of prestigious new royal buildings. The King of Scotland and local Welsh rulers had taken advantage of the long civil war in England to seize disputed lands; Henry set about reversing these losses. In 1157 pressure from Henry resulted in
21465-411: The wall and used it to build Conway's Bridge near his home at Park Place outside Henley . St James's Church and School was built on a portion of the site of the abbey between 1837 and 1840. Its founder was James Wheble, who owned land in the area at that time. Reading Gaol was built in 1844 on the eastern portion of the abbey site, replacing a small county Gaol on the same site. James Wheble sold
21624-408: The west, and the south of the building opens directly onto the churchyard of St Laurence's Church . The building is surrounded to the north and east by a modern office development, with a small intermediate courtyard. Some remains of the former Abbey Mill are visible alongside the Holy Brook at the south of the abbey site; they consist of a ruined former watermill on the Holy Brook , a channel of
21783-1050: The world, with notable sites originating from ancient China , the Indus Valley and other regions of ancient India , ancient Iran , ancient Israel and Judea , ancient Iraq , ancient Greece , ancient Egypt , ancient Yemen , Roman , ancient India sites throughout the Mediterranean Basin , and Incan and Mayan sites in the Americas . Ruins are of great importance to historians, archaeologists and anthropologists , whether they were once individual fortifications , places of worship , ancient universities , houses and utility buildings, or entire villages, towns, and cities. Many ruins have become UNESCO World Heritage Sites in recent years, to identify and preserve them as areas of outstanding value to humanity. Ancient cities were often highly militarized and had fortified defensive settlements . In times of war, they were
21942-444: The years went by he put increasing energy into judicial and administrative affairs and became more cautious, but throughout his life, he was energetic and frequently impulsive. Despite his surges of anger, he was not normally fiery or overbearing; he was witty in conversation and eloquent in an argument with an intellectual bent of mind and an astonishing memory, and much preferred the solitude of hunting or retiring to his chamber with
22101-514: The young Malcolm IV of Scotland returning the lands in the north of England he had taken during the war; Henry promptly began to refortify the northern frontier. Restoring Anglo-Norman supremacy in Wales proved harder, and Henry had to fight two campaigns in north and south Wales in 1157 and 1158 before the Welsh princes Owain Gwynedd and Rhys ap Gruffydd submitted to his rule, agreeing to
22260-484: Was Hugh of Amiens who became archbishop of Rouen and was buried in Rouen Cathedral . According to the twelfth-century chronicler William of Malmesbury , the abbey was built on a gravel spur "between the rivers Kennet and Thames, on a spot calculated for the reception of almost all who might have occasion to travel to the more populous cities of England". The adjacent rivers provided convenient transport, and
22419-414: Was also infamous for his piercing stare, bullying, bursts of temper, and, on occasion, his sullen refusal to speak at all. Some of these outbursts may have been theatrical and for effect. Henry was said to have understood a wide range of languages, including English, but spoke only Latin and French. In his youth Henry enjoyed active participation in warfare, hunting and other adventurous pursuits; as
22578-419: Was deposed in 1156 by Henry's brother, Geoffrey, possibly with Henry's support. When Geoffrey died in 1158, Conan attempted to reclaim Nantes but was opposed by Henry who annexed it for himself. Louis took no action to intervene as Henry steadily increased his power in Brittany. Henry hoped to take a similar approach to regaining control of Toulouse in southern France. Toulouse, while traditionally tied to
22737-412: Was eleven years his senior, eight weeks later on 18 May. The marriage instantly revived Henry's tensions with Louis: it was considered an insult and ran counter to feudal practice because Eleanor, a holder of a French fiefdom , married without Louis's consent, and the marriage between Henry and Eleanor was just as consanguineous as that of her and Louis. Henry's acquisition of Aquitaine also threatened
22896-482: Was far less dynamic in resisting Angevin power than he had been earlier in his reign. The disputes between the two drew in other powers across the region, including Thierry, Count of Flanders , who signed a military alliance with Henry, albeit with a clause that prevented the count from being forced to fight against Louis, his feudal lord. Further south, Theobald V, Count of Blois , an enemy of Louis, became another early ally of Henry. The resulting military tensions and
23055-447: Was for hunting, for which the court became famous. Henry had several preferred royal hunting lodges and apartments across his lands and invested heavily in his royal castles, both for their practical utility as fortresses, and as symbols of royal power and prestige. The court was relatively formal in its style and language, possibly because Henry was attempting to compensate for his own sudden rise to power and relatively humble origins as
23214-497: Was hanged, drawn, and quartered outside the Abbey Gateway in 1539. The gateway survived because it was used as the entrance to the abbots' lodging, which was turned into a royal palace after the Dissolution. In the late 18th century, the gateway was used as part of the Reading Ladies' Boarding School , attended amongst others by the novelist Jane Austen . The gateway was heavily restored by Sir George Gilbert Scott , after
23373-488: Was increasingly important to rulers during the 12th century to pay mercenary forces and to build stone castles, both vital to successful military campaigns. Henry inherited a difficult situation in England in 1154. Henry I had established a system of royal finances that depended upon three key institutions: a central royal treasury in London, supported by treasuries in key castles; the exchequer that accounted for payments to
23532-531: Was installed on the Gateway to allow the building to dry out until funding for more permanent repairs was secured. The HLF confirmed that the second round application had been successful in December 2015. The HLF supported the project with a grant of £1.77 million, with Reading Borough Council match funding of £1.38 million. Historic England provided additional grant funding for initial work to the Abbey gateway and
23691-663: Was installed, including a new gallery at Reading Museum , and an extensive activity programme. Abbey Ward of Reading Borough Council takes its name from Reading Abbey, which lies within its boundaries. Now HM Prison Reading is on the site. The abbey was founded by Henry I in 1121. As part of his endowments, he gave the abbey his lands within Reading, along with land at Cholsey , then in Berkshire, and Leominster in Herefordshire. He also arranged for further land in Reading, previously given to Battle Abbey by William
23850-465: Was instructed by a magister , Master Matthew; Robert's household was known for its education and learning. The canons of St Augustine's in Bristol also helped in Henry's education, and he remembered them with affection in later years. Henry returned to Anjou in either 1143 or 1144, resuming his education under William of Conches , another famous academic. Henry returned to England in 1147, at
24009-415: Was issued under Stephen in 1153 to try to stabilise the English currency after the war; it was effective in replacing the previously circulating currency. Less is known about how financial affairs were managed in Henry's Continental possessions, but a very similar system operated in Normandy, and a comparable system probably operated in both Anjou and Aquitaine. On taking power Henry gave a high priority to
24168-605: Was later called the Angevin Empire , and also held power over Scotland and the Duchy of Brittany . Henry became politically and militarily involved by the age of fourteen in the efforts of his mother, Matilda (daughter of Henry I of England ), to claim the English throne, at that time held by Matilda's cousin Stephen of Blois . Henry's father, Geoffrey , made him Duke of Normandy in 1150, and upon Geoffrey's death in 1151, Henry inherited Anjou, Maine and Touraine . His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine brought him control of
24327-887: Was later content for her to govern Aquitaine. Indeed, Eleanor was believed to have influence over Henry during much of their marriage. Ultimately, their relationship disintegrated. Chroniclers and historians have speculated on what ultimately caused Eleanor to abandon Henry to support her older sons in the Revolt of 1173–1174 . Probable explanations include his persistent interference in Aquitaine; Henry's, rather than Eleanor's, acceptance of homage from Raymond of Toulouse in 1173; and his harsh temper. Henry had eight legitimate children by Eleanor: five sons, William , Young Henry, Richard , Geoffrey and John ; and three daughters, Matilda , Eleanor and Joan . He had several long-term mistresses, including Annabel de Balliol and Rosamund Clifford , and also several illegitimate children. Amongst
24486-544: Was popularized in the 20th century by Albert Speer while planning for the 1936 Summer Olympics and published as Die Ruinenwerttheorie ("The Theory of Ruin Value"). Ruins remain a popular subject for painting and creative photography and are often romanticized in film and literature, providing scenic backdrops or used as metaphors for other forms of decline or decay. For example, the ruins of Dunstanburgh Castle in England inspired Turner to create several paintings; in 1989
24645-687: Was quite unusual under medieval law as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Elsewhere in France, Henry attempted to seize the Auvergne , much to the anger of the French king. Further south, Henry continued to apply pressure on Raymond of Toulouse. He campaigned there personally in 1161 and sent his allies Alfonso II of Aragon and the Archbishop of Bordeaux against Raymond in 1164. In 1165, Raymond divorced Louis's sister and possibly pursued an alliance with Henry instead. These growing tensions between Henry and Louis finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by
24804-424: Was said by chroniclers to be good-looking, red-haired, freckled, with a large head. He had a short, stocky body and was bow-legged from riding. Often he was scruffily dressed. His preference for the short Angevin cloak earned him the nickname "Curtmantle". Henry was neither as reserved as his mother nor as charming as his father, but he was famous for his energy and drive. He was ruthless but not vindictive. He
24963-466: Was secure. At around this time, he was also probably secretly planning his marriage to Eleanor , then still the wife of Louis. Eleanor was the Duchess of Aquitaine , a land in the south of France, and was considered beautiful, lively and controversial, but had not borne Louis any sons. Louis had the marriage annulled on the grounds of consanguinity , and the nineteen year old Henry married Eleanor, who
25122-451: Was then crowned alongside Eleanor at Westminster Abbey on 19 December. At the coronation Henry wore one of the imperial crowns his mother brought back from Germany; they had once belonged to Emperor Henry V. The royal court was gathered in April 1155, where the barons swore fealty to the King and his sons. Several potential rivals still existed, including Stephen's son William and Henry's brothers Geoffrey and William , but they all died in
25281-527: Was very effective at finding and keeping competent officials, including within the Church, a key part of royal administration in the 12th century. Royal patronage within the Church provided an effective route to advancement under Henry, and most of his preferred clerics eventually became bishops and archbishops. By contrast, the number of earldoms in England shrank considerably, removing the potential for advancement for many traditional barons. Henry could also show his ira et malevolentia – "anger and ill-will" –
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