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121-468: The Reformed Presbyterian churches are presbyterian in polity; members of each congregation elect elders who must be male, as they believe the Bible requires , and who must also be members of the congregation. These elders, along with a minister or pastor, make up the "session" governing a congregation. Ministers are known as "teaching elders"; other elders are known as "ruling elders." The teaching elder

242-417: A general assembly . Responsibility for conduct of church services is reserved to an ordained minister or pastor known as a teaching elder , or a minister of the word and sacrament. Presbyterian polity was developed as a rejection of governance by hierarchies of single bishops ( episcopal polity ), but also differs from the congregationalist polity in which each congregation is independent. In contrast to

363-446: A Royalist political faction, arguing Parliament was trying to alter the balance too much the other way. Both sides claimed they were seeking to restore the "ancient constitution". For many supporters of Parliament, Stuart concepts of the divine right of kings and absolutism brought in by James VI and I in 1603 were "innovations" that had undermined "traditional" English freedoms and rights. However, there were different views on

484-638: A bigger issue in Royalist areas like Cornwall and Hertfordshire . The deaths of John Pym and John Hampden in 1643 removed a unifying force within Parliament, and deepened divisions. Supported by the Scots, the 'Peace Party' were concerned by political radicals like the Levellers , and wanted an immediate, negotiated settlement. The 'War Party' fundamentally mistrusted Charles, and saw military victory as

605-688: A minister of the established Church of Scotland in the parish of Balmaghie , was offered, and accepted, the officer of minister to the Dissenting Societies. M'Millan had been deposed from the established Church for persistent "protestation against all the corruptions, defections, errors, and mismanagements in the Church government of Scotland, as then established." He had also condemned the oath of allegiance to Queen Anne (r. 1702–1714), cousin and successor to William III . In 1743, another minister, Rev. Thomas Nairn (c. 1680–1764), who had left

726-667: A mission in the French city of Nantes . All of the communion's members form the RP Global Alliance. The RP Global Alliance refers to itself as a "consultative community of Reformed Presbyterian Churches worldwide." Several denominations and individual churches not part of this group use the term "Reformed Presbyterian" in their names. While the Reformed Presbytery in North America (General Meeting) uses

847-895: A month earlier, ending plans for taking the war into Scotland. The loss of Carmarthen and Chepstow in South Wales cut connections with Royalist supporters in Ireland (see Map) and Charles made his way back to Oxford, where he spent the winter besieged by the New Model. Following the fall of Hereford in December 1645, the Royalists held only Devon, Cornwall, North Wales, and isolated garrisons in Exeter, Oxford, Newark, and Scarborough Castle . Chester surrendered in February, after which

968-410: A presbytery exists perpetually. The officers of a presbytery are a moderator and a stated or principal clerk . The moderator acts as chair of presbytery meetings. As with the moderators of synods and assemblies, the moderatorship is a primus inter pares position appointed by the presbytery itself. The moderator is addressed as "moderator" during meetings, but their position has no bearing outside of

1089-664: A senior Covenanter who was deeply suspicious of Cromwell and the Independents, but these discussions ultimately went nowhere. Prince Rupert was sent to supervise the defence of Bristol and the West, while Charles made his way to Raglan Castle , then headed for the Scottish border. He reached as far north as Doncaster in Yorkshire, before retreating to Oxford in the face of superior Parliamentarian forces. In July, Fairfax lifted

1210-427: A separate Church of England, as well as religious Independents who opposed any state religion. The Solemn League created a Committee of Both Kingdoms to co-ordinate strategy in all three war zones, England, Scotland and Ireland, although Pym's death in December 1643 deprived Parliament of their most important leader. The Scots under Leven were ordered to take Newcastle, securing coal supplies for London, and closing

1331-516: A side were complex, and there were wide areas of alignment between Royalists and Parliamentarians. Many tried to remain neutral, or participated with extreme reluctance, while others fought on both sides at different points. Historian Tim Harris suggests that by 1640, most agreed attempts by Charles to govern without Parliament had gone too far. After the Grand Remonstrance was submitted in late 1641, moderates like Edward Hyde created

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1452-819: A single battle and quick victory; for the Royalists, this meant capturing London, for Parliament, 'rescuing' the king from his 'evil counsellors'. After failing to capture Hull in July, Charles left York for Nottingham , chosen for its proximity to Royalist areas in the Midlands and Northern Wales . Particularly in the early stages of the conflict, locally raised troops were reluctant to serve outside their own county, and most of those recruited in Yorkshire refused to accompany him. On 22 August, Charles formally declared war on Parliamentarian 'rebels', but by early September his army still numbered less than 2,500, with much of England hoping to remain neutral. In contrast, financing from

1573-415: Is also distinct from congregationalism , in that individual congregations are not independent, but are answerable to the wider church, through its governing bodies (presbyteries, synods and assemblies). Moreover, the ordained ministry possesses a distinct responsibility for preaching and sacraments. Congregational churches are sometimes called "Presbyterian" if they are governed by a council of elders; but

1694-473: Is for the service of the congregation, to pray for them and to encourage them in the faith. The elders together exercise oversight (episcopacy) over the local congregation, with superior groups of elders gathered on a regional basis exercising wider oversight. Presbyterians typically have viewed this method of government as approximating that of the New Testament and earliest churches. Presbyterianism

1815-462: Is not as clear under the Presbyterian system as in others). The terms 'lay' and 'clergy' are not properly used in presbyterian polity. Ministers may be considered equal in status with the other elders, but they have a distinct ordination and distinct function. They are the primary preachers and teachers, celebrants of sacraments. There are sometimes further distinctions between the minister and

1936-590: Is not in authority over the ruling elders, nor are the ruling elders in authority over the teaching elder. The Reformed Presbyterian churches are a communion. All churches in the communion descend from the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The member churches of the communion are: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America has jurisdiction over the Japan Presbytery, and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland has

2057-493: Is often appointed for an indefinite term. Presbytery Clerks are the ecclesiastical administrators and generally regarded as substantially influential due to their greater experience of the governance of the church and their ordering of the business of the presbytery. They are thus very much more than secretaries and often in fact are the lynch pin of the organisation. Presbyteries meet at a regularity between monthly and quarterly, some half-yearly. In denominations too large for all

2178-401: Is that "Roundhead" was interchangeable with " Puritan ". In reality, this term applied to anyone who wanted to "purify" the Church of England of "Papist" practices, and covered a wide range of views. Although the majority supported Parliament, some prominent Puritans like Sir William Savile backed Charles out of personal loyalty. Conversely, many Royalists objected to Laudianism , and opposed

2299-533: Is to speak about issues or topics that commissioners would usually not worry about or care to speak about during a General Assembly meeting. Advisory Delegates may not present motions or vote in meetings of the General Assembly. The powers of the general assembly are usually wide-ranging. However, they may be limited by some form of external review. For example, the rules of the Church of Scotland include

2420-669: Is usually considered a demarcation issue, distinguishing "liberal" from "conservative" Presbyterian denominations. In North America, the Reformed Church in America , Christian Reformed Church in North America (both of Dutch Reformed heritage), Cumberland Presbyterian Church , ECO: A Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians , Evangelical Presbyterian Church , Presbyterian Church in Canada , and Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) are denominations with presbyterian polity which allow for

2541-621: The Barrier Act , which requires that certain major changes to the polity of the church be referred to the presbyteries, before being enacted by the general assembly. There may be issues arising between annual General Assemblies which require urgent attention. In these cases some presbyterian churches have a 'commission of assembly' who will deal with the issue and refer it to the next General Assembly for homologation. The word Presbyterianism , when capitalized, often refers specifically to churches founded on principles of presbyterian polity in

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2662-745: The Battle of Marston Moor . Alleged failures to exploit these successes led Parliament in February 1645 to set up the New Model Army , the first centrally-funded and professional military force in England, whose success at Naseby in June 1645 proved decisive. The war ended with victory for the Parliamentarian alliance in June 1646 and Charles in custody. However, his refusal to agree to concessions, combined with divisions among his opponents, led to

2783-574: The British Isles and their derivatives in other countries. In France , presbyterianism was represented by the Église réformée de France . There are also Lutherans and Evangelicals. The logo is a Huguenot Cross ( Croix huguenote ) with the burning bush. The origins of the Waldensian Evangelical Church lie in the medieval Waldensian movement for religious reform. The Waldensians adopted Calvinist theology during

2904-631: The Covenanter government now broke off negotiations with the Royalists. Shortly thereafter, they signed the Solemn League and Covenant with Parliament, which provided Scottish military support in return for subsidies. Parliament also agreed to create the Westminster Assembly , whose purpose was to set up a single, Presbyterian church for England and Scotland. This in turn caused divisions with those Parliamentarians who preferred

3025-484: The Hungarian Reformed Church there remain bishops who have a superintending role. Presbyterian polity is constructed on specific assumptions about the form of the government intended by the Bible : Presbyterianism uses a conciliar method of church government (that is, leadership by the group or council). Thus, the ministers and "elders" govern together as a group, and at all times the office

3146-890: The Irish Catholic Confederation , the Papacy and France. Published by Parliament in a pamphlet entitled The King's Cabinet Opened , it seriously damaged his reputation. After Naseby, Royalist strategy was to preserve their positions in Western England and Wales, while their cavalry went north to link up with Montrose in Scotland. Charles also hoped the Irish Catholic Confederation would supply him with an army of 10,000, that would land in Bristol and combine with Lord Goring to smash

3267-581: The Irish Rebellion of 1641 meant many were more concerned by reports of a planned Catholic invasion. Both sides supported raising troops to suppress the rising, but alleged Royalist conspiracies to use them against Parliament meant neither trusted the other with their control. When Charles left London after failing to arrest the Five Members in January 1642, he handed Parliament control of

3388-603: The Kirk session , church session, or (in Continental Reformed usage) consistory . In some Continental Reformed churches, deacons are members of the consistory; others, such as the Christian Reformed Church in North America , distinguish between the consistory, comprising the pastor and elders, and the council, which comprises the pastor(s), the elders, and the deacons. In most denominations

3509-581: The New Model Army . Later in the war, conflicting religious and political aims resulted in the emergence within Parliament of a middle party of "Independent Royalists". These were generally religious radicals but social conservatives, led by William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele , his son Nathaniel Fiennes , and Nathaniel Rich . They were distinguished from Royalists in believing Charles had to be defeated militarily, and from moderate Presbyterians by their fervent opposition to state-mandated religion. After Parliament's victory in 1646, this group supported

3630-629: The Royal Irish Army to England. Fighting continued during the winter in Yorkshire, where the Royalist Duke of Newcastle tried to secure a landing place for an arms shipment from the Dutch Republic . With insufficient troops to hold the entire area, his task was further complicated by Parliamentarian forces under Lord Fairfax and his son Thomas , which retained key towns like Hull and Leeds . Along with Henrietta Maria,

3751-809: The Second English Civil War in 1648, followed by his execution in January 1649. The 1642 to 1646 First English Civil War is one of a series of civil wars fought between 1639 and 1653 in England and Wales , along with the separate kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland . Known collectively as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , others include the 1639 and 1640 Bishops' Wars , 1641 to 1653 Irish Confederate Wars , 1648 Second English Civil War , 1649 to 1653 Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , and 1650 to 1652 Anglo-Scottish War , previously known as

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3872-665: The Sedition Act 1661 , declaring that the Solemn League and Covenant was unlawful, and that anyone who asserted that that Covenant continued to impose obligations on any person would be liable to a charge of praemunire . While the majority of the population participated in the established Church following the Restoration, the Covenanters refused to conform, instead holding worship services called conventicles in

3993-536: The Self-denying Ordinance , requiring any military officers who also sat in Parliament to resign one office or the other. Manchester and Essex were automatically removed, since they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved.' It also led to the creation of the New Model Army , a centralised, professional force, able and willing to operate wherever needed. Many of its recruits had served with Cromwell in

4114-515: The Treaty of Newport , and a "balanced" political solution that would leave Charles on the throne. Its members avoided participation in his trial and execution , although they did not speak against it. While Puritans were the most visible in opposing Laudian reforms and demanding the removal of bishops from the Church of England, their objections were shared by many Royalists, such as George Morley and Sir Edmund Verney . One reason

4235-418: The ruling elder . An excerpt from Miller (1831) expands this. In every Church completely organized, that is, furnished with all the officers which Christ has instituted and which are necessary for carrying into full effect the laws of his kingdom, there ought to be three classes of officers, viz: at least one Teaching Elder, Bishop, or Pastor — a bench of Ruling Elders — and Deacons. The first to "minister in

4356-527: The siege of Taunton ; a few days later at Langport , he destroyed Lord Goring 's Western Army, the last significant Royalist field force. At the end of August, Charles left Oxford to relieve Hereford , which was besieged by the Covenanter army ; as he approached, Leven was ordered to return to Scotland, following Montrose's victory at Kilsyth . The king moved onto Chester, where he learned Prince Rupert had surrendered Bristol on 10 September. Shocked by

4477-435: The 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms . An estimated 15% to 20% of adult males in England and Wales served in the military at some point between 1639 and 1653, while around 4% of the total population died from war-related causes. These figures illustrate the widespread impact of the conflict on society, and the bitterness it engendered as a result. Conflict over the role of Parliament and religious practice dated from

4598-561: The 1688 Glorious Revolution . American historians like Kevin Phillips have identified many similarities between the principles at stake in 1642, and those which led to the American Revolution in 1776. A simple division of the opposing parties into Royalist Cavaliers and Parliamentarian Roundheads is a perspective that is now accepted as outdated, but which still informs modern perceptions. These are also influenced by

4719-585: The Church of England. The Parliamentarians defeated Charles in June of 1646. A brief Second Civil War from February to August of 1648 ended with Charles' defeat, trial, and execution . In the period of the Commonwealth (1649–1660) that followed the Civil Wars, Oliver Cromwell put Independents in power in England, signalling the end of the reforms promised by the Parliament. When the Stuart monarchy

4840-692: The Covenanters saw the King’s attempt to revise the liturgy and government of the Church as an attempt to claim its headship from Christ. During the First English Civil War (1642–1646), English Parliamentarians defying Charles I and his supporters, the Cavaliers , feared that Charles would secure the support and intervention of the Roman Catholic Confederate Ireland , as the latter in turn feared invasion by

4961-649: The Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the Clergy Act 1640 was a major step on the road to war, since it meant Charles could no longer prevent passage of legislation that he opposed. Their removal temporarily ended censorship, and especially in London led to an explosion in the printing of pamphlets, books and sermons, many advocating radical religious and political ideas. Even before 1642, such radicalism concerned conservative Parliamentarians like Denzil Holles . As

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5082-607: The Eastern Association, or shared his views, and opponents viewed the New Model with suspicion from the outset. To offset this, they appointed the moderates Fairfax and Philip Skippon as Commander-in-Chief and head of the infantry respectively, as well as retaining some regional forces. These included the Northern and Western Associations, plus those serving in Cheshire and South Wales, all commanded by supporters of

5203-696: The Hague to raise money and purchase weapons; lack of a secure port delayed her return until February 1643, and even then, she narrowly escaped capture. On 1 June 1642, Parliament approved a list of proposals known as the Nineteen Propositions , which would give them control over ministerial appointments, the army and management of the Royal household, including the education and marriage of his children. These were presented to Charles at Newmarket , who angrily rejected them without further discussion. He

5324-628: The Holy Spirit. In presbyterianism, congregations are united in accountability to a regional body called the presbytery, or, in Continental Reformed terminology, the classis , which comes from the Latin word for "fleet". Presbyteries are made up of all the teaching and ruling elders in a particular geographic region. In some Dutch Reformed bodies, a classis serves as a delegated body, which ceases to exist in between meetings, whereas

5445-511: The Irish and North American Reformed Presbyterian churches, daughters of the Scottish church, each formed their first synod . Since then, the Australian, Cypriot, Filipino, and South Sudanese Reformed Presbyterian churches have been established. Presbyterian polity Presbyterian (or presbyteral ) polity is a method of church governance (" ecclesiastical polity ") typified by

5566-597: The Killing Time . Between 1660 and 1690, tens of thousands of Scottish Covenanters fled persecution to the Irish province of Ulster , where they eventually formed the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland. The Church of Scotland was re-established along wholly Presbyterian lines in 1691, three years after the Glorious Revolution, and the great majority Covenanters and Covenanter ministers were readmitted. A dissenting minority, however refused to re-enter

5687-465: The Kirk of this "Revolution Settlement." They objected that the settlement was forced upon the Church and did not adhere to the previously-agreed Solemn League and Covenant, insofar as the state continued not to acknowledge the kingship of Christ. These dissenters formed into " United Societies " which eventually constituted the Reformed Presbyterian Church in Scotland. Because Covenanter ministers re-joined

5808-543: The London mercantile community and weapons from the Tower enabled Parliament to recruit and equip an army of 20,000, commanded by the Presbyterian Earl of Essex , who left London on 3 September for Northampton . Charles relocated to Shrewsbury , further away from London but a key Royalist recruitment centre throughout the war. When Essex learned of this, he marched on Worcester , where the first major encounter of

5929-528: The New Model. Such hopes were illusory, and the only result was to deepen divisions among the Royalist leadership, many of whom viewed the proposed use of Catholic Irish troops in England with as much horror as their Parliamentarian opponents. Concerned by the wider implications of Royalist defeat and urged on by Henrietta Maria, French chief minister Cardinal Mazarin looked for ways to restore Charles with minimal French intervention. Talks were held between his representative, Jean de Montereul , and Lord Lothian ,

6050-399: The Parliamentarians against Charles I and the Cavaliers in the Civil War. The Solemn League and Covenant also asserted the "crown rights" of Christ as king over both Church and state, and the Church's right to freedom from coercive state interference . The majority of the English Long Parliament were amenable to these terms; many MPs were Presbyterians, while others preferred allying with

6171-418: The Parliamentarians. The Parliamentarians sought the aid of the Scots, with whom they negotiated a treaty, called the " Solemn League and Covenant ." This covenant obligated the Parliamentarians to reform the Church of England "according to the Word of God, and the example of the best reformed Churches"—i.e., to reform the Church of England along Presbyterian lines. In exchange, the Covenanters agreed to support

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6292-470: The Presbyterian faction in Parliament. Although he remained an MP, Cromwell was given command of the cavalry, under a 'temporary' three-month commission, constantly renewed. In January, representatives of both sides met at Uxbridge to discuss peace terms , but talks ended without agreement in February. Failure strengthened the pro-war parties, since it was clear Charles would never make concessions voluntarily, while divisions among their opponents encouraged

6413-542: The Reformation and became the Italian branch of the Reformed churches. In 1975 the Waldensian Church joined with the Italian Methodist Church to form the Union of Waldensian and Methodist Churches , which is a member of the World Council of Churches , the World Communion of Reformed Churches , and the World Methodist Council . Notes Citations First English Civil War 1643 1644 1645 1646 The First English Civil War took place in England and Wales from 1642 to 1646, and forms part of

6534-424: The Royalists had recovered from the disaster at Marston Moor; of greater concern was their ability to finance the war. Unlike Parliament, which could levy taxes on imports and exports through London and other commercial centres, the Royalists simply took supplies from the areas they controlled. This led to the creation of Clubmen , or local self-defence associations; they opposed confiscations by either party, but were

6655-399: The Royalists to abandon Lyme Regis, then continued into Cornwall, ignoring orders to return to London. In September, his army was trapped at Lostwithiel ; 5,000 infantry were forced to surrender, although Essex and the cavalry escaped. At Second Newbury on 27 October, the Royalists lifted the siege of Donnington Castle , and Charles re-entered Oxford. In military terms, by the end of 1644

6776-452: The Royalists to continue fighting. In early 1645, the Royalists still controlled most of the West Country, Wales, and counties along the English border, despite losing their key supply base at Shrewsbury in February. Lord Goring 's Western Army made another attempt on Portsmouth and Farnham; although he was forced to retreat, it showed Parliament could not assume this area was secure, while Montrose's Highland Campaign opened another front in

6897-411: The Scots to losing the Civil War. On 17 August 1643, the Church of Scotland (the Kirk) accepted it and on 25 September 1643 so did the English Parliament and the Westminster Assembly . Pursuant to the Solemn League and Covenant, the Westminster Assembly drew up the Westminster Standards , including the influential Westminster Confession of Faith , to define and implement Reformed standards of doctrine in

7018-448: The Third English Civil War. The First and Second English Civil Wars are sometimes grouped together as the 1642 to 1648 English Civil War . The underlying cause of the war in England was a long-running struggle for political and religious control between the monarchy and Parliament that began when James VI and I became king in 1603. The issues arising re-surfaced after the 1660 Stuart Restoration , and were arguably only resolved by

7139-521: The Word and Doctrine", and to dispense the sacraments; — the second to assist in the inspection and government of the Church; — and the third to "serve tables"; that is, to take care of the Church's funds destined for the support of the poor, and sometimes to manage whatever relates to the temporal support of the gospel and its ministers. Depending upon the specific denomination, teaching elders may also be referred to with terms such as "Minister of Word and Sacrament". The elders are persons chosen from among

7260-443: The accession of James VI and I in 1603. These tensions culminated in the imposition of Personal Rule in 1629 by his son, Charles I , who recalled Parliament in April and November 1640. He hoped by doing so to obtain funding that would enable him to reverse his defeat by Scots Covenanters in the Bishops' Wars , but in return Parliament demanded a greater share in government than he was willing to concede. In its early stages,

7381-650: The advent of railways in the 19th century. Most of the Royal Navy declared for Parliament, allowing them to protect the trade routes vital to the London merchant community, block Royalist imports and resupply isolated Parliamentarian garrisons. It also made other countries wary of antagonising one of the strongest navies in Europe by providing support to their opponents. By September, forces loyal to Parliament held every major port in England apart from Newcastle , which prevented Royalist areas in Wales and South West and North East England from supporting each other. In February 1642, Charles sent his wife, Henrietta Maria , to

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7502-451: The agenda. General assemblies meet less regularly than their subordinate courts, often annually, or in the case of the Presbyterian Church (USA), every other year. The General Assembly also has members serve as Advisory Delegates. There are four different types of advisory delegates, each with a focus on a different area in the Presbyterian Church like young adult, theological student, missionary and ecumenical. The role of an advisory delegate

7623-455: The appointment of Catholics to senior positions, while attempts to integrate Irish Catholic troops in 1643 caused some regiments to mutiny. Parliamentarians were divided between Presbyterians like Pym who wanted to reform the Church of England, and religious Independents who rejected any form of established church and wanted it abolished. They included Congregationalists like Cromwell and Baptists , who were especially well represented in

7744-431: The army disintegrated, allowing Charles to pursue Essex into the West Country. On the same day, Prince Rupert arrived at Knaresborough , 30 kilometres from York, to find himself facing a superior force. In the largest battle of the war on 2 July, the two armies met at Marston Moor , a decisive Royalist defeat that lost them the North. York surrendered on 16 July, and the Earl of Newcastle went into exile. Essex forced

7865-404: The assembly meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts. He or she presides over meetings of the assembly, and may be called on in a representative function for the remainder of the year. The stated clerk and deputy clerk of the general assembly administer the minutes, correspondence, and business of the assembly. In some cases a separate business convenor is appointed to deal with

7986-411: The church. Both issues were linked, because in the 17th century 'true religion' and 'good government' were seen as mutually dependent. In general, Royalists supported a Church of England governed by bishops , appointed by, and answerable to, the king, while most Parliamentarians believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations. Another common misperception

8107-411: The churches, which the free assemblies and the English Parliament had previously agreed upon, a number of ministers affirmed those previous agreements by signing the "National Covenant" of February 1638 at Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh . Many signed in their own blood. Their cause is reflected in the Blue Banner associated with Reformed Presbyterianism; it proclaims "For Christ's Crown and Covenant," as

8228-508: The communion follow a historical-grammatical interpretation of the Bible, which is reflected in many of their stances on moral issues such as abortion , homosexuality , and gambling laws. Reformed Presbyterians place particular emphasis on the kingship of Christ . Specifically, they believe that the state is under obligation, once admitted but now repudiated, to recognise Jesus Christ as its king and to govern all its affairs in accordance with God's will. Words from Colossians 1:18 express

8349-426: The complex historical reputation of Oliver Cromwell , particularly in Ireland . The installation of his statue outside the Houses of Parliament was approved in 1856, but not carried out until 1895, with most of the funds supplied by Prime Minister Lord Rosebery . In 2004, a group of MPs unsuccessfully proposed a motion to have it melted down, and the debate continues. However, individual motives for choosing

8470-411: The congregation and "installed" to a permanent pastorate by the presbytery, have votes as members of the session on any and all matters; however, often they refrain from voting except in tie situations. The Pastor is not a voting member of the congregation. With the Session there is one person, usually an elder but not always, who will be given the title, "Clerk of Session". This person is more or less

8591-462: The congregation and ordained for this service. Beyond that, practices vary: sometimes elders are elected by the congregation, sometimes appointed by the session, in some denominations elders serve for life, others have fixed terms, and some churches appoint elders on a rotation from among willing members in good standing in the church. However, in many churches, ruling elders retain their ordination for life, even though they serve fixed terms. Even after

8712-479: The constituent presbyteries are members of the synod. Like the commissioners to presbyteries, the commissioners to synods do not act on instruction from their congregations or presbyteries, but exercise their own judgement. A synod also has a moderator and clerk, and generally meet less often than the presbytery. Some presbyterian churches, like the Church of Scotland , Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Presbyterian Church in America have no intermediate court between

8833-557: The core of Covenanter theology: "that in everything he [Christ] might be preeminent." The communion adheres to the regulative principle of worship , which holds that worship must consist only of elements affirmatively found in Scripture, or implied logically by good and necessary consequence . In keeping with their view of the regulative principle, Reformed Presbyterian churches only sing Psalms during service (a practice known as exclusive psalmody ), unaccompanied by instruments and to

8954-599: The countryside. The conventicles were proscribed by the Conventicle Act 1664 and the Conventicles Act 1670 . Nevertheless, the Covenanters continued to assemble and preach at conventicles, and suffered greatly from persecution during the reigns of Charles II and James VII . The height of the persecution, from roughly 1679 to the Glorious Revolution of 1688, has subsequently become known as

9075-605: The devastation caused by the Thirty Years War in Europe meant many wanted to avoid conflict at any cost. Choice of sides was often driven by personal relationships or loyalties, and in the early stages there were numerous examples of armed neutrality, or local truces, designed to force the two sides to negotiate. Over the winter of 1641 to 1642, many towns strengthened their defences, and purchased weapons, although not necessarily due to fears of civil war. Lurid details of

9196-478: The devastation inflicted on Europe by the Thirty Years War , many tried to remain neutral, or took up arms with great reluctance. When fighting began in August 1642, both sides believed it would be settled by a single battle, but it soon became clear this was not the case. Royalist successes in 1643 led to an alliance between Parliament and the Scots, who won a series of battles in 1644, the most significant being

9317-414: The difference is that every local congregation is independent, and its elders are accountable to its members, and congregationalism's wider assemblies are not ordinarily empowered to enforce discipline. Thus, these are ruled by elders only at the level of the congregations, which are united with one another by covenants of trust. There are two types of elder; the teaching elder (see Minister below) and

9438-401: The elders. In some cases deacons administer the welfare matters of the congregation, while a separate board of management or trustees administers the other material business ( temporalities ) of the congregation, such as its endowments, salaries and buildings. A session is a corporate body of teaching and ruling elders elected by a particular church. sessio from sedere "to sit"), sometimes

9559-452: The end of their terms, they may be active in presbyteries or other bodies, and may serve communion. In addition to sitting on the session and other church courts, ruling elders have duties as individuals. Again, Miller (1831) explains, It is their duty to have an eye of inspection and care over all the members of the congregation; and, for this purpose, to cultivate a universal and intimate acquaintance, as far as may be, with every family in

9680-632: The established Church after the Revolution Settlement, the United Societies were without any ministers for sixteen years, until 1706. For those sixteen years, the Dissenting Covenanters maintained their Societies for worship and religious correspondence. There were about twenty such Societies, with a general membership of about seven thousand. In 1706, Rev. John M'Millan (or McMillan) (c. 1669–1753), previously

9801-583: The established Church and joined the Associate Presbytery , came over to the Societies, which were then constituted the Reformed Presbytery. The Reformed Presbytery increased in numbers, and in 1810 it was divided into three bodies—the Eastern, Northern, and Southern Presbyteries—which met the following year as the first Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In that same year,

9922-475: The exclusion of hymns , as they believe this is the only form of congregational singing evidenced in and therefore permitted by the Bible. Reformed Presbyterians have been referred to historically as " Covenanters " because of their identification with public covenanting in Scotland, beginning in the 16th century. In response to Charles I of England 's attempts to change the liturgy and form of government in

10043-437: The flock of which they are made "overseers". In some denominations they are called Ministers of Word and Sacrament , and in others they are called Teaching Elders . Ministers called to a particular congregation are called pastors , and serve a function analogous to clergy in other denominations. (Because ruling elders are often ordained in a fashion nearly identical to teaching elders, the distinction between lay and clergy

10164-492: The largest city, port and commercial centre in England, its biggest weapons store in the Tower of London , and best equipped local militia, or trained bands . Founded in 1572, these were organised by county , controlled by lord-lieutenants appointed by the king, and constituted the only permanent military force in the country. The muster roll of February 1638 shows wide variations in size, equipment and training; Yorkshire had

10285-467: The largest, with 12,000 men, followed by London with 8,000, later increased to 20,000. 'Royalist' counties like Shropshire or Glamorgan had fewer than 500 men. In March 1642, Parliament approved the Militia Ordinance , claiming control of the trained bands; Charles responded with his own Commissions of Array . More important than the men were the local arsenals , with Parliament holding

10406-666: The loss, Charles dismissed his nephew. While one detachment from the New Model under Colonel Rainsborough secured Berkeley Castle , another under Cromwell captured Royalist strongholds at Basing House and Winchester. Having secured his rear, Fairfax began reducing remaining positions in the west; by now, Clubmen militia in Hampshire and Dorset were as big an issue as the Royalist army. When his remaining cavalry were scattered at Rowton Heath on 24 September, Charles abandoned attempts to reach Scotland and returned to Newark. On 13 October, he learned of Montrose's defeat at Philiphaugh

10527-677: The major import point for Royalist war supplies. He besieged the town in early February, but made little progress, observed by the Earl of Newcastle from his base in Durham . On 29 March, Waller ended the offensive in Southern England by defeating Hopton at Cheriton , then joined Essex to threaten Oxford. Two weeks later, the Earl of Manchester defeated a Royalist force at Selby , forcing Newcastle to leave Durham and garrison York. The city

10648-658: The members of the assembly). This theory of governance developed in Geneva under John Calvin and was introduced to Scotland by John Knox after his period of exile in Geneva. It is strongly associated with French , Dutch , Swiss and Scottish Reformation movements, and the Reformed and Presbyterian churches . Among the early church fathers, it was noted that the offices of elder and bishop were identical, and were not differentiated until later, and that plurality of elders

10769-604: The most comprehensive Royalist victory of the war, it isolated Parliament's garrisons in the west and Prince Rupert stormed Bristol on 26 July. This gave the Royalists control of the second largest city in Britain and landing point for reinforcements from Ireland. By late August, the Parliamentarian cause was close to collapse but was saved by Pym's leadership and determination, which resulted in important reforms. Both sides struggled to properly supply troops fighting outside their home regions and Parliament agreed steps to mitigate

10890-759: The name because of its claim to be the only true continuation of the RPCNA, most of these other churches are more distantly related and use the term for other reasons. Reformed Presbyterians believe that the supreme standard for faith and practice is the Bible, received as the inspired and inerrant Word of God. Reformed Presbyterians also follow the Westminster Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms . Reformed Presbyterian churches describe their theology as apostolic, Protestant , Reformed (or Calvinistic), and evangelical . Members of

11011-456: The nature of these "rights". This caused divisions within Parliament as the war progressed, since not everyone agreed on what they were seeking to restore, or even if it were desirable. Most Parliamentarians went to war in 1642 not to depose the king but regulate his powers, while only a tiny minority sought to abolish the monarchy altogether. John Pym , Parliamentarian leader in the Commons ,

11132-486: The need to plan for a lengthy conflict. For the Royalists, this meant fortifying their new capital in Oxford, and connecting areas of support in England and Wales; Parliament focused on consolidating control of the areas they already held. Although peace talks were held, both parties continued to negotiate for Scottish and Irish support. Charles sought to end the war in Ireland , which would enable him to transfer troops from

11253-664: The only way to secure their objectives. Many were religious Independents who opposed any state church, and strongly objected to Scottish demands for a unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Oliver Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than accept such an outcome. Failure to exploit Marston Moor, Essex' capitulation at Lostwithiel, and Manchester's alleged unwillingness to fight at Newbury led to claims some senior commanders were not committed to victory. Accusations against Manchester and Essex in particular were not confined to Cromwell, but shared by some Presbyterians, including Waller. In December, Sir Henry Vane introduced

11374-524: The ordination of women. The general assembly of a denomination often decides on what grounds a person may be ordained, but the ordination of ministers is the right of the presbytery or classis, and the right to extend a call to a minister is the privilege of the members of the parish or congregation. The office of deacon has different meanings among different presbyterian churches. In some churches, deacons exercise responsibility for practical matters of finance and fabric, either separately or together with

11495-425: The other elders. Some Presbyterian denominations enroll ministers as members of their respective congregations, while others enroll the minister as a member of the regional presbytery. The presbyteries are responsible for the ordination of the ministers. Until the 20th century, only men had been eligible for ordination as elders or ministers of the word and sacrament. This is widely not the case any longer, although it

11616-432: The other two forms, authority in the presbyterian polity flows both from the top down (as higher assemblies exercise limited but important authority over individual congregations, e.g., only the presbytery can ordain ministers, install pastors, and start up, close, and approve relocating a congregation) and from the bottom up (e.g., the moderator and officers are not appointed from above but are rather elected by and from among

11737-535: The pastor serves as Moderator and presides over the session ( primus inter pares ), in which all elders have an equal vote. In some denominations, the pastor is not given a vote; however, in a sitting body of an even number or with a quorum of the session counted they can break a tie by a casting vote. In the Polity of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the pastor and associate pastor(s), if elected by

11858-573: The presbyters should be placed over the others." This observation was also made by Chrysostom (349–407) in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret (393–457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445. Aerius of Sebaste also attacked the episcopal polity in the 4th century. Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg , who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity. The first modern implementation

11979-446: The presbytery and the general assembly. The general assembly (or general synod ) is the highest court of presbyterian polity. Each presbytery selects a number of its members to be commissioners to the general assembly. The general assembly is chaired by its own moderator , who is usually elected to a single term. He or she is addressed as moderator during meetings, but like the other moderators, their position has no bearing outside of

12100-416: The presbytery meeting and affords him/her no special place in other courts, although typically the moderator (especially if a member of the clergy) will conduct worship and oversee ordinations and installations of ministers as a "liturgical" bishop, and other ordinances which are seen as acts of the presbytery. The stated or principal clerk takes minutes and deals with the correspondence of the presbytery, and

12221-546: The problem. Seeing an opportunity to force Parliamentary moderates into a negotiated peace, in September the Royalists agreed a new three-part offensive. After taking Gloucester , Prince Rupert would advance on London, while Newcastle would tie down the Eastern Association army by advancing into East Anglia and Lincolnshire . Finally, Hopton would march into Hampshire and Sussex , threatening London from

12342-429: The rule of assemblies of presbyters , or elders. Each local church is governed by a body of elected elders usually called the session (or consistory ), though other terms, such as church board , may apply. Groups of local churches are governed by a higher assembly of elders known as the presbytery or classis ; presbyteries can be grouped into a synod , and presbyteries and synods nationwide often join together in

12463-508: The secretary for Session. They take notes on each meeting and are responsible for records of the congregation. In addition they find a wide area of responsibility, including responsibility for conduct of worship should a minister suddenly not be available. Although it is the responsibility of the Moderator (minister), Session Clerks often have the ability to assist in keeping meetings on track due to skills which are received from experience and

12584-539: The south, and closing the iron foundries that were Parliament's main source of armaments. However, Essex forced Prince Rupert to retreat from Gloucester, then checked his advance on London at Newbury on 20 September. Although Hopton reached Winchester , Waller prevented him making further progress; in October, Newcastle abandoned the second siege of Hull , while victory at Winceby secured eastern England for Parliament. Royalist failure ended any chance of concluding

12705-629: The two armies fought a bloody, chaotic, and indecisive battle at Edgehill . Essex continued retreating towards London; after an inconclusive encounter on 16 November at Turnham Green , west of London, operations ended for the winter. The Royalists withdrew to Oxford , which became their capital for the rest of the war. Elsewhere, Sir William Waller secured the south-east for Parliament; in December, Lord Wilmot captured Marlborough , opening communications between Oxford, and Royalist forces based at Launceston, in Cornwall . The events of 1642 showed

12826-413: The two largest in London, and Hull . These belonged to the local community, who often resisted attempts to remove them, by either side. In Royalist Cheshire , the towns of Nantwich , Knutsford and Chester declared a state of armed neutrality, and excluded both parties. Ports were vital for access to internal and external waterways, the primary method of importing and transporting bulk supplies until

12947-426: The vast majority in all three kingdoms believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely mandated. His opponents argued that if Charles would not obey his own laws or keep his promises, this presented a threat to the state which required either forcing him to do so, or deposing him in favour of his eldest son. Where they disagreed was what 'well-ordered' meant, particularly in terms of the role of Parliament, and control of

13068-503: The vast majority on both sides supported the institution of monarchy, but disagreed on who held ultimate authority. Royalists generally argued both Parliament and the Church of England were subordinate to the king, while most of their Parliamentarian opponents claimed his supremacy did not extend to religion, and wanted a form of constitutional monarchy . When it came to choosing sides, however, individual choices were heavily influenced by religious belief or personal loyalty. Horrified at

13189-712: The war in the near future, leading both sides to step up the search for allies. In September, the Marquess of Ormond , Royalist Lord Lieutenant of Ireland , agreed a truce with the Catholic Confederation . The "Cessation" meant troops could be sent to England, but it cost Charles the support of many Irish Protestants , especially in Munster . At the same time, details emerged of the "Antrim scheme", an alleged plan to use 20,000 Irish troops to recapture southern Scotland for Charles. Although highly impractical,

13310-443: The war progressed, both they and their Scottish Covenanter allies came to see the Independents and New Model Army as more dangerous than the Royalists and formed the "Peace Party", seeking a negotiated end to the fighting. An alliance between Royalists and these two groups led to the Second English Civil War in 1648. Lastly, in 1642 England and Wales were part of a highly structured, socially conservative and peaceful society, while

13431-538: The war took place at Powick Bridge on 23 September. A relatively minor Royalist victory, it established the reputation of Prince Rupert , whose cavalry gained a psychological edge over their Parliamentarian opponents. The Royalist army now numbered around 15,000, although much of the infantry were armed with clubs or scythes ; while better equipped, the forces of Parliament were half-trained, poorly disciplined, and their logistics inadequate. When Charles headed for London, Essex tried to block his route, and on 23 October,

13552-468: The war. On 31 May, Prince Rupert stormed Leicester ; in response, Fairfax and the New Model Army abandoned their blockade of Oxford, and on 14 June, won a decisive victory at Naseby . Defeat cost the Royalists their most formidable field army, along with their artillery train, stores, and Charles' personal baggage. This included his private correspondence, detailing efforts to gain support from

13673-511: The weapons convoy finally managed to land at Bridlington in late February; on 4 June she left York escorted by 5,000 cavalry, arriving in Oxford in mid-July. In the south-west, Royalist commander Sir Ralph Hopton secured Cornwall with victory at Braddock Down in January. In June, he advanced into Wiltshire , inflicting a serious defeat on Waller's 'Army of the Southern Association' at Roundway Down on 13 July. Arguably

13794-559: The work of the denomination to be done by a single presbytery, the parishes may be divided into several presbyteries under synods and general assemblies , the synod being the lower court of the two. In the United Church of Canada , this is referred to as "conferences" and "General Council". However, the United Church of Canada does not bear the formal ecclesiastical structure of classic Presbyterianism. Often all members of

13915-592: Was restored in 1660, some Presbyterians were hopeful; the new king, Charles II , had sworn to the covenants in the Treaty of Breda (1650) , in exchange for the Covenanters' aid in restoring him to the throne. These hopes were quickly dashed, and the Covenant repudiated. Likewise, the Westminster Standards were revoked as standards for the Church of England. Soon after the Restoration, Parliament (the so-called " Cavalier Parliament " of 1661–1679) passed

14036-528: Was besieged by the Scots, Sir Thomas Fairfax, and Manchester's Army of the Eastern Association . In May, Prince Rupert left Shrewsbury , and marched north, capturing Liverpool and Bolton en route. To avoid being shut up in Oxford, a field army nominally commanded by Charles retreated to Worcester ; Essex ordered Waller to remain there, while he went west to relieve the siege of Lyme Regis . On 29 June, Waller clashed with Charles at Cropredy Bridge ; although losses were minimal, his men were demoralised, and

14157-610: Was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541. In the early days of the Scottish Reformation there were Superintendents. There were also Tulchan Bishops and Archbishops. Much of the history of the Church of Scotland and the nation itself is bound up with the relation between Episcopalianism , which the Protestant monarchs favoured, and the Presbyterianism of the reformers. In

14278-400: Was later persuaded to issue a more conciliatory answer, whose objective was primarily to appeal to moderates by placing blame for what now seemed an inevitable military conflict on Pym and his followers. Drafted by Hyde, this response has been seen as the origin of "mixed" or constitutional monarchy , although whether Charles himself genuinely believed in it is debatable. Both sides expected

14399-657: Was one of the few who believed forcing Charles to abdicate might be the only option, since past experience showed he would not keep commitments he considered forced on him. Examples included his annulment of the 1628 Petition of Right , and the recent Bishops Wars , when he agreed peace terms with the Scots in 1639 only to provide time to plan another military campaign in 1640. These doubts were confirmed when he and his wife Henrietta Maria repeatedly told foreign ambassadors any concessions made to Parliament were temporary, and would be retrieved by force. Charles' credibility mattered because regardless of religion or political belief,

14520-490: Was that bishops held a variety of non-religious roles which impacted all levels of society; they acted as state censors, who were able to ban sermons and writings, while ordinary people could be tried by church courts for crimes including blasphemy , heresy , fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes. As members of the House of Lords , bishops often blocked legislation opposed by

14641-421: Was the norm for church government. St. Jerome (347–420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv, said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and before the urging of the devil gave rise to factionalism in religion, so much that it was being said among the people, 'I am of Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the churches were governed by a joint council of elders. After it was... decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among

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