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105-452: Resident Evil is an American biopunk action horror television series developed by Andrew Dabb for Netflix . Loosely based on the video game series of the same name by Capcom , it is the second television adaptation of the franchise after the animated miniseries Infinite Darkness (2021), and the third live-action adaptation after the film series of the same name and the reboot film Welcome to Raccoon City (2021). The series
210-454: A Soviet dog , Laika , became the first of many animals to orbit the Earth . In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The ability of humans to change the genetics of animals took an enormous step forward in 1974 when Rudolf Jaenisch could produce the first transgenic mammal , by integrating DNA from simians into
315-590: A 'mild' procedure would be something like a blood test or an MRI scan. The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for more ethical use of animals in testing. These were first described by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959. The 3Rs state: The 3Rs have a broader scope than simply encouraging alternatives to animal testing, but aim to improve animal welfare and scientific quality where the use of animals can not be avoided. These 3Rs are now implemented in many testing establishments worldwide and have been adopted by various pieces of legislation and regulations. Despite
420-660: A blend of " ribosome " and " funk ". Di Filippo suggests that precursors of biopunk fiction include H. G. Wells ' The Island of Doctor Moreau ; Julian Huxley 's The Tissue-Culture King ; some of David H. Keller 's stories, Damon Knight 's Natural State and Other Stories ; Frederik Pohl and Cyril M. Kornbluth 's Gravy Planet ; novels of T. J. Bass and John Varley ; Greg Bear 's Blood Music and Bruce Sterling 's Schismatrix . The stories of Cordwainer Smith , including his first and most famous Scanners Live in Vain , also foreshadow biopunk themes. Another example
525-499: A broad number of 120 inspectors, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees more than 12,000 facilities involved in research, exhibition, breeding, or dealing of animals. Others have criticized the composition of IACUCs, asserting that the committees are predominantly made up of animal researchers and university representatives who may be biased against animal welfare concerns. Larry Carbone,
630-584: A cure for a disease. Examples of applied research include testing disease treatments, breeding, defense research, and toxicology , including cosmetics testing . In education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. Research using animal models has been central to most of the achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed to most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . The results have included
735-595: A dozen stolen pets during a raid on a Class B dealer in Arkansas in 2003. Four states in the U.S.— Minnesota , Utah , Oklahoma , and Iowa —require their shelters to provide animals to research facilities. Fourteen states explicitly prohibit the practice, while the remainder either allow it or have no relevant legislation. In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EEC , which requires lab animals to be specially bred, unless
840-682: A drug after they had prosecuted a company for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disaster of 1937 in which the eponymous drug killed over 100 users, the US Congress passed laws that required safety testing of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation. In the 1960s, in reaction to the Thalidomide tragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before
945-412: A drug can be sold. Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used in animal testing, these studies are largely unregulated by law. The most frequently used invertebrate species are Drosophila melanogaster , a fruit fly, and Caenorhabditis elegans , a nematode worm. In the case of C. elegans , the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of all the organism's cells
1050-465: A few main stock centers. For vertebrates, sources include breeders and dealers including Fortrea and Charles River Laboratories , which supply purpose-bred and wild-caught animals; businesses that trade in wild animals such as Nafovanny ; and dealers who supply animals sourced from pounds, auctions, and newspaper ads. Animal shelters also supply the laboratories directly. Large centers also exist to distribute strains of genetically modified animals ;
1155-534: A fire extinguisher. 2022: Jade and Billie are found by Albert, who helps them flee before Umbrella's U.S.S. operators appear. At home, he tells the girls the dog was being treated for a "rare genetic disease". He tells them it is a classified government project and makes them promise to never talk about it. In the morning, Jade continues to investigate and finds a website claiming to have "The Truth". It discusses outbreaks at Umbrella's labs that cause infected employees to become cannibals. The website's admin, Angel Rubio,
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#17327872178731260-486: A gap of 14 years. The past plotline deals with the struggles of 14-year-old fraternal twins Billie and Jade, conceived through suspicious circumstances by Wesker's clone, Dr. Albert "Al" Wesker. Their lives take a dramatic turn when Al is awarded an executive position at the struggling Umbrella Corporation that once employed him, and they move to Umbrella's planned community, New Raccoon City in South Africa. While there
1365-673: A guard. 2022: Jade Wesker, her "twin" sister Billie Wesker and their father, Albert Wesker, arrive in New Raccoon City, a planned community in South Africa, where Albert's work is vital to the Umbrella Corporation. Billie sees animals being transported in her father's automated building, despite Umbrella disavowing any link to animal testing . She and Jade gain entry to document the animals and inadvertently release Cerberus , an undead mutant doberman . The dog chases them and bites Billie’s neck before Jade kills it with
1470-592: A laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use of non-human primates always raises what he calls a "red flag of special concern". A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation,
1575-459: A lower degree of biological similarity with mammals for significant gains in experimental throughput. In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated to be from 11 million to between 20 and 100 million a year. Other rodents commonly used are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size, low cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate. Mice are widely considered to be
1680-415: A negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research, whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation". The following text excludes as much as possible practices related to in vivo veterinary surgery , which is left to the discussion of vivisection . The earliest references to animal testing are found in
1785-508: A number of other Netflix projects. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic , production was delayed eight months and took place from February to July 2021. Resident Evil premiered on July 14, 2022, to mixed reviews from critics and negative reviews from audiences. In August 2022, the series was canceled after one season. The series depicts the aftermath of the 1998 Raccoon City outbreak and the death of virologist terrorist Albert Wesker in 2009. After
1890-635: A practice known as bunching . It was in part out of public concern over the sale of pets to research facilities that the 1966 Laboratory Animal Welfare Act was ushered in—the Senate Committee on Commerce reported in 1966 that stolen pets had been retrieved from Veterans Administration facilities, the Mayo Institute, the University of Pennsylvania, Stanford University, and Harvard and Yale Medical Schools. The USDA recovered at least
1995-561: A reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970. In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least 17 million to 22 million. In 2016, the Department of Agriculture listed 60,979 dogs, 18,898 cats, 71,188 non-human primates, 183,237 guinea pigs, 102,633 hamsters, 139,391 rabbits, 83,059 farm animals, and 161,467 other mammals,
2100-423: A result, animals are not always receiving basic humane care and treatment and, in some cases, pain and distress are not minimized during and after experimental procedures". According to the report, within a three-year period, nearly half of all American laboratories with regulated species were cited for AWA violations relating to improper IACUC oversight. The USDA OIG made similar findings in a 2005 report. With only
2205-627: A soundstage at Cape Town Film Studios, while dilapidated local buildings such as the Werdmuller Centre and the Maitland Abattoir were used for location filming. Production was divided into four production blocks, with directors Bronwen Hughes, Rob Seidenglanz, Batán Silva and Rachel Goldberg each responsible for two episodes each. As part of block 3, scenes were filmed aboard the Sarah Baartman and S.A. Agulhas , with
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#17327872178732310-500: A stolen car, to pick them up. He bluffs his way through questions about Angel and offers to buy them food, but they are put off by his unusual behavior and erratic driving. Bert finally reveals that he and Al are clones and part of an R&D team, but this only further convinces the girls to avoid him. The Umbrella team tracks them down. Bert uses his fighting prowess to kill three guards, but Roth manages to restrain him. The girls are ordered to come with them. Billie and Jade are brought to
2415-621: A total of 820,812, a figure that includes all mammals except purpose-bred mice and rats. The use of dogs and cats in research in the U.S. decreased from 1973 to 2016 from 195,157 to 60,979, and from 66,165 to 18,898, respectively. In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.79 million procedures were carried out in 2017. 2,960 procedures used non-human primates, down over 50% since 1988. A "procedure" refers here to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in only one procedure: animals are frequently euthanized after
2520-467: Is an investigative reporter obsessed with Umbrella. Meanwhile, Billie vomits and starts to show signs of infection. 2022: In the morning, Billie gets up disoriented but pretends to be fine. At school, she becomes distressed and hypersensitive to sound. She also starts having hallucinations. Jade talks to fellow student Simon about getting more notes from Angel after class, but an unexpected update to Umbrella's firewall means that cannot happen until he learns
2625-509: Is aware of their origins, and will preserve Billie as a lab specimen if they find out she was infected. 2022: Al and Bert talk through the wall, not having seen one another in 17 years. Evelyn interrogates Al, telling him the autopsy revealed that Angel was poisoned with a lethal dose of Umbrella's new product Joy: confirming her suspicions that he sabotaged the interrogation. Meanwhile, Bert kills two Umbrella guards and escapes. At school, Billie and Jade are talking with Simon when Bert arrives, in
2730-453: Is concerned with synthetic biology . It is derived from cyberpunk and involve bio-hackers , biotech megacorporations , and oppressive government agencies that manipulate human DNA . Most often keeping with the dark atmosphere of cyberpunk, biopunk generally examines the dark side of genetic engineering and depicts the potential perils of biotechnology . Biopunk is a subgenre of science fiction closely related to cyberpunk that focuses on
2835-456: Is known, while studies in the fly D. melanogaster can use an amazing array of genetic tools. These invertebrates offer some advantages over vertebrates in animal testing, including their short life cycle and the ease with which large numbers may be housed and studied. However, the lack of an adaptive immune system and their simple organs prevent worms from being used in several aspects of medical research such as vaccine development. Similarly,
2940-536: Is less clear, however, legislation in several countries (e.g. U.K., New Zealand , Norway ) protects some invertebrate species if they are being used in animal testing. In the U.S., the defining text on animal welfare regulation in animal testing is the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals . This defines the parameters that govern animal testing in the U.S. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain
3045-464: Is no useful in vitro model system available. The annual use of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates —was estimated at 192 million as of 2015. In the European Union , vertebrate species represent 93% of animals used in research, and 11.5 million animals were used there in 2011. The mouse ( Mus musculus ) is associated with many important biological discoveries of
3150-891: Is regulated to varying degrees in different countries. Animal testing is regulated differently in different countries: in some cases it is strictly controlled while others have more relaxed regulations. There are ongoing debates about the ethics and necessity of animal testing. Proponents argue that it has led to significant advancements in medicine and other fields while opponents raise concerns about cruelty towards animals and question its effectiveness and reliability. There are efforts underway to find alternatives to animal testing such as computer simulation models , organs-on-chips technology that mimics human organs for lab tests, microdosing techniques which involve administering small doses of test compounds to human volunteers instead of non-human animals for safety tests or drug screenings; positron emission tomography (PET) scans which allow scanning of
3255-435: Is scientifically justified. Researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian and its Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to maintain. The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered, that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with
Resident Evil (TV series) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3360-621: Is set in its own universe but features the video game series' storyline as its backstory and basis. The series features an ensemble cast led by Lance Reddick as the clones of Albert Wesker , Ella Balinska and Adeline Rudolph as Wesker's children, Tamara Smart and Siena Agudong as the daughters' younger selves, Paola Núñez as James Marcus 's daughter Evelyn, and Ahad Raza Mir as Arjun Batra. It alternates between two timelines, following Jade and Billie Wesker during their days in New Raccoon City where they discover their father's and Umbrella Corporation 's dark secrets, and 14 years in
3465-731: Is the New Jedi Order series published from 1999 to 2003, which prominently feature the Yuuzhan Vong who exclusively use biotechnology. Animal testing Animal testing , also known as animal experimentation , animal research , and in vivo testing , is the use of non-human animals , such as model organisms , in experiments that seek to control the variables that affect the behavior or biological system under study. This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments or habitats. Experimental research with animals
3570-502: Is the "black clinic", which is a laboratory, clinic, or hospital that performs illegal, unregulated, or ethically dubious biological modification and genetic engineering procedures. Many features of biopunk fiction have their roots in William Gibson 's Neuromancer , one of the first cyberpunk novels. One of the prominent writers in this field is Paul Di Filippo , though he called his collection of such stories ribofunk ,
3675-594: Is the current research. Zebrafish and humans share similar gastric cancer cells in the gastric cancer xenotransplantation model. This allowed researchers to find that Triphala could inhibit the growth and metastasis of gastric cancer cells. Since zebrafish liver cancer genes are related with humans they have become widely used in liver cancer search, as will as many other cancers. Non-human primates (NHPs) are used in toxicology tests, studies of AIDS and hepatitis, studies of neurology , behavior and cognition, reproduction, genetics , and xenotransplantation . They are caught in
3780-456: Is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful in vitro model system available. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed. For example, in the US, the government could only ban
3885-430: Is usually conducted in universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, defense establishments, and commercial facilities that provide animal-testing services to the industry. The focus of animal testing varies on a continuum from pure research , focusing on developing fundamental knowledge of an organism, to applied research, which may focus on answering some questions of great practical importance, such as finding
3990-445: Is widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals." The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain,
4095-637: The Humane Society of the United States . The most common use of dogs is in the safety assessment of new medicines for human or veterinary use as a second species following testing in rodents, in accordance with the regulations set out in the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use . One of the most significant advancements in medical science involves
4200-566: The International Knockout Mouse Consortium , for example, aims to provide knockout mice for every gene in the mouse genome. In the U.S., Class A breeders are licensed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to sell animals for research purposes, while Class B dealers are licensed to buy animals from "random sources" such as auctions, pound seizure, and newspaper ads. Some Class B dealers have been accused of kidnapping pets and illegally trapping strays,
4305-555: The University Grants Commission to ban the use of live animals in universities and laboratories. Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain; it has been estimated that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year, 10–11 million of them in the EU. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of
Resident Evil (TV series) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4410-531: The dissection of live animals. The term is occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes; more broadly, all experimentation on live animals", although dictionaries point out that the broader definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work". The word has
4515-728: The genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and
4620-412: The 17th-century French philosopher, René Descartes , who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they lack consciousness . Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University , the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in
4725-529: The 18th and 19th centuries included Antoine Lavoisier 's use of a guinea pig in a calorimeter to prove that respiration was a form of combustion, and Louis Pasteur 's demonstration of the germ theory of disease in the 1880s using anthrax in sheep. Robert Koch used animal testing of mice and guinea pigs to discover the bacteria that cause anthrax and tuberculosis . In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning . Research using animal models has been central to most of
4830-408: The 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey studies to isolate the most virulent forms of the polio virus, which led to his creation of a polio vaccine . The vaccine, which was made publicly available in 1955, reduced the incidence of polio 15-fold in the United States over the following five years. Albert Sabin improved the vaccine by passing the polio virus through animal hosts, including monkeys;
4935-463: The 20th and 21st centuries, and by one estimate, the number of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million. In 2013, it was reported that mammals (mice and rats), fish, amphibians, and reptiles together accounted for over 85% of research animals. In 2022, a law was passed in the United States that eliminated the FDA requirement that all drugs be tested on animals. Animal testing
5040-595: The Sabin vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963, and had virtually eradicated polio in the United States by 1965. It has been estimated that developing and producing the vaccines required the use of 100,000 rhesus monkeys, with 65 doses of vaccine produced from each monkey. Sabin wrote in 1992, "Without the use of animals and human beings, it would have been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature death not only among humans, but also among animals." On 3 November 1957,
5145-433: The U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although
5250-601: The U.S. in 2014 including 929 who were caught in the wild. Most of the NHPs used in experiments are macaques ; but marmosets , spider monkeys , and squirrel monkeys are also used, and baboons and chimpanzees are used in the US. As of 2015 , there are approximately 730 chimpanzees in U.S. laboratories. In a survey in 2003, it was found that 89% of singly-housed primates exhibited self-injurious or abnormal stereotypyical behaviors including pacing, rocking, hair pulling, and biting among others. The first transgenic primate
5355-414: The UK in 2004. Albino rabbits are used in eye irritancy tests ( Draize test ) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize. The numbers of rabbits used for this purpose has fallen substantially over the past two decades. In 1996, there were 3,693 procedures on rabbits for eye irritation in the UK, and in 2017 this number
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#17327872178735460-584: The UK, just 198 procedures were carried out on cats in 2017. The number has been around 200 for most of the last decade. The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the Animal Welfare Act and the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide ), published by the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued that it
5565-562: The US in 2016. A 2015 article published in the Journal of Medical Ethics , argued that the use of animals in the US has dramatically increased in recent years. Researchers found this increase is largely the result of an increased reliance on genetically modified mice in animal studies. In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 14–21 million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992,
5670-510: The USDA, in 2016 501,560 animals (61%) (not including rats, mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress. 247,882 (31%) animals were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 71,370 (9%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved. The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to
5775-504: The USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by AAALAC. According to the 2014 U.S. Department of Agriculture Office of the Inspector General (OIG) report—which looked at the oversight of animal use during a three-year period—"some Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees ...did not adequately approve, monitor, or report on experimental procedures on animals". The OIG found that "as
5880-454: The achievements of modern medicine. It has contributed most of the basic knowledge in fields such as human physiology and biochemistry , and has played significant roles in fields such as neuroscience and infectious disease . For example, the results have included the near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with
5985-505: The animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray. The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. In 2010 the Directive was revised with EU Directive 2010/63/EU . In the UK, most animals used in experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be used if exceptional and specific justification can be established. The United States also allows
6090-503: The argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. However, some canine experts are stating that, while intelligence does differ animal to animal, dogs have the intelligence of a two to two-and-a-half-year old. This does support the idea that dogs, at the very least, have some form of consciousness. The ability of invertebrates to experience pain and suffering
6195-637: The beloved video games' labyrinthine lore, this zombie serial could still use more brains." On Metacritic , the first season has a score of 53 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". The audience and fan reaction to the show was overwhelmingly negative. According to Samba TV, 988,000 US households watched the premiere of the series during its first four days streaming on Netflix. The series premiere over-indexed most with Black and Hispanic viewers by +29% and +27% respectively. It debuted second, behind Stranger Things (season 4), then dethroned it days later. From July 11 to July 17,
6300-845: The best model of inherited human disease and share 95% of their genes with humans. With the advent of genetic engineering technology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range of human diseases. Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic science. Dogs are widely used in biomedical research, testing, and education—particularly beagles , because they are gentle and easy to handle, and to allow for comparisons with historical data from beagles (a Reduction technique). They are used as models for human and veterinary diseases in cardiology, endocrinology , and bone and joint studies, research that tends to be highly invasive, according to
6405-519: The code. 2022: Billie convinces Jade to go with her to a party at Simon's house. Angel infiltrates New Raccoon City. He tracks the pair to the party and warns them they are in danger. They talk about the Raccoon City incident , believed to be the result of a gas leak or a fire. Angel insists it was a nuclear attack planned by the US government as a cover-up. According to records, the two girls do not exist and Albert died in 2009 . His comments scare
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#17327872178736510-401: The delivery of antitoxin in the 1925 serum run to Nome . The success of animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin has also been attributed as a cause for the decline of the early 20th-century opposition to animal research in the United States. Subsequent research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as Frederick Banting 's research in dogs, which determined that
6615-462: The disease process without the added risk of harming an actual human. The species of the model organism is usually chosen so that it reacts to disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology as needed. Biological activity in a model organism does not ensure an effect in humans, and care must be taken when generalizing from one organism to another. However, many drugs, treatments and cures for human diseases are developed in part with
6720-411: The experiment; however death is the endpoint of some procedures. The procedures conducted on animals in the UK in 2017 were categorised as: 43% (1.61 million) sub-threshold, 4% (0.14 million) non-recovery, 36% (1.35 million) mild, 15% (0.55 million) moderate, and 4% (0.14 million) severe. A 'severe' procedure would be, for instance, any test where death is the end-point or fatalities are expected, whereas
6825-642: The figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and fruit flies. The USDA/APHIS has published the 2016 animal research statistics. Overall, the number of animals (covered by the Animal Welfare Act) used in research in the US ;rose 6.9% from 767,622 (2015) to 820,812 (2016). This includes both public and private institutions. By comparing with EU data, where all vertebrate species are counted, Speaking of Research estimated that around 12 million vertebrates were used in research in
6930-495: The first two episodes aired at a private press screening. In attendance, Dabb described the original universe of the show as featuring the video games as their backstory and basis. The series was released on July 14, 2022, on Netflix. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 54% approval rating with an average rating of 5.8/10, based on 50 critic reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "While Resident Evil comes closer than previous adaptations to honoring
7035-418: The first two episodes. Production was originally set to take place from June to October 2020, to be handled by Moonlighting Films, which previously worked on Resident Evil: The Final Chapter . Due to the COVID-19 pandemic , however, these plans were shelved for the rest of the year. Over 2020 the series went through retooling, with the promotion of Jeffrey Howard as co-Executive Producer in place of Dabb who
7140-401: The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Drosophila became one of the first, and for some time the most widely used, model organisms, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". D. melanogaster remains one of the most widely used eukaryotic model organisms. During
7245-430: The fruit fly immune system differs greatly from that of humans, and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates; however, fruit flies and waxworms can be useful in studies to identify novel virulence factors or pharmacologically active compounds. Several invertebrate systems are considered acceptable alternatives to vertebrates in early-stage discovery screens. Because of similarities between
7350-453: The future, where Jade tries to survive the end of the world. In 2019, Netflix began development with Constantin Film , the rightsholders who have previously produced the film series, as the production company involved. The series was formally announced in 2020, having been greenlit as an eight-episode series with each episode one hour in length. Dabb was hired as showrunner alongside
7455-407: The girls, and they flee. Trying to catch up with them, he is detained by Umbrella security. 2022: Albert is picked up and taken to Umbrella HQ to meet with Evelyn. He is introduced to a badly-beaten Angel Rubio and ordered to interrogate him. Solving riddles around Wesker's house, Jade finds a hidden bag containing US$ 10,000, fake US passports and a gun. The girls and Simon find a secret laboratory in
7560-563: The guidance of animal models. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies , anthrax , glanders , feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis , Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm , and other parasitic infections . Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there
7665-488: The heart-lung machine, antibiotics , and the whooping cough vaccine. Animal testing is widely used to aid in research of human disease when human experimentation would be unfeasible or unethical . This strategy is made possible by the common descent of all living organisms, and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genetic material over the course of evolution . Performing experiments in model organisms allows for better understanding
7770-471: The help of Frog Squad, a company specialising in underwater filming. While Netflix maintained a press embargo on the series before and during principal photography, a synopsis for an early series pitch was accidentally published and then deleted. Similarly, an early copy of the first episode's script was published on the Internet Archive before being taken down in a copyright complaint. The series
7875-536: The house and trigger an intruder alarm. The research data is set on fire. Albert enters, angry and confused. He reveals the girls were born in the UCSF School of Medicine in San Francisco, using two women's eggs. The dog that bit Billie was infected with T-virus, which causes mutations; she is resistant to the virus, as the girls were genetically modified to excel in mental and physical performances. Umbrella
7980-463: The human brain without harming humans; comparative epidemiological studies among human populations; simulators and computer programs for teaching purposes; among others. The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research , in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations . Literally, "vivisection" means "live sectioning" of an animal, and historically referred only to experiments that involved
8085-475: The incident, the Umbrella Corporation faced public scandal and a significant drop in stock prices, but the company was able to recover from the disaster under the guidance of CEO Evelyn Marcus; daughter of the late Umbrella co-founder James Marcus, in hopes of regaining trust and the truth surrounding the Raccoon City incident was buried. The main plot is spread out over two points in time, 2022 and 2036, with
8190-513: The innate immune system of insects and mammals, insects can replace mammals in some types of studies. Drosophila melanogaster and the Galleria mellonella waxworm have been particularly important for analysis of virulent traits of mammalian pathogens. Waxworms and other insects have also proven valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical compounds with favorable bioavailability. The decision to adopt such models generally involves accepting
8295-407: The interrogation room, where Al is lying on the floor in pain. Blood samples are taken from the girls, and Evelyn reveals the truth about their origins. They were created in order to treat Al's condition, and are an effectively permanent source of viable blood for transfusions. Offered a blood sample, Al hesitantly injects himself and recovers. Billie and Jade are allowed to leave. In January 2019, it
8400-644: The isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to treat dogs with diabetes . This led to the 1922 discovery of insulin (with John Macleod ) and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. John Cade 's research in guinea pigs discovered the anticonvulsant properties of lithium salts, which revolutionized the treatment of bipolar disorder , replacing the previous treatments of lobotomy or electroconvulsive therapy. Modern general anaesthetics, such as halothane and related compounds, were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. In
8505-463: The late 19th century, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in guinea pigs. He went on to develop an antitoxin against diphtheria in animals and then in humans, which resulted in the modern methods of immunization and largely ended diphtheria as a threatening disease. The diphtheria antitoxin is famously commemorated in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after
8610-462: The monkey AIDS model, SIV . In 2008, a proposal to ban all primates experiments in the EU has sparked a vigorous debate. Over 500,000 fish and 9,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2016. The main species used is the zebrafish, Danio rerio , which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis . Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in
8715-463: The near- eradication of polio and the development of organ transplantation , and have benefited both humans and animals. From 1910 to 1927, Thomas Hunt Morgan 's work with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster identified chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes, and Eric Kandel wrote that Morgan's discoveries "helped transform biology into an experimental science". Research in model organisms led to further medical advances, such as
8820-676: The near-future (most often unintended) consequences of the biotechnology revolution following the invention of recombinant DNA . Biopunk stories explore the struggles of individuals or groups, often the product of human experimentation , against a typically dystopian backdrop of totalitarian governments and megacorporations which misuse biotechnologies as means of social control and profiteering . Unlike cyberpunk, it builds not on information technology , but on synthetic biology . Like in postcyberpunk fiction, individuals are usually modified and enhanced not with cyberware , but by genetic manipulation . A common feature of biopunk fiction
8925-451: The production of the diphtheria antitoxin and the 1922 discovery of insulin and its use in treating diabetes, which had previously meant death. Modern general anaesthetics such as halothane were also developed through studies on model organisms, and are necessary for modern, complex surgical operations. Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques,
9030-479: The same time period, studies on mouse genetics in the laboratory of William Ernest Castle in collaboration with Abbie Lathrop led to generation of the DBA ("dilute, brown and non-agouti") inbred mouse strain and the systematic generation of other inbred strains. The mouse has since been used extensively as a model organism and is associated with many important biological discoveries of the 20th and 21st centuries. In
9135-429: The show was the second most streamed on Netflix globally, and was within the top ten in over 92 countries. Biopunk Biopunk (a portmanteau of " biotechnology " or " biology " and " punk ") is a subgenre of science fiction that focuses on biotechnology. It is derived from cyberpunk , but focuses on the implications of biotechnology rather than mechanical cyberware and information technology . Biopunk
9240-445: The six billion man-eating humans known as Zeroes who contracted the disease. The most powerful organization left on Earth is the Umbrella Corporation, backed by its military arsenal, who are conducting a global manhunt for Jade. In addition, Candice van Litsenborgh co-stars as Mother Zero, Anthony Oseyemi co-stars as Roth, Lea Vivier co-stars as Susana Franco, Casey B. Dolan co-stars as Lisa Trevor , and Marisa Drummond co-stars as
9345-937: The study. The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the Animal Welfare Act does not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs. The Public Health Service policy oversees the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC conducts infectious disease research on nonhuman primates, rabbits, mice, and other animals, while FDA requirements cover use of animals in pharmaceutical research. Animal Welfare Act (AWA) regulations are enforced by
9450-457: The three-year study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not make the same approval decisions as those made by animal-use committees that do know the university and personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies. Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by
9555-478: The total number of procedures conducted on animals in the respective countries. Zebrafish are commonly used for the basic study and development of various cancers . Used to explore the immune system and genetic strains. They are low in cost, small size, fast reproduction rate, and able to observe cancer cells in real time. Humans and zebrafish share neoplasm similarities which is why they are used for research. The National Library of Medicine shows many examples of
9660-549: The two girls stumble onto the dark secrets behind their origins and Umbrella's dark legacy, their father coordinates a response to the outbreak of a retroviral bioweapon called the T-virus , which spreads to the rest of the world, marking a societal collapse known as "The Fall". In the present of 2036, the T-virus has reduced human civilization to 300 million refugees living in walled city-states and other settlements, surrounded by
9765-437: The types of cancer zebrafish are used in. The use of zebrafish have allowed them to find differences between MYC-driven pre-B vs T-ALL and be exploited to discover novel pre-B ALL therapies on acute lymphocytic leukemia . The National Library of Medicine also explains how a neoplasm is difficult to diagnose at an early stage. Understanding the molecular mechanism of digestive tract tumorigenesis and searching for new treatments
9870-641: The use of dogs has resulted in a definite improvement in the quality of life for both humans and animals. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Welfare Report shows that 60,979 dogs were used in USDA-registered facilities in 2016. In the UK, according to the UK Home Office, there were 3,847 procedures on dogs in 2017. Of the other large EU users of dogs, Germany conducted 3,976 procedures on dogs in 2016 and France conducted 4,204 procedures in 2016. In both cases this represents under 0.2% of
9975-456: The use of dogs in developing the answers to insulin production in the body for diabetics and the role of the pancreas in this process. They found that the pancreas was responsible for producing insulin in the body and that removal of the pancreas, resulted in the development of diabetes in the dog. After re-injecting the pancreatic extract (insulin), the blood glucose levels were significantly lowered. The advancements made in this research involving
10080-433: The use of wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Most of the primates imported are handled by Charles River Laboratories or by Fortrea , which are very active in the international primate trade . The extent to which animal testing causes pain and suffering , and the capacity of animals to experience and comprehend them, is the subject of much debate. According to
10185-694: The widespread acceptance of the 3Rs, many countries—including Canada, Australia, Israel, South Korea, and Germany—have reported rising experimental use of animals in recent years with increased use of mice and, in some cases, fish while reporting declines in the use of cats, dogs, primates, rabbits, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Along with other countries, China has also escalated its use of GM animals , resulting in an increase in overall animal use. Animals used by laboratories are largely supplied by specialist dealers. Sources differ for vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Most laboratories breed and raise flies and worms themselves, using strains and mutants supplied from
10290-523: The wild or purpose-bred. In the United States and China, most primates are domestically purpose-bred, whereas in Europe the majority are imported purpose-bred. The European Commission reported that in 2011, 6,012 monkeys were experimented on in European laboratories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture , there were 71,188 monkeys in U.S. laboratories in 2016. 23,465 monkeys were imported into
10395-556: The writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals. Galen , a 2nd-century Roman physician, performed post-mortem dissections of pigs and goats. Avenzoar , a 12th-century Arabic physician in Moorish Spain introduced an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to human patients. Discoveries in
10500-481: Was announced that Netflix was in development of a series based upon the Resident Evil franchise. No major updates were given, until August 2020 when it was revealed that the series had been picked up for 8 one hour episodes. It was also revealed that Andrew Dabb would write the series, in addition to him serving as an executive producer and showrunner. Bronwen Hughes was also executive producer and directed
10605-558: Was busy overseeing Grendel . Production resumed on February 19, 2021, with principal photography split into four production blocks and concluding on July 9. On August 26, 2022, Netflix canceled the series after one season. Casting took place in November 2020, with casting directors working in the United Kingdom, United States for the principal cast, and South Africa for the supporting cast and extras. American actor Lance Reddick
10710-454: Was cast in the role of Albert Wesker . The role of Billie Wesker was given to American actresses Siena Agudong and Adeline Rudolph, with British actresses Tamara Smart and Ella Balinska cast as her sister Jade. Paola Núñez was cast in the role of Wesker's assistant, Carol. Pakistani actor Ahad Raza Mir joined the cast for the role of Arjun Batra. Principal photography took place from February to July 2021. Internal scenes were filmed on
10815-427: Was just 63. Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of polyclonal antibodies. Cats are most commonly used in neurological research. In 2016, 18,898 cats were used in the United States alone, around a third of which were used in experiments which have the potential to cause "pain and/or distress" though only 0.1% of cat experiments involved potential pain which was not relieved by anesthetics/analgesics. In
10920-561: Was officially announced in August 2020, with Andrew Dabb posting the front page of the completed "Welcome to New Raccoon City" script, with the principal cast being announced near the end of filming in June 2021. Marketing for the series proper began on November 30, 2021, with the opening of an official Instagram page for the series, which posted an image of a mutant dog which was set to appear. Two trailers were released online on May 11, 2022, with
11025-492: Was produced in 2001, with the development of a method that could introduce new genes into a rhesus macaque . This transgenic technology is now being applied in the search for a treatment for the genetic disorder Huntington's disease . Notable studies on non-human primates have been part of the polio vaccine development, and development of Deep Brain Stimulation , and their current heaviest non-toxicological use occurs in
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