104-620: The Red Tail Squadron , part of the non-profit Commemorative Air Force (CAF), known as the Red Tail Project until June 2011, maintains and flies a World War II era North American P-51C Mustang . The twice-restored aircraft flies to create interest in the history and accomplishments of the members of the World War II-era 332nd Fighter Group , also known as the Tuskegee Airmen , whose distinctive red markings on
208-992: A PT-26 Cornell operated by CAF crashed in Williamson, Georgia , killing both crew members. The NTSB found that the pilot "attempted a takeoff with flaps extended." On November 12, 2022, during the Wings Over Dallas airshow, two planes owned and operated by CAF—a Bell P-63F and the Boeing B-17G Texas Raiders —suffered a mid-air collision that killed six people. As of 2020 , the Commemorative Air Force had more than 13,000 members, in more than 70 regional groups, called wings or detachments, in 27 states and five countries. Several hundred members actively serve as pilots and flight and/or maintenance crew members committed to preserving American combat aviation heritage. The CAF
312-487: A 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis , claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply. During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in
416-687: A 30-second television spot. In 1991, the CAF moved operations to Midland, Texas , where the group opened the CAF Airpower Museum and the American Combat Airman Hall of Fame. In April 2014, the CAF announced the move of their headquarters and all of the planes associated with the headquarters to Dallas Executive Airport in Dallas, Texas. The museum and its artifacts (including the nose art collection) were moved to
520-518: A P-51C aircraft, which it parked on its campus in front of the engineering building. The P-51C was essentially left alone in Montana, except for an occasional coat of silver paint. In 1965, when the University wanted to add a parking lot, restorer Lloyd Creek bought it from the University for $ 1, provided that he could remove it from the campus in 24 hours of notification in winning the bid. To move
624-467: A balance of minerals within their diet, but it also impacts the amount of iron that is regenerated back into the ocean. The whale's excretions also contain the absorbed iron which would allow iron to be reinserted into the ocean’s ecosystem. Overall, one mineral deficiency such as iron in the Southern Ocean can spark a significant chain of disturbances within the marine ecosystems which demonstrates
728-471: A century. In the 1990s, the CAF's Minnesota Wing began restoring a P-51 that many branches of the CAF organization had attempted to restore but found the task beyond their capabilities. The P-51C once served Capt. Andrew "Jug" Turner. Pilot Don Hinz, a retired United States Navy commander based at Fleming Field in South St. Paul , Minnesota, heard of the project and enlisted some experts as well as named
832-478: A chemical/ tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts . Climate change , rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere , excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry . Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in
936-657: A collective Congressional Gold Medal , and the airfield where they trained has been designated as Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site . Although some sources claimed the Airmen had a perfect record in their 15,000 missions as bomber escorts , a report released in 2007 stated they lost 25 bombers . At the conclusion of World War II in 1945, the United States Army sold off military surplus and for $ 1 ($ 16.9 today) Montana State University in Bozeman , Montana bought
1040-580: A day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40% water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation could not be given. In his 1948 book The Kon-Tiki Expedition , Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in
1144-664: A group of African American pilots who fought in World War II as the 332nd Fighter Group and 477th Bombardment Group of the US Army Air Corps . They are also sometimes referred to as the Red Tail Angels or Red Tails, unofficial terms that were used during the War to describe the mostly unknown group of Airmen because of the distinctive red paint used on the tails of their fighter aircraft. The Tuskegee Airmen were
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#17327901082841248-474: A hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica. The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on
1352-594: A litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million." Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column , as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in
1456-443: A marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life . The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides , often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers. Pandoravirus salinus ,
1560-454: A membership structure based on each member having the equal rank of colonel; and a rallying cry of " Semper, Mint Julep " ("Always Mint Julep "). In 1957, Lloyd Nolen and four friends purchased a P-51 Mustang called "Red Nose", splitting the $ 1,500 cost. In 1958, the group made their second purchase: two Grumman F8F Bearcats for $ 805 each. Along with the P-51, this gave the pilots two of
1664-413: A more sustainable water supply from seawater. Although desalination also comes with environmental concerns, such as costs and resources, researchers are working closely to determine more sustainable practices, such as creating more productive water plants that can deal with larger water supplies in areas where these plans weren't always available. Although seawater extractions can benefit society greatly, it
1768-498: A new Rebel Field at Harlingen, Texas , and moved there in 1968, occupying three large buildings including 26,000 square feet (2,400 m ) of museum space. By the end of the decade, the CAF fleet had added medium and heavy bombers such as the North American B-25 Mitchell , B-17 , Consolidated B-24 Liberator . In 1971, they bought one of the two airworthy Boeing B-29 Superfortresses , FIFI . In 1976,
1872-542: A result of degradation of organic matter in these waters. It can be as high as 8.4 in surface waters in areas of high biological productivity . Measurement of pH is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography . There is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However,
1976-511: A salinity of 35 g/kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes , starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets . Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into
2080-489: A species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus , Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus , and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure. In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting
2184-434: Is 1088 kg/m . The pH value at the surface of oceans in pre-industrial time (before 1850) was around 8.2. Since then, it has been decreasing due to a human-caused process called ocean acidification that is related to carbon dioxide emissions : Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. The pH value of seawater is naturally as low as 7.8 in deep ocean waters as
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#17327901082842288-557: Is about 1000 mOsm/L. Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life . Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used,
2392-507: Is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia . Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed
2496-457: Is an all-volunteer organization, made up of members from all backgrounds. Membership is open to everyone age 18 or older, and cadet membership is available for those over 12 years of age. Although a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, tax-exempt group, the CAF has received financial incentives from state and local governments to move to Dallas and operate in Midland. The American Airpower Heritage Group
2600-448: Is an indicator that krill is in whale diets. Antarctic krill had an average iron level of 174.3mg/kg dry weight, but the iron in the krill varied from 12 to 174 mg/kg dry weight. The average iron concentration of the muscular tissue of blue whales and fin whales was 173 mg/kg dry weight, which demonstrates that the large marine mammals are important to marine ecosystems such as they are to the Southern Ocean. In fact, to have more whales in
2704-476: Is considered a superior taste. A restaurant run by Joaquín Baeza sources as much as 60,000 litres a month from supplier Mediterranea Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles , and seabirds , such as penguins and albatrosses , have adapted to living in a high-saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts . Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently
2808-557: Is crucial to consider the environmental impact and to ensure that all extractions are conducted in a way that acknowledges and considers the associated risks to the sustainability of seawater ecosystems. ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater : ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation. The minerals found in seawater can also play an important role in
2912-421: Is not easily accessible. Although it is not typical to use salt water as a means to grow plants as the salt gathers and ruins the surrounding soil, it has been proven to be successful in sand and gravel soils. Large-scale desalination of seawater is another factor that would contribute to the success of agriculture farming in dry, desert environments. One of the most successful plants in salt water agriculture
3016-399: Is the halophyte . The halophyte is a salt tolerant plant whose cells are resistant to the typically detrimental effects of salt in soil. The endodermis forces a higher level of salt filtration throughout the plant as it allows for the circulation of more water through the cells. The cultivation of halophytes irrigated with salt water were used to grow animal feed for livestock ; however,
3120-569: Is the largest warbird air show in the world, with more than eighty warbirds flying per show. The CAF has more than 80 wings and squadrons. Starting in 2013, a limited number of larger units may be designated as an "airbase." The first is Airbase Arizona, located at Falcon Field in Mesa, Arizona and redesignated in June 2013. Most CAF units are in the United States, but there are three outside
3224-566: Is the parent organization and is made up of four corporations: The original name, Confederate Air Force, alluding to the Confederate States of America , started as a joke about the organization's ragtag beginnings. As the collection of warbirds at Central Valley Airport in Mercedes, Texas , started to grow, one member painted the name on the side of the original North American P-51 Mustang Red Nose . The name stuck, and it grew to
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3328-453: The Age of Sail . Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson 's HMS Victory , were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys . The natural sea salt obtained by evaporating seawater can also be collected and sold as table salt , typically sold separately owing to its unique mineral make-up compared to rock salt or other sources. A number of regional cuisines across
3432-550: The Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor. Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half
3536-465: The MiG 17 Fresco C . AIRSHO is a yearly event at Midland International Airport showcasing the CAF's aircraft. Because its aircraft tend to be spread out over large geographic distances, and most Ghost Squadron aircraft rarely fly more than a few hours from their home base, AIRSHO is also an opportunity for CAF members to meet up. Ghost Squadron aircraft usually attend AIRSHO every other year. The CAF AIRSHO
3640-454: The oil and gas released from the operation of merchant ships decreases the air quality and causes more pollution both in the seawater and surrounding areas. Another human use of seawater that has been considered is the use of seawater for agricultural purposes. In areas with higher regions of sand dunes , such as Israel , the use of seawater for irrigation of plants would eliminate substantial costs associated with fresh water when it
3744-572: The "Red Tail Project" to the "CAF Red Tail Squadron" and also completed construction of the RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit as an additional tool to help tell the story of these pilots and their support personnel (who are also known as Tuskegee Airmen). The Mustang and the RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit appear together at air shows, and the Traveling Exhibit also goes to schools and other youth-oriented venues. After
3848-484: The 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and
3952-433: The 2004 crash, the restoration became the impetus for a nationwide fund raising effort and attracted the attention of Adam White, an independent film maker who was, at the time, filming a documentary on vintage aircraft restoration called The Restorers . He was attracted to both the aircraft and the cause, and his 2007 historical documentary, Red Tail Reborn won Emmy Award recognition in his home state of Ohio, where it
4056-687: The 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries. Like any other type of raw or contaminated water , seawater can be evaporated or filtered to eliminate salt, germs, and other contaminants that would otherwise prevent it from being considered potable . Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator , or, more recently, reverse osmosis . These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during
4160-696: The Airmen's experiences. The RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit is sponsored by the Texas Flying Legends Museum. Commemorative Air Force The Commemorative Air Force ( CAF ), formerly known as the Confederate Air Force , is an American non-profit organization based in Dallas , Texas , that preserves and shows historical aircraft at airshows , primarily in the U.S. and Canada. The CAF has about 13,000 members, more than 70 chapters, and more than 170 aircraft, including
4264-452: The CAF pilot of a Fairchild PT-19A was killed in a crash shortly after takeoff at Midland International Airport ; the plane's one passenger survived. The NTSB cited the pilot's "failure to maintain airspeed which resulted in an inadvertent stall". On May 14, 2001, both CAF crew members aboard a Vultee BT-13A died in a crash southeast of Odessa, Texas. The NTSB found that the pilot failed to maintain minimum airspeed. On June 16, 2005,
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4368-714: The CAF sponsored an air show where a B-29 bomber piloted by Paul Tibbets , the pilot who flew the B-29 which bombed Hiroshima during World War II, reenacted the atomic bombing of Hiroshima (including a mock mushroom cloud). This air show prompted the Japanese government to lodge a formal complaint with the United States Embassy, resulting in the U.S. government issuing an apology. In 1983, the American Airpower Heritage Foundation
4472-460: The CAF was chartered as a nonprofit Texas corporation to restore and preserve World War II-era combat aircraft. By the end of the year, the CAF owned nine aircraft. By 1963, the group had achieved their initial goal of acquiring one of each fighter plane operated by U.S. forces during World War II. They held their first airshow on March 10, 1963. In 1965, the first museum building was completed at old Rebel Field, Mercedes, Texas . The CAF created
4576-565: The CAF's aircraft titles . The second was the American Airpower Heritage Museum , which acquired and maintained the CAF's non-aircraft pieces and static displays. In September 1990, CAF joined a statewide anti-littering campaign ( Don't Mess With Texas ), filming a low-level, high-speed pass of the B-17 Sentimental Journey on a mock bombing run of a highway-littering pickup truck, as part of
4680-852: The Consolidated Liberator B Mk I/B-24A Liberator AM927. Many of the CAF aircraft are rare; the CAF operates one of only two flying examples of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and the only remaining flightworthy Curtiss SB2C Helldiver . Others, such as the B-24/LB-30 Liberator ; the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero ; and the Douglas SBD Dauntless are one of only two or three of that type left flying today. The CAF also operates Axis and Warsaw Pact aircraft such as
4784-693: The P-51C Mustang Tuskegee Airmen the Squadron RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit , utilized for tours and private showings for schools and groups around the country, the Squadron curates and provides educational resources for interested persons. These resources include a "Virtual Museum" which is an online repository of items belonging to or used by Tuskegee Airmen, including a catalogue of public memorials and artwork. The "RISE ABOVE Traveling Exhibit"
4888-570: The P-51C promptly to Billings , Montana necessitated the removal of the wings, which were sawed off with a circular saw . When the aircraft arrived in Billings, the wings were reattached to the fuselage . In 1970, frustrated with restoration efforts, Creek donated the P-51C to the CAF, which disassembled the aircraft and shipped it to the organization's home base in Texas. While awaiting restoration,
4992-580: The P-51C was in need of restoration, Don Hinz channeled his energy and talents into the emerging Red Tail project. The aircraft is now one of only four existing P-51C Mustangs in existence. As one of the four flying Mustangs, it is worth $ 2.5 million. The Commemorative Air Force, which has approximately 9,000 members and a fleet of 156 aircraft, is an educational association with the purpose to pay tribute to American military aviation through flight, exhibition and remembrance. It has been collecting, restoring and flying vintage historical aircraft for more than half
5096-582: The Red Tail , a 12-minute film released in 2009. The restoration, completed in 2009, cost $ 1 million. In 2005, the Red Tail Project, which is not for profit , sought to raise about $ 2 million to fund the initial restoration. The organization held several types of events to raise funds. Since then, community-based organizations adopted the project. For example, in Wahpeton , North Dakota, where
5200-625: The Red Tail Squadron and the unique movie screen, is shown. The traveling exhibit goes to air shows with the Red Tail Project Mustang and spends 40 weeks per year at schools and places where young people congregate. The idea is to take the story of the Tuskegee Airmen, and how they overcame so many obstacles by setting goals and working to meet them, directly to the students who can benefit from hearing about
5304-544: The aircraft endured a hurricane which exposed numerous parts of the aircraft to seawater damage. Several CAF volunteers attempted to rehab the aircraft in Minneapolis , Minnesota, Texas, Council Bluffs , Iowa, and finally in the late 1980s at the home of the Southern Minnesota wing of the CAF, which had just completed the restoration of the North American B-25 Mitchell bomber, Miss Mitchell . After noting
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#17327901082845408-501: The aircraft was restored, each August, the "Red Tail Run" is held. This motorcycle and vehicle run, which starts at the Harry Stern Airport , raises money for the project. In 2008, the organization hired Fund Raising Strategies, a fund raising specialist firm, to develop a direct mail fund raising program. The CAF Red Tail Squadron endeavors to preserve the legacy of the airmen through aviation education. In addition to
5512-436: The aircraft's restoration, and developed the idea of the Red Tail Project, named for the distinctive red paint on the Airmen's aircraft. Originally conceived as a restoration project, Red Tail evolved into an education program. Although the P-51 was restored, mechanical failure caused a crash and the death of the pilot, a retired U.S. Navy commander; the Tuskegee Airmen endorsed and encouraged the aircraft's second restoration, and
5616-418: The aircraft. The five-year restoration occurred at Tri-State Aviation in Wahpeton , North Dakota. In 2007, Gerry Beck, one of the primary restorers, was in a fatal collision of his P-51A and a P-51D during AirVenture 2007. Beck was the owner of Tri-State Aviation, but about a half dozen other CAF volunteer aviation mechanics contributed to the effort to pick up where he left off. The rebuilding continued with
5720-432: The amount of iron that can be recycled and stored in seawater. A positive feedback loop is created, increasing the overall productivity of marine life in the Southern Ocean. Organisms of all sizes play a significant role in the balance of marine ecosystems with both the largest and smallest inhabitants contributing equally to recycling nutrients in seawater. Prioritizing the recovery of whale populations because they boost
5824-415: The animals that were fed these plants consumed more water than those that did not. Although agriculture from use of saltwater is still not recognized and used on a large scale, initial research has shown that there could be an opportunity to provide more crops in regions where agricultural farming is not usually feasible. Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if
5928-537: The assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material. While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli , Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera , hepatitis A , hepatitis E and polio , along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis . These pathogens are routinely present in
6032-404: The ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas the speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3 kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and
6136-506: The case of the Dead Sea . Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg". The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m , depending on
6240-424: The condition of the sea post-extraction, and constant monitoring. The use of technology, such as underwater drones , can facilitate sustainable extractions. The use of low-carbon infrastructure would also allow for more sustainable extraction processes while reducing the carbon footprint from mineral extractions. Another practice that is being considered closely is the process of desalination in order to achieve
6344-404: The contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%. It is 0.9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration
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#17327901082846448-437: The country. Seawater Seawater , or sea water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) ions ). The average density at
6552-495: The direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline , but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli -like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by
6656-540: The effort "The Red Tail Project". Originally, the restoration was attempted at Fleming Field. After soliciting the assistance of outside contractors from North Dakota , the aircraft was airborne in May 2001. The P-51C, which was named "Tuskegee Airmen", was included in numerous air shows to tell the history of the pilot group. From May 2001 to May 2004, the aircraft flew before more than an estimated three million people. By 2004, Hinz envisioned an educational program based on
6760-505: The evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere. Some bacteria interact with diatoms , and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis , plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in
6864-521: The first unit of African American military aviators in the United States armed forces. During World War II, African Americans were still subjected to Jim Crow laws in portions of the United States and the American military itself was racially segregated . Legal and social prejudice prevented the Airmen from flying combat missions. Despite their adversities, the Tuskegee Airmen flew with distinction: In 2007, 350 Tuskegee Airmen and their widows were awarded
6968-530: The four most concentrated metals – Na , Mg , Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from
7072-438: The group voted to rename, using the initials "CAF" until a permanent name was selected. Following a 2001 membership vote, the group changed its name to "Commemorative Air Force", effective January 1, 2002. Many felt the name Confederate Air Force was confusing, did not accurately reflect the purpose of the organization, and was detrimental to fundraising efforts. According to CAF chief of staff Ray Kinney, "In many people's minds,
7176-528: The historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity , reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources. One of
7280-458: The important role that seawater plays in the food chain . Upon further analysis of the dynamic relationship between diatoms, krill, and baleen whales, fecal samples of baleen whales were examined in Antarctic seawater. The findings included that iron concentrations were 10 million times higher than those found in Antarctic seawater, and krill was found consistently throughout their feces which
7384-453: The levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass). In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to
7488-410: The liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier : the measured temperature was −2.6 °C (27.3 °F). Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Although
7592-539: The main types of phytoplankton are diatoms which is the primary food source of Antarctic krill . As the cycle continues, various larger sea animals feed off of Antarctic krill, but since there is a shortage of iron from the initial phytoplankton/diatoms, then these larger species also lack iron. The larger sea animals include Baleen Whales such as the Blue Whale and Fin Whale . These whales not only rely on iron for
7696-431: The manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable. In order for seawater mineral and element extractions to take place while taking close consideration of sustainable practices, it is necessary for monitored management systems to be put in place. This requires management of ocean areas and their conditions, environmental planning , structured guidelines to ensure that extractions are controlled, regular assessments of
7800-401: The most striking features of this is ocean acidification , resulting from increased CO 2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO 2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs , mollusks , echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching ). Seawater is a means of transportation throughout the world. Every day plenty of ships cross
7904-797: The most-advanced piston-engine fighters to see service with the U.S. Army Air Forces and the United States Navy . In 1960, the CAF began to seriously search for other World War II aircraft. The CAF colonels were shocked to find that the aircraft which played such a major role in winning World War II were being rapidly and systematically scrapped as obsolete with no efforts, not even by the Air Force or Navy , to preserve any for display for future generations. The warbirds that remained airworthy were mostly in private hands modified for air racing or had been converted for commercial use as air freighters and aerial firefighters. On September 6, 1961,
8008-508: The mounting of the engine in 2008 and the mating of the wing in 2009. On 22 July 2009, four days before AirVenture 2009 in Oshkosh , Wisconsin, the P-51C had its first flight. Then, it was flown to Wisconsin for its public debut. After the show it returned to Minnesota with a 6 AT-6 escort. The aircraft has also served a tribute via military flyovers for fallen Tuskegee Airmen. In 2011, the volunteer-driven organization changed its name from
8112-639: The negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated. The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner : Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink. Although humans cannot survive on seawater in place of normal drinking water, some people claim that up to two cups
8216-626: The new headquarters, which it operates as the Henry B. Tippie National Aviation Education Center . In 2015, the CAF acquired the C-47 That's All, Brother , the plane that led the parachute assault on Normandy during D-Day . On September 28, 1995, a Martin B-26 Marauder operated by CAF crashed near Odessa, Texas , killing all five crew members. The NTSB found that the pilot failed to maintain minimum airspeed. On April 14, 2001,
8320-408: The newly restored P-51C made its debut at AirVenture 2009 in Oshkosh, Wisconsin . Since the 1990s, the Red Tail Squadron has raised over $ 2 million (US) for the aircraft's two restorations, its ongoing maintenance and associated educational programs. The Mustang has been featured in two documentary films : Red Tail Reborn , and Flight of the Red Tail . Tuskegee Airmen is the popular name of
8424-462: The ocean and its ecosystem's food cycle. For example, the Southern Ocean contributes greatly to the environmental carbon cycle . Given that this body of water does not contain high levels of iron , the deficiency impacts the marine life living in its waters. As a result, this ocean is not able to produce as much phytoplankton which hinders the first source of the marine food chain. One of
8528-496: The ocean could heighten the amount of iron in seawater through their excretions which would promote a better ecosystem. Krill and baleen whales act as large iron reservoirs in seawater in the Southern Ocean. Krill can retain up to 24% of iron found on surface waters within its range. The process of krill feeding on diatoms releases iron into seawater, highlighting them as an important part of the ocean's iron cycle . The advantageous relationship between krill and baleen whales increases
8632-415: The ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid ) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents . The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt. Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of
8736-459: The ocean to deliver goods to various locations around the world. Seawater is a tool for countries to efficiently participate in international commercial trade and transportation, but each ship exhausts emissions that can harm marine life, air quality of coastal areas. Seawater transportation is one of the fastest growing human generated greenhouse gas emissions. The emissions released from ships pose significant risks to human health in nearing areas as
8840-416: The ocean's biomass , clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane , an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have
8944-876: The overall productivity in marine ecosystems as well as increasing iron levels in seawater would allow for a balanced and productive system for the ocean. However, a more in depth study is required to understand the benefits of whale feces as a fertilizer and to provide further insight in iron recycling in the Southern Ocean. Projects on the management of ecosystems and conservation are vital for advancing knowledge of marine ecology. Like any mineral extraction practices, there are environmental advantages and disadvantages. Cobalt and Lithium are two key metals that can be used for aiding with more environmentally friendly technologies above ground, such as powering batteries that energize electric vehicles or creating wind power . An environmentally friendly approach to mining that allows for more sustainability would be to extract these metals from
9048-494: The point where the airport was renamed Rebel Field, all members were called " colonels " (a tradition which still remains), and it led to the creation of a fictitious leader named Colonel Jethro E. Culpepper. A blood chit written on the backs of flight suits and flight jackets stated, "This is a CAF aviator. If found lost or unconscious, please hide him from Yankees , revive with mint julep and assist him in returning to friendly territory. CONFEDERATE AIR FORCE." In November 2000,
9152-689: The ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium , sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity
9256-537: The restored aircraft. In a May 2004 show in Red Wing , Minnesota the camshaft drive of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine failed. Although Hinz successfully landed the aircraft between two houses in a residential suburb, both wings were ripped off and the body was badly damaged. A tree damaged in the crash fell on Hinz, causing head trauma from which he did not recover. The Tuskegee Airmen decided to restore
9360-508: The sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle ). Halley noted that most lakes that do not have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea , see endorheic basin ), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering". Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of
9464-421: The seafloor. Lithium mining from the seafloor at mass quantities could provide a substantial amount of renewable metals to promote more environmentally friendly practices in society to reduce humans' carbon footprint . Lithium mining from the seafloor could be successful, but its success would be dependent on more productive recycling practices above ground. There are also risks that come with extracting from
9568-409: The seafloor. Many biodiverse species have long lifespans on the seafloor, which means that their reproduction takes more time. Similarly to fish harvesting from the seafloor, the extraction of minerals in large amounts, too quickly, without proper protocols, can result in a disruption of the underwater ecosystems. Contrarily, this would have the opposite effect and prevent mineral extractions from being
9672-411: The seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine ) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater. The renal system actively regulates
9776-400: The surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F). The coldest seawater still in
9880-555: The tails of the P-51s they flew during that war, gave the organization its name. The all African American 332d Fighter Group originally flew 15,550 sorties as bomber escorts in the Mustang; eventually the Airmen, who were originally shunned in the white military, acquired the right to fly combat missions. In 1970, the Commemorative Air Force acquired an original P-51 to include in their educational program. In 1980, Don Hinz took charge of
9984-507: The temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, the salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m . Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure
10088-455: The two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA , enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that
10192-679: The vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. monsoon ), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea , where high rates of evaporation , low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still – about ten times higher in
10296-561: The word 'confederacy' brings up the image of slavery and discrimination. We, in no way, are associated with that kind of stuff. So, it gives us, in a way, a black eye." As of 2022 , the CAF owned 179 aircraft, a collection known as the CAF Ghost Squadron. Its aircraft range from the small Stinson L-5 Sentinel and Ryan PT-22 to the giant Boeing B-29 Superfortress; the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress; and
10400-470: The world traditionally incorporate seawater directly as an ingredient, cooking other ingredients in a diluted solution of filtered seawater as a substitute for conventional dry seasonings . Proponents include world-renowned chefs Ferran Adrià and Quique Dacosta , whose home country of Spain has six different companies sourcing filtered seawater for culinary use. The water is marketed as la sal perfecta , "the perfect salt", containing less sodium with what
10504-605: The world's largest collection of airworthy warbirds . The origin of the Commemorative Air Force is the organization called the "Confederate Air Corps" created by Oscar Harper in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1953. Led by the fictional character "Thaddeus P. Throckmorton" and his recruiting officer "Jethro Culpepper", the CAC established several features that later became key characteristics of the CAF: folksy, tongue-in-cheek southern humor;
10608-526: Was first broadcast in February 2007, and, subsequently released on DVD in March of that year. Narrated by Michael Dorn of Star Trek fame, himself a pilot and warbird owner, the film documents the difficulties of the restoration of the P-51C and the travails of the Tuskegee Airmen. The following year PBS picked up the film in its Black History Month programming. White also completed a sequel, Flight of
10712-516: Was founded to financially support the CAF. The group's accomplishments were recognized in 1989 with a National Aviation Hall of Fame Spirit of Flight Award. That year, Texas Governor William Clements signed a resolution designating the CAF the air force of Texas. In 1990, the CAF added two corporations. The first was the American Airpower Heritage Flying Museum, tasked with obtaining and maintaining
10816-410: Was introduced at EAA AirVenture 2011. It consists of a 53-foot (16.2 m) long semi trailer and tractor. The trailer, which has colorful graphics on all four sides, has expandable sides and houses a 40-foot (12.2 m) long, curved IMAX movie screen plus comfortable seating for 30 guests; it is also climate controlled. An original IMAX movie called RISE ABOVE, developed and filmed specifically for
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