The 19th century began on 1 January 1801 (represented by the Roman numerals MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MDCCCXCX). It was characterized by vast social upheaval. Slavery was abolished in much of Europe and the Americas . The First Industrial Revolution , though it began in the late 18th century , expanded beyond its British homeland for the first time during the 19th century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of the Low Countries , the Rhineland , Northern Italy , and the Northeastern United States . A few decades later, the Second Industrial Revolution led to ever more massive urbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the 20th century . The Catholic Church , in response to the growing influence and power of modernism, secularism and materialism, formed the First Vatican Council in the late 19th century to deal with such problems and confirm certain Catholic doctrines as dogma. Religious missionaries were sent from the Americas and Europe to Asia, Africa and the Middle East.
175-511: Renaissance Revival architecture (sometimes referred to as " Neo-Renaissance ") is a group of 19th-century architectural revival styles which were neither Greek Revival nor Gothic Revival but which instead drew inspiration from a wide range of classicizing Italian modes. Under the broad designation Renaissance architecture 19th-century architects and critics went beyond the architectural style which began in Florence and Central Italy in
350-635: A 161-meter tower from 1890) and St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague (1844–1929). In Belgium, a 15th-century church in Ostend burned down in 1896. King Leopold II funded its replacement, the Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's Church , a cathedral-scale design which drew inspiration from the neo-Gothic Votive Church in Vienna and Cologne Cathedral. In Mechelen , the largely unfinished building drawn in 1526 as
525-619: A Historicist example of Classical Palladianism combined with the French Renaissance, a uniquely distinctive interpretation of the Renaissance Revival style. As mentioned above, the Neo-Renaissance style was in reality an eclectic blending of past styles, which the architect selected on the whims of his patrons. In the true Renaissance era there was a division of labour between the architect, who designed
700-761: A Renaissance influence, its first flight is similar to "The staircase of the Giants" rises from the Doge's Palace Courtyard, designed when the Venetian Gothic was being uncomfortably merged with Renaissance style. Similarly to that at Mentmore, the Staircase of the Giant's terminates on to an arcaded loggia. Perhaps not ironically the Hall and Staircase at Mentmore were designed by Paxton to display furniture formerly housed in
875-578: A baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 to 1858 confirmed the popularity of the style. In the United States, the first "Gothic stile" church (as opposed to churches with Gothic elements) was Trinity Church on the Green , New Haven, Connecticut. It was designed by Ithiel Town between 1812 and 1814, while he was building his Federalist-style Center Church, New Haven next to this radical new "Gothic-style" church. Its cornerstone
1050-499: A building were of several floors, the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was often more severe in its design. John Ruskin 's panegyrics to architectural wonders of Venice and Florence in
1225-401: A building which are not necessary for convenience, construction or propriety; 2nd, that all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building". Urging modern craftsmen to seek to emulate the style of medieval workmanship as well as reproduce its methods, Pugin sought to reinstate Gothic as the true Christian architectural style. Pugin's most notable project was
1400-516: A century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia , were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around
1575-459: A classic body". John Ruskin supplemented Pugin's ideas in his two influential theoretical works, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones of Venice (1853). Finding his architectural ideal in Venice , Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "sacrifice" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. In this, he drew
1750-640: A competition was held to design a new façade suitable to Arnolfo di Cambio 's original structure and the fine campanile next to it. This competition was won by Emilio De Fabris , and so work on his polychrome design and panels of mosaic was begun in 1876 and completed by 1887, creating the Neo-Gothic western façade. Eastern Europe also saw much Revival construction; in addition to the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest,
1925-497: A contrast between the physical and spiritual satisfaction which a medieval craftsman derived from his work, and the lack of these satisfactions afforded to modern, industrialised labour. By declaring the Doge's Palace to be "the central building of the world", Ruskin argued the case for Gothic government buildings as Pugin had done for churches, though mostly only in theory. When his ideas were put into practice, Ruskin often disliked
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#17327918484872100-487: A famous attack; "We are told we should adopt [Gothic] because it is the Christian style, and this most impudent assertion has been accepted as sound doctrine even by earnest and intelligent Protestants; whereas it ought only to have force with those who believe that Christian truth attained its purest and most spiritual development at the period when this style of architecture constituted its corporeal form". Those rejecting
2275-546: A few. The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included: Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout
2450-573: A more appreciative approach to selected medieval arts, beginning with church architecture, the tomb monuments of royal and noble personages, stained glass, and late Gothic illuminated manuscripts. Other Gothic arts, such as tapestries and metalwork, continued to be disregarded as barbaric and crude, however sentimental and nationalist associations with historical figures were as strong in this early revival as purely aesthetic concerns. German Romanticists (including philosopher and writer Goethe and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel ), began to appreciate
2625-522: A more flowing line of design than had been apparent in the earlier Gothic. The Chateau de Blois's triumphal staircase was imitated almost from the moment of its completion, and was certainly the predecessor of the "double staircase" (sometimes attributed to Leonardo da Vinci ) at the Château de Chambord just a few years later. A Grand Staircase whether based on that of Blois, or the Villa Farnese
2800-728: A new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society . After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion. During the Edo period , Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy . In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened
2975-675: A post which was filled in 1833 by Prosper Mérimée , who became the secretary of a new Commission des Monuments Historiques in 1837. This was the Commission that instructed Eugène Viollet-le-Duc to report on the condition of the Abbey of Vézelay in 1840. Following this, Viollet le Duc set out to restore most of the symbolic buildings in France including Notre Dame de Paris, Vézelay, Carcassonne , Roquetaillade castle , Mont-Saint-Michel Abbey on its peaked coastal island, Pierrefonds , and
3150-480: A reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the picturesque such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation . Gothic Revival also took on political connotations; with
3325-549: A result of the second Russo-Turkish War , which in itself followed the great Crimean War . The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I , against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions , financed and usually led by the United Kingdom . The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with
3500-533: A result of the Church Building Act of 1818. It is often said to be the first Gothic Revival church in London, and, as Charles Locke Eastlake put it: "probably the only church of its time in which the main roof was groined throughout in stone". Nonetheless, the parish was firmly low church , and the original arrangement, modified in the 1860s, was as a "preaching church" dominated by the pulpit, with
3675-513: A separate monarchy from Portugal. The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala , El Salvador , Honduras , Nicaragua , and Costa Rica . In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador , and Venezuela took its place. The Revolutions of 1848 were
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#17327918484873850-764: A series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in January in Sicily . Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February . Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of
4025-506: A small altar and wooden galleries over the nave aisle. The development of the private major metropolitan cemeteries was occurring at the same time as the movement; Sir William Tite pioneered the first cemetery in the Gothic style at West Norwood in 1837, with chapels, gates, and decorative features in the Gothic manner, attracting the interest of contemporary architects such as George Edmund Street , Barry, and William Burges . The style
4200-667: A style not always instantly recognisable as a derivative of the Renaissance. In this less obvious guise the Neo-Renaissance was to provide an important undercurrent in totalitarian architecture of various countries, notably in Stalinist architecture of the Soviet Union , as seen in some pavilions of the All-Soviet Exhibition Centre . Neo-Renaissance architecture, because of its diversity, is perhaps
4375-531: Is an outstanding ensemble of Neo-Renaissance townhouses from the last decades of the 19th century. The most famous Hungarian architect of the age, Miklós Ybl preferred Neo-Renaissance in his works. In Russia, the style was pioneered by Auguste de Montferrand in the Demidov House (1835), the first in Saint Petersburg to take "a story-by-story approach to façade ornamentation, in contrast to
4550-454: Is generally accredited to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). Brunelleschi and his contemporaries wished to bring greater "order" to architecture, resulting in strong symmetry and careful proportion. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in particular, human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture but by the form in which Renaissance architecture developed in France during
4725-434: Is more in the lighter, more columned style of Ottaviano Nonni 's (named il Mascherino) staircase designed for Pope Gregory XIII at Rome's Palazzo Quirinale in 1584, thus demonstrating that architects wherever their location were selecting their Neo-Renaissance styles regardless of geography Gothic influences on both period and revived Renaissance architecture are readily apparent, first as much building occurred during
4900-473: Is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to "improve" Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions. A younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for John Britton's series Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain , which began appearing in 1807. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt... to name and define
5075-529: Is the Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Guelph, Ontario . Gothic Revival architecture remained one of the most popular and long-lived of the many revival styles of architecture . Although it began to lose force and popularity after the third quarter of the 19th century in commercial, residential and industrial fields, some buildings such as churches, schools, colleges and universities were still constructed in
5250-669: The April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War , the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Serbia, Montenegro , and Romania . Bulgaria became autonomous. The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20–30 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan , declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed
5425-559: The Basilica of Our Lady of Hungary in Márianosztra , Hungary, whose choir (adjacent to a Baroque nave) was long considered authentically Gothic, because the 18th-century architect used medieval shapes to emphasize the continuity of the monastic community with its 14th-century founders. During the mid-18th century rise of Romanticism , an increased interest and awareness of the Middle Ages among influential connoisseurs created
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5600-529: The British Raj in 1880, the façades of the 1777 Writers' building in Kolkata were redesigned in the Renaissance Revival style then popular in colonial India, though this version was remarkable in its unique design. Loggias of Serlian arches deceptively form an almost Indian appearance, yet they sit beneath a mansard roof. In what at first glance appears an Indian building, on closer examination shows
5775-715: The Bulgarian National Revival saw the introduction of Gothic Revival elements into its vernacular ecclesiastical and residential architecture. The largest project of the Slavine School is the Lopushna Monastery cathedral (1850–1853), though later churches such as Saint George's Church, Gavril Genovo display more prominent vernacular Gothic Revival features. In Scotland, while a similar Gothic style to that used further south in England
5950-612: The Connaught Building , (1913–1916), all by David Ewart . In the late 1820s, A. W. N. Pugin , still a teenager, was working for two highly visible employers, providing Gothic detailing for luxury goods. For the Royal furniture makers Morel and Seddon he provided designs for redecorations for the elderly George IV at Windsor Castle in a Gothic taste suited to the setting. For the royal silversmiths Rundell Bridge and Co. , Pugin provided designs for silver from 1828, using
6125-602: The Emancipation Proclamation . Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion ( Confederacy ) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." He did so. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia , Lincoln
6300-704: The First Italo–Ethiopian War at the Battle of Adwa . France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations. In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold
6475-701: The French Revolution and its resultant conflict . In the aftermath of the French Revolution , Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French . In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition . As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg , the Holy Roman Empire
6650-484: The Houses of Parliament in London, after its predecessor was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834. His part in the design consisted of two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicist Charles Barry as his nominal superior. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, "All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on
6825-586: The Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena , an island in the South Atlantic Ocean . After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact. Mexico and the majority of
7000-734: The Indian subcontinent , such as the Maratha and Sikh empires, suffered a massive decline, and their dissatisfaction with the British East India Company 's rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company's dissolution. India was later ruled directly by the British Crown through the establishment of the British Raj . During the post-Napoleonic era (after 1815), Britain enforced what became known as
7175-486: The Italian Renaissance . In England , the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House (1568–1580). Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture. This is particularly evident at Hatfield House (1607–1612), where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. This is why so many buildings of
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7350-720: The Meiji Restoration , before defeating China, under the Qing dynasty , in the First Sino-Japanese War . Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the Western world . Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. The introduction of railroads provided
7525-793: The Palais Leuchtenberg (1817–21), by Leo von Klenze , then adopted as a state style under the reign of Ludwig I of Bavaria for such landmarks as the Alte Pinakothek (1826–36), the Konigbau wing of the Munich Residenz (1825–35), and the Bavarian State Library (1831–43). While the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came later was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of
7700-508: The Palais des Papes in Avignon . When France's first prominent neo-Gothic church was built, the Basilica of Saint-Clotilde , Paris, begun in 1846 and consecrated in 1857, the architect chosen was of German extraction, Franz Christian Gau , (1790–1853); the design was significantly modified by Gau's assistant, Théodore Ballu , in the later stages, to produce the pair of flèches that crown
7875-399: The Pax Britannica , which ushered in unprecedented globalization on a massive scale. Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the 19th century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and a quarter of
8050-415: The Scottish Borders , rebuilt from 1816 by Sir Walter Scott and paid for by the profits from his hugely successful, historical novels, exemplifies the "Regency Gothic" style. Gothic Revival also includes the reintroduction of medieval clothes and dances in historical re-enactments staged especially in the second part of the 19th century, although one of the first, the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, remains
8225-418: The arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables . It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by
8400-493: The picturesque character of ruins—"picturesque" becoming a new aesthetic quality—and those mellowing effects of time that the Japanese call wabi-sabi and that Horace Walpole independently admired, mildly tongue-in-cheek, as "the true rust of the Barons' wars". The "Gothick" details of Walpole's Twickenham villa, Strawberry Hill House begun in 1749, appealed to the rococo tastes of the time, and were fairly quickly followed by James Talbot at Lacock Abbey , Wiltshire. By
8575-491: The scroll saw and mass-produced wood moldings allowed a few of these structures to mimic the florid fenestration of the High Gothic. But, in most cases, Carpenter Gothic buildings were relatively unadorned, retaining only the basic elements of pointed-arch windows and steep gables. A well-known example of Carpenter Gothic is a house in Eldon, Iowa , that Grant Wood used for the background of his painting American Gothic . Australia, in particular in Melbourne and Sydney, saw
8750-452: The "rational" and "radical" Neoclassical style being seen as associated with republicanism and liberalism (as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent in Republican France), the more spiritual and traditional Gothic Revival became associated with monarchism and conservatism , which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt government centres of the British parliament's Palace of Westminster in London,
8925-423: The 'Gothic florin ' was minted for circulation from 1851 to 1887. French neo-Gothic had its roots in the French medieval Gothic architecture , where it was created in the 12th century. Gothic architecture was sometimes known during the medieval period as the "Opus Francigenum", (the "French Art"). French scholar Alexandre de Laborde wrote in 1816 that "Gothic architecture has beauties of its own", which marked
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#17327918484879100-453: The 14th-century Anglo-French Gothic vocabulary that he would continue to favour later in designs for the new Palace of Westminster. Between 1821 and 1838 Pugin and his father published a series of volumes of architectural drawings , the first two entitled, Specimens of Gothic Architecture , and the following three, Examples of Gothic Architecture , that were to remain both in print and the standard references for Gothic Revivalists for at least
9275-488: The 16th century but instead lingered in on-going cathedral-building projects; at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and in the construction of churches in increasingly isolated rural districts of England, France, Germany, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Spain. St Columb's Cathedral , in Derry , may be considered 'Gothic Survival', as it was completed in 1633 in a Perpendicular Gothic style. Similarly, Gothic architecture survived in some urban settings during
9450-424: The 16th century. During the early years of the 16th century, the French were involved in the Italian Wars , bringing back to France not just the Renaissance art treasures as their war booty , but also stylistic ideas. In the Loire valley a wave of chateau building was carried out using traditional French Gothic styles but with ornament in the forms of pediments, arcades, shallow pilasters and entablatures from
9625-467: The 1770s, thoroughly neoclassical architects such as Robert Adam and James Wyatt were prepared to provide Gothic details in drawing-rooms, libraries and chapels and, for William Beckford at Fonthill in Wiltshire, a complete romantic vision of a Gothic abbey. Some of the earliest architectural examples of the revived are found in Scotland. Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 for the Duke of Argyll , with design input from William Adam , displays
9800-404: The 1850s contributed to shifting "the attention of scholars and designers, with their awareness heightened by debate and restoration work" from Late Neoclassicism and Gothic Revival to the Italian Renaissance. Like all architectural styles, the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly. One of the first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Women's Prison, which
9975-437: The 1870s. New architectural movements, sometimes related, as in the Arts and Crafts movement , and sometimes in outright opposition, such as Modernism , gained ground, and by the 1930s the architecture of the Victorian era was generally condemned or ignored. The later 20th century saw a revival of interest, manifested in the United Kingdom by the establishment of the Victorian Society in 1958. The rise of evangelicalism in
10150-411: The 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous. It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia , Bulgaria , Montenegro , and Romania as
10325-431: The 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional light bulb in 1878. The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention , with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid
10500-485: The 19th century. As a consequence, a self-consciously "Neo-Renaissance" manner first began to appear c. 1840 . By 1890 this movement was already in decline. The Hague 's Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club , Pall Mall (1829–1832). Other early but typical, domestic examples of
10675-424: The 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven , Franz Liszt , Frédéric Chopin , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , and Richard Wagner . The list includes: Born on 19 April 1897, Japanese Jiroemon Kimura died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified to have been born in
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#173279184848710850-423: The 20th century. Back in Oxford, the redecoration of the dining hall at University College between 1766 and 1768 has been described as "the first major example of the Gothic Revival style in Oxford". Throughout France in the 16th and 17th centuries, churches such as St-Eustache (1532–1640, façade 1754) in Paris and Orléans Cathedral (1601–1829) continued to be built following Gothic principles (structure of
11025-451: The American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the US during the 1880s. Richardson's style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his "Marshall Field Warehouse" in Chicago (completed in 1887, now demolished). Neo-Renaissance was adopted early in Munich , often based directly on Italian Palazzi, first appearing in
11200-433: The Canadian Parliament Buildings in Ottawa and the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest. In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical Romanticism gave rise to the Gothic novel genre, beginning with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole , and inspired a 19th-century genre of medieval poetry that stems from the pseudo- bardic poetry of " Ossian ". Poems such as " Idylls of
11375-412: The Doge's Palace. Paris is home to many historicist buildings that partake equally from Renaissance and Baroque source material, such as the Opera Garnier . However, the Parisian Hôtel de Ville faithfully replicates the true French Renaissance style, complete with the steeply pitched roofs and towers, as it was a reconstruction, completed c. 1880 , of the previous Hôtel de Ville . In
11550-695: The English Charles Dickens , John Keats , Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen ; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott , Thomas Carlyle and Arthur Conan Doyle (creator of the character Sherlock Holmes ); the Irish Oscar Wilde ; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe , Ralph Waldo Emerson , and Mark Twain ; and the French Victor Hugo , Honoré de Balzac , Jules Verne , Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire . Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman , Mark Twain , Harriet Ann Jacobs , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Herman Melville , Frederick Douglass , Harriet Beecher Stowe , Joel Chandler Harris , and Emily Dickinson to name
11725-604: The English crown. At the same time, the Great Hall of Lambeth Palace , that had been despoiled by the Puritans , was rebuilt in a mixture of Baroque and older Gothic forms, demonstrating the restitution of the Anglican Church. These two buildings can be said to herald the onset of Gothic Revival architecture, several decades before it became mainstream. Sir Christopher Wren 's Tom Tower for Christ Church , University of Oxford , consciously set out to imitate Cardinal Wolsey's architectural style. Writing to Dean Fell in 1681, he noted; "I resolved it ought to be Gothic to agree with
11900-423: The Founder's work", adding that to do otherwise would lead to "an unhandsome medley". Pevsner suggests that he succeeded "to the extent that innocent visitors never notice the difference". It was followed in 1697–1704 by the rebuilding of Collegiate Church of St Mary in Warwick as a stone-vaulted hall church , whereas the burnt church had been a basilica with timbered roofs. Also in Warwickshire , in 1729/30,
12075-436: The German version of Neo-Renaissance culminated in such projects as the Town Hall in Hamburg (1886–1897) and the Reichstag in Berlin (completed in 1894). In Austria, it was pioneered by such illustrious names as Rudolf Eitelberger , the founder of the Viennese College of Arts and Crafts (today the University of Applied Arts Vienna ). The style found particular favour in Vienna , where whole streets and blocks were built in
12250-477: The Gothic context of the structure overrode considerations of the current architectural mode. Similarly, in St. Salvator's Cathedral of Bruges , the timbered medieval vaults of nave and choir were replaced by "Gothic" stone vaults in 1635 resp. 1738/39. Guarino Guarini , a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin , recognized the "Gothic order" as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Even in Central Europe of
12425-468: The Gothic style, often known as "Collegiate Gothic", which remained popular in England, Canada and in the United States until well into the early to mid-20th century. Only when new materials, like steel and glass along with concern for function in everyday working life and saving space in the cities, meaning the need to build up instead of out, began to take hold did the Gothic Revival start to disappear from popular building requests. The revived Gothic style
12600-623: The Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the daimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolition of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models. In Africa, European exploration and technology led to
12775-665: The King " by Alfred, Lord Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature , the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions. Gothic architecture began at the Basilica of Saint Denis near Paris, and the Cathedral of Sens in 1140 and ended with a last flourish in the early 16th century with buildings like Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster. However, Gothic architecture did not die out completely in
12950-887: The London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. Starting with the orangery of Sanssouci (1851), "the Neo-Renaissance became the obligatory style for university and public buildings, for banks and financial institutions, and for the urban villas" in Germany. Among the most accomplished examples of the style were Villa Meyer in Dresden, Villa Haas in Hesse , Palais Borsig in Berlin , Villa Meissner in Leipzig ;
13125-489: The Neo-Renaissance include Mentmore Towers and the Château de Ferrières , both designed in the 1850s by Joseph Paxton for members of the Rothschild banking family. The style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs , taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti . These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins , windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments and entablatures . If
13300-662: The Ottoman Empire. In 1831, The First Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) occurred, between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about by Muhammad Ali Pasha's demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north as Kütahya . In 1876, Bulgarians instigated
13475-588: The United States, Collegiate Gothic was a late and literal resurgence of the English Gothic Revival, adapted for American college and university campuses. The term "Collegiate Gothic" originated from American architect Alexander Jackson Davis 's handwritten description of his own "English Collegiate Gothic Mansion" of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport. By the 1890s, the movement was known as "Collegiate Gothic". The firm of Cope & Stewardson
13650-475: The ambitions of wealthy Americans in equaling and surpassing the ostentatious lifestyles of European aristocrats. During the latter half of the 19th century 5th Avenue in New York City was lined with "Renaissance" French chateaux and Italian palazzi , all designed in Neo-Renaissance styles. Most of these have since been demolished. One of the most widely copied features of Renaissance architecture were
13825-460: The beginning of the 20th century, Neo-Renaissance was a commonplace sight on the main streets of thousands of towns, large and small, around the world. In southern Europe the Neo-Renaissance style began to fall from favour c. 1900 . However, it was still extensively practiced in the 1910s in Saint Petersburg and Buenos Aires by such architects as Leon Benois , Marian Peretyatkovich , or Francisco Tamburini ( picture ). In England it
14000-464: The beginning of the Gothic Revival in France. Starting in 1828, Alexandre Brogniart, the director of the Sèvres porcelain manufactory , produced fired enamel paintings on large panes of plate glass, for King Louis-Philippe 's Chapelle royale de Dreux , an important early French commission in Gothic taste, preceded mainly by some Gothic features in a few jardins paysagers . The French Gothic Revival
14175-577: The best example anywhere of Victorian Gothic collegiate architecture". The movement continued into the 20th century, with Cope & Stewardson's campus for Washington University in St. Louis (1900–1909), Charles Donagh Maginnis 's buildings at Boston College (1910s) (including Gasson Hall ), Ralph Adams Cram 's design for the Princeton University Graduate College (1913), and James Gamble Rogers ' reconstruction of
14350-529: The buildings, application of tracery) with some little changes like the use of round arches instead of pointed arches and the application of some Classical details, until the arrival of Baroque architecture. In Bologna , in 1646, the Baroque architect Carlo Rainaldi constructed Gothic vaults (completed 1658) for the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna, which had been under construction since 1390; there,
14525-680: The campus of Yale University (1920s). Charles Klauder 's Gothic Revival skyscraper on the University of Pittsburgh 's campus, the Cathedral of Learning (1926) exhibited Gothic stylings both inside and out, while using modern technologies to make the building taller. Carpenter Gothic houses and small churches became common in North America and other places in the late 19th century. These structures adapted Gothic elements such as pointed arches, steep gables, and towers to traditional American light-frame construction . The invention of
14700-681: The centuries-old Islamic laws and social order. The 19th century also saw the collapse of the large Spanish and Mughal empires, which paved the way for the growing influence of the British , French , German , Russian , Austro-Hungarian , Italian , and Japanese empires along with the United States . Following the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars , the British and Russian empires expanded considerably, becoming two of
14875-428: The century. Kimura remains to date the oldest verified man in history . Subsequently, on 21 April 2018, Japanese Nabi Tajima (born 4 August 1900) died as the last person to verifiably have been born in the century. [REDACTED] Category Gothic revival Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic ) is an architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in
15050-583: The classical method, where the façade was conceived as a unit." Konstantin Thon , the most popular Russian architect of the time, used Italianate elements profusely for decorating some interiors of the Grand Kremlin Palace (1837–1851). Another fashionable architect, Andrei Stackenschneider , was responsible for Mariinsky Palace (1839–1844), with "the faceted rough-hewn stone of the first floor" reminiscent of 16th-century Italian palazzi. The style
15225-521: The colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal , but Ethiopia defeated Italy in
15400-775: The construction of a new Foreign Office in Whitehall saw the decision to award first place to a Gothic design by George Gilbert Scott overturned by the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston , who successfully demanded a building in the Italianate style. In England, the Church of England was undergoing a revival of Anglo-Catholic and ritualist ideology in the form of the Oxford Movement , and it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for
15575-474: The construction of large numbers of Gothic Revival buildings. William Wardell (1823–1899) was among the country's most prolific architects; born and trained in England, after emigrating his most notable Australian designs include St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne and St John's College and St Mary's Cathedral in Sydney. In common with many other 19th century architects, Wardell could deploy different styles at
15750-663: The countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico , the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having
15925-472: The creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s. On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism , a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along
16100-606: The difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. A comparison between the breadth of its source material, such as the English Wollaton Hall , Italian Palazzo Pitti , the French Château de Chambord , and the Russian Palace of Facets —all deemed "Renaissance"—illustrates the variety of appearances the same architectural label can take. The origin of Renaissance architecture
16275-514: The domestic Gothic style architecture which preceded it seem primitive and old-fashioned". There are many examples of Gothic Revival architecture in Canada . The first major structure was Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec , which was designed in 1824. The capital, Ottawa, Ontario , was predominantly a 19th-century creation in the Gothic Revival style. The Parliament Hill buildings were
16450-475: The earliest days of the revival. In some cases, cast iron enabled something like a perfection of medieval design. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic's demand for historical truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. Ultimately, the utility of iron won out: "substituting a cast iron shaft for a granite, marble or stone column is not bad, but one must agree that it cannot be considered as an innovation, as
16625-542: The earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States. The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football , rugby union , baseball , and many other sports were developed during
16800-525: The early 15th century as an expression of Renaissance humanism ; they also included styles that can be identified as Mannerist or Baroque . Self-applied style designations were rife in the mid- and later 19th century: "Neo-Renaissance" might be applied by contemporaries to structures that others called " Italianate ", or when many French Baroque features are present ( Second Empire ). The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy , has added to
16975-521: The early English Neo-Renaissance style often have more of a "castle air" than their continental European contemporaries, which can add again to the confusion with the Gothic Revival style . When the revival of Renaissance style architecture came en vogue in the mid 19th century, it often materialized not just in its original form first seen in Italy, but as a hybrid of all its forms according to
17150-515: The eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw in England a reaction in the high church movement which sought to emphasise the continuity between the established church and the pre- Reformation Catholic church. Architecture, in the form of the Gothic Revival, became one of the main weapons in the high church's armoury. The Gothic Revival was also paralleled and supported by " medievalism ", which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. As " industrialisation " progressed,
17325-490: The estimated cost, at just under one million dollars, together with the sheer scale of the plans, thoroughly alarmed the College Trustees and only one-sixth of the plan was executed, the present Long Walk , with Francis H. Kimball acting as local, supervising, architect, and Frederick Law Olmsted laying out the grounds. Hitchcock considers the result, "perhaps the most satisfactory of all of [Burges's] works and
17500-470: The exterior highly visible shell, and others—the artisans—who decorated and arranged the interior. The original Italian mannerist house was a place for relaxation and entertaining, convenience and comfort of the interior being a priority; in the later Baroque designs, comfort and interior design were secondary to outward appearance. This was followed by the Neoclassical period, which gave importance to
17675-484: The fabric of the church. St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Troy, New York, was constructed in 1827–1828 as an exact copy of Town's design for Trinity Church, New Haven, but using local stone; due to changes in the original, St. Paul's is closer to Town's original design than Trinity itself. In the 1830s, architects began to copy specific English Gothic and Gothic Revival Churches, and these "'mature Gothic Revival' buildings made
17850-463: The field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals . In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev , following the atomic theory of John Dalton , created the first periodic table of elements . In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday , André-Marie Ampère , James Clerk Maxwell , and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and
18025-477: The fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer, while Tubman worked with a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad . The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States , largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued
18200-515: The finest naturalist novels . Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin , Nikolai Gogol , Leo Tolstoy , Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky ;
18375-501: The first "picture windows", but also the blending of architectural styles allowed interiors and exteriors to be treated differently. It was at this time that the concept of "furnishing styles" manifested itself, allowing distinctions to be made between interior rooms and external appearances, and indeed between the various rooms themselves. Thus the modern concept of treating a room individually, and differently from its setting and neighbours, came into its infancy. Classic examples of this are
18550-483: The first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million
18725-621: The great Rothschild house in Buckinghamshire , hybrids of various Renaissance chateaux , and 16th century English country houses , all with interiors ranging from "Versailles" to " Medici ", and in the case of Mentmore Towers a huge central hall, resembling the arcaded courtyard of a Renaissance villa, conveniently glazed over, furnished in Venetian style and heated by a fireplace designed by Rubens for his house in Antwerp By
18900-544: The great opera houses of Europe, such as Gottfried Semper 's Burgtheater in Vienna, and his Opera house in Dresden . This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is sometimes known as the "Second Empire" style, by now it also incorporated some Baroque elements. By 1875 it had become the accepted style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed
19075-539: The great staircases from the chateaux of Blois and Chambord . Blois had been the favourite residence of the French Kings throughout the renaissance. The Francis I wing, completed in 1524, of which the staircase is an integral part was one of the earliest examples of French Renaissance . French renaissance architecture was a combination of the earlier Gothic style coupled with a strong Italian influence represented by arches, arcades, balustrading and, in general,
19250-468: The groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following
19425-402: The growing population, and cemeteries for their hygienic burials. This found ready exponents in the universities, where the ecclesiological movement was forming. Its proponents believed that Gothic was the only style appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture – the " decorated ". The Cambridge Camden Society , through its journal The Ecclesiologist ,
19600-700: The incorporation of turrets. The architectural historian John Gifford writes that the castellations were the "symbolic assertion of the still quasi-feudal power [the duke] exercised over the inhabitants within his heritable jurisdictions". Most buildings were still largely in the established Palladian style, but some houses incorporated external features of the Scots baronial style. Robert Adam's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton Castle in East Lothian, but it
19775-405: The independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace ), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species , which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection . Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease . Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies , and also made many discoveries in
19950-557: The interior of their palace church (1909–1916) near Moscow to be decorated in strict imitation of the 16th-century Venetian churches. The style spread to North America , where it became a favourite domestic architectural style of the wealthiest Americans. The Breakers in Newport, Rhode Island , was a residence of the Vanderbilt family designed by Richard Morris Hunt in 1892; it and contemporaneous Gilded Age mansions exemplify
20125-447: The introduction of a new principle. Replacing a stone or wooden lintel by an iron breastsummer is very good". He strongly opposed illusion, however: reacting against the casing of a cast iron pillar in stone, he wrote; "il faut que la pierre paraisse bien être de la pierre; le fer, du fer; le bois, du bois" (stone must appear to be stone; iron, iron; wood, wood). The arguments against modern construction materials began to collapse in
20300-399: The late 17th and 18th centuries, where Baroque dominated, some architects used elements of the Gothic style. The most important example is Jan Santini Aichel , whose Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk in Žďár nad Sázavou , Czech Republic, represents a peculiar and creative synthesis of Baroque and Gothic. An example of another and less striking use of the Gothic style in the time is
20475-544: The later 17th century, as shown in Oxford and Cambridge , where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporary Baroque . In contrast, Dromore Cathedral , built in 1660/1661, immediately after the end of the Protectorate , revived Early English forms, demonstrating the restitution of the monarchy and claiming Ireland for
20650-447: The later 20th century rehabilitation of Victorian architecture and the objects with which they decorated their buildings. In 1847, eight thousand British crown coins were minted in proof condition with the design using an ornate reverse in keeping with the revived style. Considered by collectors to be particularly beautiful, they are known as 'Gothic crowns'. The design was repeated in 1853, again in proof. A similar two shilling coin,
20825-694: The lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German Sturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began. The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of
21000-402: The link between Gothic and Catholicism looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern European Brick Gothic for a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in east London, designed by William Hosking FSA in 1840. France had lagged slightly in entering
21175-400: The major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces. The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade
21350-693: The mid-19th and early 20th centuries. The importance of the Cologne completion project in German-speaking lands has been explored by Michael J. Lewis, "The Politics of the German Gothic Revival: August Reichensperger" . Reichensperger was himself in no doubt as to the cathedral's central position in Germanic culture; "Cologne Cathedral is German to the core, it is a national monument in the fullest sense of
21525-824: The mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and iron Crystal Palace and the glazed courtyard of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History were erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles. Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l'architecture , a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry. Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notably Antoni Gaudí in Spain and, in England, Benjamin Bucknall , Viollet's foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece
21700-514: The middle of the 19th century, Gothic Revival had become the pre-eminent architectural style in the Western world , only to begin to fall out of fashion in the 1880s and early 1890s. The Gothic Revival movement's roots are intertwined with philosophical movements associated with Catholicism and a re-awakening of high church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism. The "Anglo-Catholic" tradition of religious belief and style became known for its intrinsic appeal in
21875-627: The most famous. During the Bourbon Restoration in France (1814–1830) and the Louis-Philippe period (1830–1848), Gothic Revival motifs start to appear, together with revivals of the Renaissance and of Rococo . During these two periods, the vogue for medieval things led craftsmen to adopt Gothic decorative motifs in their work, such as bell turrets , lancet arches, trefoils , Gothic tracery and rose windows . This style
22050-450: The nation, if it is possible, love for the national architecture", implying that "Gothic" is France's national heritage. In Germany, with the completion of Cologne Cathedral in the 1880s, at the time its summit was the world's tallest building, the cathedral was seen as the height of Gothic architecture. Other major completions of Gothic cathedrals were of Regensburger Dom (with twin spires completed from 1869 to 1872), Ulm Münster (with
22225-457: The nave and aisles of the church of St Nicholas at Alcester were rebuilt by Edward and Thomas Woodward, the exterior in Gothic forms but with a Neoclassical interior. At the same time, 1722–1746, Nicholas Hawksmoor added the west towers to Westminster Abbey , which made him a pioneer of Gothic Revival completions of medieval buildings, which from the late 19th century were increasingly disapproved of, although work in this style continued into
22400-678: The neo-Gothic scene, but produced a major figure in the revival in Eugène Viollet-le-Duc . As well as a powerful and influential theorist, Viollet-le-Duc was a leading architect whose genius lay in restoration. He believed in restoring buildings to a state of completion that they would not have known even when they were first built, theories he applied to his restorations of the walled city of Carcassonne , and to Notre-Dame and Sainte Chapelle in Paris. In this respect he differed from his English counterpart Ruskin, as he often replaced
22575-651: The next century. In Contrasts: or, a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and similar Buildings of the Present Day (1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for medieval art but for the whole medieval ethos, suggesting that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. In The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841), he set out his "two great rules of design: 1st, that there should be no features about
22750-437: The notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers . Karl Weierstrass and others carried out
22925-538: The one at the Warsaw University of Technology designed by Bronisław Rogóyski and Stefan Szyller (late 19th century), both rise from pastiches of true Renaissance courtyards. Both staircases seem more akin to Balthasar Neumann 's great Baroque staircase at the Würzburg Residenz than anything found in a true Renaissance Palazzo. The apparent Baroque style staircase at Mentmore is not without
23100-497: The only style of architecture to have existed in so many forms, yet still common to so many countries. 19th-century In the Middle East , it was an era of change and reform. The Islamic gunpowder empires fell into decline and European imperialism brought much of South Asia , Southeast Asia , and almost all of Africa under colonial rule . Reformers were opposed at every turn by conservatives who strove to maintain
23275-481: The period of transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance style; and also as Renaissance−era design took the form of the addition of Renaissance ornamentation to Gothic−era buildings thus creating an accretion of details from disparate sources. Architects who designed in the Renaissance Revival style usually avoided any references to Gothic Revival architecture, drawing instead on a variety of other classically based styles. However, there are exceptions and occasionally
23450-606: The preeminent example, of which the original library survives today (after the rest was destroyed by fire in 1916). Their example was followed elsewhere in the city and outlying areas, showing how popular the Gothic Revival movement had become. Other examples of Canadian Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa are the Victoria Memorial Museum , (1905–1908), the Royal Canadian Mint , (1905–1908), and
23625-557: The principles of sound construction can be so well carried out". The illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery. Nikolaus Pevsner's volume on the exhibits at the Great Exhibition, High Victorian Design published in 1951, was an important contribution to the academic study of Victorian taste and an early indicator of
23800-428: The proportions and dignity of interiors, but still lost the comfort and internal convenience of the mannerist period. It was during the Neo-Renaissance period of the 19th century that the mannerist comforts were re-discovered and taken a step further. Not only did the improved building techniques of the 1850s allow the glazing of formerly open loggias and arches with the newly invented sheets of plate glass, providing
23975-485: The result, although he supported many architects, such as Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward , and was reputed to have designed some of the corbel decorations for that pair's Oxford University Museum of Natural History . A major clash between the Gothic and Classical styles in relation to governmental offices occurred less than a decade after the publication of The Stones of Venice . A public competition for
24150-664: The seat of the Great Council of The Netherlands , was not actually built until the early 20th century, although it closely followed Rombout II Keldermans 's Brabantine Gothic design, and became the 'new' north wing of the City Hall. In Florence , the Duomo 's temporary façade erected for the Medici-House of Lorraine nuptials in 1588–1589, was dismantled, and the west end of the cathedral stood bare again until 1864, when
24325-447: The second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century , mostly in England. Increasingly serious and learned admirers sought to revive medieval Gothic architecture , intending to complement or even supersede the neoclassical styles prevalent at the time. Gothic Revival draws upon features of medieval examples, including decorative patterns, finials , lancet windows , and hood moulds . By
24500-485: The sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, "a text-book for the architectural student". Its long antique title is descriptive: Attempt to discriminate the styles of English architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation; preceded by a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders, with notices of nearly five hundred English buildings . The categories he used were Norman , Early English , Decorated , and Perpendicular . It went through numerous editions,
24675-436: The so-called Neo-Renaissance style, in reality, a classicizing conglomeration of elements liberally borrowed from different historical periods. Neo-Renaissance was also the favourite style in Kingdom of Hungary in the 1870s and 1880s. In the fast-growing capital, Budapest many monumental public buildings were built in Neo-Renaissance style like Saint Stephen's Basilica and the Hungarian State Opera House . Andrássy Avenue
24850-430: The third quarter of the 19th century. Gothic Revival architecture varied considerably in its faithfulness to both the ornamental styles and construction principles of its medieval ideal, sometimes amounting to little more than pointed window frames and touches of neo-Gothic decoration on buildings otherwise created on wholly 19th-century plans, using contemporary materials and construction methods; most notably, this involved
25025-421: The two distinct styles are mixed. The sub-variety of Gothic design most frequently employed is floral Venetian Gothic , as seen in the Doge's Palace courtyard, built in the 1480s. A common Baroque feature introduced into the Renaissance Revival styles was the "imperial staircase" (a single straight flight dividing into two separate flights). The staircase at Mentmore Towers designed by Joseph Paxton, and
25200-414: The use of iron and, after the 1880s, steel in ways never seen in medieval exemplars. In parallel with the ascendancy of neo-Gothic styles in 19th century England, interest spread to the rest of Europe, Australia, Africa and the Americas; the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of very large numbers of Gothic Revival structures worldwide. The influence of Revivalism had nevertheless peaked by
25375-411: The west end. In Germany, there was a renewal of interest in the completion of Cologne Cathedral . Begun in 1248, it was still unfinished at the time of the revival. The 1820s "Romantic" movement brought a new appreciation of the building, and construction work began once more in 1842, marking a German return for Gothic architecture. St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague , begun in 1344, was also completed in
25550-417: The whims of architects and patrons, an approach typical of the mid and late 19th century. Modern scholarship defines the styles following the Renaissance as Mannerist and Baroque , two very different, even opposing styles of architecture , but the architects of the mid 19th century understood them as part of a continuum, often simply called 'Italian', and freely combined them all, as well as Renaissance as it
25725-405: The whimsical Gothic detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back as Lady Pomfret 's house in Arlington Street, London (1740s), and Gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature of Chippendale 's Director (1754, 1762), where, for example, the three-part bookcase employs Gothic details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form. Abbotsford in
25900-510: The word, and probably the most splendid monument to be handed down to us from the past". Because of Romantic nationalism in the early 19th century, the Germans, French and English all claimed the original Gothic architecture of the 12th century era as originating in their own country. The English boldly coined the term "Early English" for "Gothic", a term that implied Gothic architecture was an English creation. In his 1832 edition of Notre Dame de Paris , author Victor Hugo said "Let us inspire in
26075-436: The work of mediaeval stonemasons. His rational approach to Gothic stood in stark contrast to the revival's romanticist origins. Throughout his career he remained in a quandary as to whether iron and masonry should be combined in a building. Iron, in the form of iron anchors, had been used in the most ambitious buildings of medieval Gothic, especially but not only for tracery. It had in fact been used in "Gothic" buildings since
26250-421: The world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to the Caucasus and Central Asia . The Ottoman Empire underwent a period of Westernization and reform known as the Tanzimat , vastly increasing its control over core territories in the Middle East. However, it remained in decline and became known as the sick man of Europe , losing territory in the Balkans and North Africa . The remaining powers in
26425-509: The world's population. By the end of the century, Britain, France, Germany, and the United States had colonized almost all of Oceania . In East Asia , China under the Qing dynasty endured its century of humiliation by foreign powers that lasted until the first half of the 20th century. The last surviving man and woman, respectively, verified to have been born in the 19th century were Jiroemon Kimura (1897–2013) and Nabi Tajima (1900–2018), both Japanese. The first electronics appeared in
26600-509: The world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti , Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade . The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's Thirteenth Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery
26775-443: Was Woodchester Mansion . The flexibility and strength of cast-iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural Gothic forms impossible in stone, as in Calvert Vaux 's cast-iron Gothic bridge in Central Park , New York dating from the 1860. Vaux enlisted openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presage Art Nouveau . In
26950-458: Was abolished in 1888 (see abolitionism ). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861. The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in
27125-447: Was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire , and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888. Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War . Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman were two of many American abolitionists who helped win
27300-481: Was adopted by figures including Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–1898) in secular architecture it was marked by the re-adoption of the Scots baronial style. Important for the adoption of the style in the early 19th century was Abbotsford, which became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style. Common features borrowed from 16th- and 17th-century houses included battlemented gateways, crow-stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style
27475-499: Was also known as "Cathedral style" ("À la catédrale"). By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper , and Gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. Writing in 1857, J. G. Crace , an influential decorator from a family of influential interior designers, expressed his preference for the Gothic style: "In my opinion there is no quality of lightness, elegance, richness or beauty possessed by any other style... [or] in which
27650-491: Was an early and important exponent, transforming the campuses of Bryn Mawr College , Princeton University and the University of Pennsylvania in the 1890s. In 1872, Abner Jackson , the President of Trinity College, Connecticut , visited Britain, seeking models and an architect for a planned new campus for the college. William Burges was chosen and he drew up a four-quadrangled masterplan, in his Early French style. Lavish illustrations were produced by Axel Haig . However,
27825-418: Was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth . In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence . In 1831, the Bosnian Uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from
28000-438: Was at once a setting and a protagonist in a hugely popular work of fiction. Hugo intended his book to awaken a concern for the surviving Gothic architecture left in Europe, however, rather than to initiate a craze for neo-Gothic in contemporary life. In the same year that Notre-Dame de Paris appeared, the new restored Bourbon monarchy established an office in the Royal French Government of Inspector-General of Ancient Monuments,
28175-417: Was discovered in Transvaal . This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes . The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell , which soon replaced the older term of natural philosopher . Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside
28350-431: Was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War , France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars . In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition , Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba . Later that year, he escaped exile and began
28525-407: Was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth . It included a heavily rusticated ground floor, alleviated by one semicircular arch, with a curious Egyptian style miniature portico above, high above this were a sequence of six tall arched windows and above these just beneath the slightly projecting roof were the small windows of the upper floor. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of
28700-440: Was first practiced in other countries. Thus Italian, French and Flemish Renaissance coupled with the amount of borrowing from these later periods can cause great difficulty and argument in correctly identifying various forms of 19th-century architecture. Differentiating some forms of French Neo-Renaissance buildings from those of the Gothic revival can at times be especially tricky, as both styles were simultaneously popular during
28875-440: Was further elaborated by architects of the Vladimir Palace (1867–1872) and culminated in the Stieglitz Museum (1885–1896). In Moscow , the Neo-Renaissance was less prevalent than in the Northern capital, although interiors of the neo-Muscovite City Duma (1890–1892) were executed with emphasis on Florentine and Venetian décor. While the Neo-Renaissance is associated primarily with secular buildings, Princes Yusupov commissioned
29050-491: Was immediately hailed a success and universally replaced the previous preference for classical design. Not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles. Alexander "Greek" Thomson launched
29225-445: Was in fact a truly internal feature. Further and more adventurous use of glass also enabled the open and arcaded Renaissance courtyards to be reproduced as lofty halls with glazed roofs. This was a feature at Mentmore Towers and on a far larger scale at the Warsaw University of Technology , where the large glazed court contained a monumental staircase. The "Warsaw University of Technology staircase", though if Renaissance in spirit at all,
29400-619: Was laid in 1814, and it was consecrated in 1816. It predates St Luke's Church, Chelsea , often said to be the first Gothic-revival church in London. Though built of trap rock stone with arched windows and doors, parts of its tower and its battlements were wood. Gothic buildings were subsequently erected by Episcopal congregations in Connecticut at St John's in Salisbury (1823), St John's in Kent (1823–1826) and St Andrew's in Marble Dale (1821–1823). These were followed by Town's design for Christ Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut) (1827), which incorporated Gothic elements such as buttresses into
29575-478: Was not limited to architecture. Classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace and lattice work were applied to a wide range of Gothic Revival objects. Some examples of Gothic Revival influence can be found in heraldic motifs in coats of arms, furniture with elaborate painted scenes like
29750-479: Was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn (1789–1870), David Bryce (1803–1876), Edward Blore (1787–1879), Edward Calvert ( c. 1847–1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer (1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling (1859–1869). The reconstruction of Balmoral Castle as
29925-428: Was set on more sound intellectual footings by a pioneer, Arcisse de Caumont , who founded the Societé des Antiquaires de Normandie at a time when antiquaire still meant a connoisseur of antiquities, and who published his great work on architecture in French Normandy in 1830. The following year Victor Hugo 's historical romance novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame appeared, in which the great Gothic cathedral of Paris
30100-428: Was so common that today one finds "Renaissance Italian Palazzi" serving as banks or municipal buildings in the centres of even the smallest towns. It has been said " It is a well-known fact that the nineteenth century had no art style of its own. " While to an extent this may be true, the same could be said of most eras until the early 20th century, the Neo-Renaissance in the hands of provincial architects did develop into
30275-475: Was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards and its pronouncements were followed so avidly that it became the epicentre of the flood of Victorian restoration that affected most of the Anglican cathedrals and parish churches in England and Wales. St Luke's Church, Chelsea , was a new-built Commissioner's Church of 1820–1824, partly built using a grant of £8,333 towards its construction with money voted by Parliament as
30450-452: Was still being republished by 1881, and has been reissued in the 21st century. The most common use for Gothic Revival architecture was in the building of churches. Major examples of Gothic cathedrals in the U.S. include the cathedrals of St. John the Divine and St. Patrick in New York City and the Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D.C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada
30625-431: Was to become one of the features of Neo-Renaissance design. It became a common feature for the staircase to be not just a feature of the internal architecture but also the external. But whereas at Blois the stairs had been open to the elements in the 19th century new and innovative use of glass was able to give protection from the weather, giving the staircase the appearance of being in the true renaissance open style, when it
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