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42-533: There are two occurrences of Russey Keo in the Cambodian Royal Chronicles . The first occurrence is in the story of legendary king Baksei Chamkrong ; Baksey Chamkrong escapes from Angkor and finds refuge on Phnom Baset, southwest of Oudong , before fleeing to the island of Russey Keo where he was surrounded by his opponents. The second occurrence of Russey Keo mentions this area as the settlement of Buddhagosa , who landed on Russey Keo after

84-421: A decade later, omits material of the original. He quotes author Michael Vickery , when he remarks, that "...chronicles, including this one, that treat events earlier than 1550 cannot be verified, and were often copied from Thai chronicles about Thailand..." As the chronicles are the prime national source of the immediate post-Angkorean period many historians give only vague statements on the events that accompany

126-638: A gift of land from King Norodom in 1867. Russey Keo district, soon became a gathering point for Annamites of all religious persuasions, the home of Phnom Penh cathedral and many pagodas. Russey Keo has experienced dramatic urban development since the 1990s, including land reclamation. In March 1991, the People's Committee of Phnom Penh recommended the dredging of zones in Russey Keo, and in May 1991, the  Cabinet Council of Ministers of Cambodia authorized

168-597: A number of the chronicles: Copies of the years 1818, 1869, 1878, 1903, 1934, 1941 and 1966, now being stored in the Departement des Manuscriptes in Paris, greatly vary in form and layout. The copy of 1818 was first translated in French by Ernest Doudart de Lagrée and published by Francis Garnier (Chronique Royale du Cambodge, 1871). The 1880 translation of Étienne Aymonier (Chroniques des anciens rois du Cambodge, 1880)

210-513: A storm disrupted his travels sailing from Langka to Laos . It is during this trip that he was travelling with various treasures, "jewels of sacred fire", such as several sacred texts of the Pali canon the Ounalom, Buddha's synophrys or unibrow, which gave their name to two local pagodas Wat Ounalom and Wat Langka . The Khmer King Batum Soryavong then came to help these settlements, and invited

252-441: A systemic and contextual revision and reinterpretation of former French translations which greatly enhanced the historical value of these sources. King Ramadhipati (1353-1354: Escaped from the city) Most chronicles refer to the era from around the middle of the 14th century to the beginning of the 16th century as the “Middle Period” of Cambodian history; as to be post-Angkorean and pre-modern. Some historians apply this term to

294-459: Is King Jayavarman Parameshwara (or Jayavarma-Paramesvara), who reigned from 1327 to 1336. The manuscripts (Sastra Slek Rit) on palm leaves and bound together in bundles are only short-lived. Surviving texts are copies and in many cases only fragments remain. The chronicles begin in 1796 and last far into the 19th century. Records tackle with the chronology of the kings , foreign affairs, relations to neighboring countries, internal conflicts among

336-463: Is the first long poetic-style inscription in "more or less" standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon. Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the eulogy-style Sanskrit inscriptions found in

378-574: The Gupta Empire era. These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script. The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd century or early 4th century CE, or both. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism. A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are verse-style in

420-562: The Mountain Temple inscription . The early ones are related to the Brahmanical, except for the inscription from Kankali Tila which may be Jaina, but none are Buddhist. A few of the later inscriptions from the 2nd century CE include Buddhist Sanskrit, while others are in "more or less" standard Sanskrit and related to the Brahmanical tradition. In Maharashtra and Gujarat , Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from

462-691: The Yavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the long Naneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats. Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions are found in Mathura ( Uttar Pradesh ). These date to the 1st and 2nd century CE, states Salomon, from the time of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and

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504-598: The linguistic , cultural , and historical evolution of South Asia and its neighbors. Early inscriptions , such as those from the 1st century  BCE in Ayodhya and Hathibada , are written in Brahmi script and reflect the transition to classical Sanskrit . The Mathura inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd centuries  CE , including the Mora Well and Vasu Doorjamb inscriptions, represent significant contributions to

546-780: The 3rd century. The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the first half of the 1st millennium CE. A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing systems are dated to the 4th century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th centuries in Thailand near Si Thep and

588-494: The 4th and 7th centuries CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the Sanskrit language. In the eastern regions of South Asia, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from the 2nd century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language inscription of Susuniya ( West Bengal ) is dated to the 4th century. Elsewhere, such as Dehradun ( Uttarakhand ), inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to

630-408: The 4th century CE. Sanskrit inscriptions extended beyond South Asia, influencing Southeast Asia from the 4th century CE onward. Indic scripts adapted for Sanskrit were found in regions like Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia, where they evolved into local scripts such as Khmer, Javanese, and Balinese. These inscriptions highlight the spread of Indian cultural and religious practices . By

672-555: The 5th century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia. According to Salomon, the 4th-century reign of Samudragupta was the turning point when the classical Sanskrit language became established as the "epigraphic language par excellence" of the Indian world. These Sanskrit language inscriptions are either donative or panegyric records. Generally in accurate classical Sanskrit, they deploy

714-507: The Brahmi script from the first century BCE. These include the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (near Chittorgarh , Rajasthan) inscriptions. Both of these, states Salomon, are "essentially standard" and "correct Sanskrit", with a few exceptions reflecting an "informal Sanskrit usage". Other important Hindu inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are

756-574: The French National Library. Version 2 - The oldest chronicle, 'The Fragment of Ang Eng', offered to King Rama I dating to 1796, was translated into Thai language , as such it remains in Bangkok. It only describes the reign of Param Nibbanapad (or Maha Nibbanapad) (1346-1351) to the reign of Paramaraja I (Cau Bana Yat) (1434-1438). Composition of a new chronicle was an integral part of any royal restoration. Further works are

798-547: The Khmer capital and the general cultural decline. Rajabansavatar consists of: raja = “king or royal”; bansa, vamça = “ancestry, lines”; and avatara = “descendant, incarnation”, or savatar is derived from bansavatar or sauvatar which means “history”. In Khmer, the roots combine into rajabansavatar, meaning “history of the royal ancestries” or “history of the kings”. Rapa Ksatr is also called rapal ksatr or lpar ksatr (derivative of rapa ksatr) or sometimes ampal ksatr, “all

840-408: The Khmer kings, civil wars, controversies over royal succession and marriage and leadership issues among others. The study of these texts is said to have been "time-consuming and requires a great deal of scholarship to properly organize and interpret the valuable information to be found within" with respect to the ongoing debate on the reasons and events of the abandonment of Angkor , the shifting of

882-401: The Russey Keo district. It has a projected investment valued at $ 2.063 billion. According to the 1998 census, Russey Keo consisted of 12 communes ( sangkats ) with a total population of 180,076; in 2008–2009 three sangkats —Khmuonh, Phnom Penh Thmei and Tuek Thla —formed Khan Sen Sok and the population recorded by the 2008 census in the resulting nine-Sangkat area was 175,295. In 2008,

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924-889: The Sak River, early 5th century in Kutai (known as the Mulavarman inscription discovered in eastern Borneo ), and mid-5th century in west Java (Indonesia). Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded shapes are far more common. The Indic scripts, particularly the Pallava script prototype, spread and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese scripts. From about

966-489: The chronicles. Events surrounding the fall of Angkor, the role and the actions of the king and the elite are obscure. David Chandler argues that in the case of the "Tiounn Chronicle", compiled between 1928 and 1934 by palace minister Tiounn, [He]"...drew on a range of earlier chronicles..." and are written "...from a king's perspective, between mythical times and the accession of King Sisowath Monivong(1927)...", offering no interpretation. The printed version, published only

1008-438: The classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and a hybridized Sanskrit language. An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism. After the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived. Between

1050-417: The classical period, Sanskrit inscriptions across stone, metal, and other materials became central to documenting royal achievements, religious activities, and societal developments. The decline of Sanskrit epigraphy coincided with the rise of regional languages in inscriptions, yet its legacy endures in the historical and cultural records it preserved. The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in

1092-598: The complete chronicle of Ukana Vansa Sarbejn Nan (or Nan in short), the complete chronicle of Somdach Veang Thiounn (or VJ, or Thiounn or Juon in short), the chronicle of Vatt Kok Kak(KK) and the Ampal Ksatr. The chronicle of Nan was ordered by King Ang Cand (1797-1835), written in 1818. It was copied and revised into at least 4 versions. Another version of Nan’s chronicle was copied and revised by prince Nopparat in 1878 (son of King Ang Duong ), called “Chronicle of Nopparat”, who added new information and changed some of

1134-564: The cult of the Vrishni heroes : it mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima ( murti , images) and calls the five Vrishnis as bhagavatam . There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas. Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the Vasu Doorjamb Inscription and

1176-430: The dates of the events. Nong tradition - The Nong chronicle 1818 composed by Oknha Vongsa Sarapech (Nong) at the court of Ang Chan (1806–35) covering the period of 1414 to 1800. The basis for Francis Garnier's translation in journal asiatique (1871—72). The "SrokSreh - Amazing Angkor Wat Channel" has published a brief survey called "Setting the Khmer chronicles" presenting the plots of and/or additional information on

1218-536: The decline of Angkor as a capital. Nonetheless, scholar Nhim Sotheavin emphasizes the practicalities: "However, the evaluation and careful consideration of the chronicles, other external sources and secondary scholarship will help to clarify its position as a transitional feature of Cambodian history, and a significant source of study." Sanskrit epigraphy Sanskrit epigraphy is the study of ancient inscriptions in Sanskrit . The inscriptions offer insight into

1260-656: The degree of precision of these sources - conflicts with dating emerge, in particular during the 14th and the 15th century, significant regional military and political events remain unrecorded. On the other hand, many texts give unusually detailed accounts of controversies and conflicts among the royal families, to the point of explicit evaluation of leadership and blaming weak monarchs for national misfortunes. Some scholars dismiss these recordings as to be unhistorical - as facts are obviously missing, authors tend to create stories and adopt legends in order to fill gaps. Dates, length and degree of Thai incursions and occupation vary among

1302-530: The early centuries of the common era exist at the Nasik Caves site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at Kanakhera , Kanheri , and Gunda. The Nasik inscription dates to the mid-1st century CE, is a fair approximation of standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features. The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I ( c.  150 CE , Gujarat)

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1344-719: The early use of Sanskrit, often linked to Hindu and Jaina traditions. The turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy came with the Rudradaman I inscription from the mid-2nd century CE, which established a poetic eulogy style later adopted during the Gupta Empire . This era saw Sanskrit become the predominant language for royal and religious records, documenting donations, public works, and the glorification of rulers. In South India, inscriptions such as those from Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati illustrate early use in Buddhist and Shaivite contexts, transitioning to exclusive Sanskrit use from

1386-665: The entire period of the Middle Period . According to the chronicle of Nan this period began in 1346 under the reign of King Param Nibbanapad. The chronicle of VJ starts in 1340, roughly 6 years earlier than the Nan records. King Param Nibbanapad reigned from the year 1346 to 1351 (Nan chronicle). No information is given on how he relates to the last King of the Khmer Empire - Jayavarman Parameshwara . In cross-reference with external sources - Thai, Laos and China - and applying

1428-555: The kings”. It can be divided as follows: rapa = jumbuor, juor, “lines” and ksatr = “prince, king”; therefore, rapa ksatr or rioen rapa ksatr means “history of the lines or ancestries of the kings”. The meaning of rajabansavatar or rapa ksatr can be translated as “annals” or “royal chronicles”, writings which are related to the history of the kings. Originals seem to have undergone translations from liturgical language into contemporary Khmer, as scholar J. Moura states: "The texts were written in Pali and we carefully translated them by

1470-683: The letter... " The manuscripts known as KK (1869), SP (1878), VJ (1934), No. 1049 (1835), and No. 1613 (1855) are in the Buddhist Institute library in Phnom Penh; given their extreme fragility people are not allowed to access them as a general rule. B39/5 (1818) and P3 (a copy of KK) are in Paris. There exist around thirty-four copies of chronicles in Khmer language , along with three texts transcribed in Latin (systeme des missionaires) in

1512-729: The monk to settle in Angkor with the statue of the Emerald Buddha , the Phra Kaeo Morakot, etiologically giving its name to the area. Russey Keo, on the banks of the Tonle Sap River, is where the Dutch merchants established in the 17th century, given its name to one of the neighbourhoods of the district, Hoaland. The Catholic missionaries established their first parish called Saint Joseph's Catholic Church through

1554-507: The number of Khans (districts) in Phnom Penh increased from 7 to 8, with the division of Russey Keo District into two: Russey Keo and Sen Sok. In 2010, Bak Kaeng and Koh Dach communes were added to the Khan from Mukh Kampul District , Kandal Province . In 2013, both sangkats , along with Chroy Changvar, Preaek Lieb and Preaek Ta Sek, formed a new entity, Khan Chroy Changvar , taking Russey Keo's number of Sangkats to six. In 2016, Tuol Sangkae

1596-426: The pumping of sand to enlarge the city. These developments have also giving rise to forced evictions and a certain number of land disputes, as those between collective groups of people and their Chief of Village who allegedly sold communal land and kept the money. Among these major developments, Camko City is an urban development zone being developed by a consortium spearheaded by World City Co., Ltd of South Korea in

1638-581: The subsequent Kushan Empire . These are also in the Brahmi script . The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa Sodasa from the early years of 1st century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the Mora Well Inscription . In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedicatory inscription and is linked to

1680-549: The year 1430 to the beginning of the 16th century. This period of Cambodia's history is considered to be the Middle Periods , as it marks the end of the Khmer Empire . Written sources such as Sanskrit epigraphy become obsolete, beginning in the first half of the 14th century. Even Old Khmer inscriptions are absent until the middle of the 16th century. The last king mentioned in the ancient inscriptions of Angkor

1722-936: Was re-translated by J. Moura in 1883 Le royaume du Cambodge). In 1904 Étienne Aymonier published Le Cambodge, another translation of the Chronicles related to studies of Chinese historiography and European authors of the era. Georges Maspero publishes L'empire kmer, histoire et document in 1904. Martine Piat publishes the Chroniques Royales Khmer in 1974. In 1988 Cambodian scholar Khin Sok published his work "Chroniques royales du Cambodge (De Banà Yàt jusqu’à la prise de Lanvaek de 1417 à 1595). Traduction française avec comparaison des différences version et introduction" and in 1981 fellow scholar Mak Phoeun publishes "Chroniques royales du Cambodige: De 1594 à 1677. Paris: École Française d'Extreme-Orient." Both worked on

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1764-405: Was split in two separate Sangkats, Tuol Sangkae I and Tuol Sangkae II. As of 2020, Russey Keo is subdivided into seven communes ( sangkats ) and 30 villages ( phums ). Cambodian Royal Chronicles The Cambodian Royal Chronicles or Cambodian Chronicles ( Rajabansavatar or Rapa Ksatr ) are a collection of 18th and 19th century historical manuscripts that focus on the time from around

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