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133-463: Réunion National Park ( French : Parc national de La Réunion ) is a National Park of France located on the island of Réunion , an overseas department in the western Indian Ocean . Established on 5 March 2007, the park protects the endemic ecosystems of Les Hauts , Réunion's mountainous interior, and covers around 42% of the island. Notable endemic species include the Réunion cuckooshrike and

266-825: A mid-ocean ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande rift in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs from

399-744: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process

532-499: A common feature at explosive volcanoes on Earth. Pyroclastic flows have been found on Venus, for example at the Dione Regio volcanoes. A phreatic eruption can occur when hot water under pressure is depressurised. Depressurisation reduces the boiling point of the water, so when depressurised the water suddenly boils. Or it may happen when groundwater is suddenly heated, flashing to steam suddenly. When water turns into steam in

665-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,

798-555: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and

931-425: A lava flow to cool rapidly. This splinters the surface of the lava, and the magma then collects into sacks that often pile up in front of the flow, forming a structure called a pillow. A’a lava has a rough, spiny surface made of clasts of lava called clinkers. Block lava is another type of lava, with less jagged fragments than in a’a lava. Pahoehoe lava is by far the most common lava type, both on Earth and probably

1064-409: A mechanical standpoint it is a water filled crevasse turned upside down. As magma rises into the vertical crack, the low density of the magma compared to the wall rock means that the pressure falls less rapidly than in the surrounding denser rock. If the average pressure of the magma and the surrounding rock are equal, the pressure in the dike exceeds that of the enclosing rock at the top of the dike, and

1197-568: A million years), any traces of it have long since vanished. There are small traces of unstable isotopes in common minerals, and all the terrestrial planets , and the Moon, experience some of this heating. The icy bodies of the outer solar system experience much less of this heat because they tend to not be very dense and not have much silicate material (radioactive elements concentrate in silicates). On Neptune's moon Triton , and possibly on Mars, cryogeyser activity takes place. The source of heat

1330-553: A moon of Saturn . The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen , ammonia , dust, or methane compounds. Cassini–Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon Titan , which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar . A 2010 study of

1463-488: A national park. Between 2000 and 2003, a consultation process was launched, in which the state, the region, the département , and the association of mayors agreed on a protocol and established a steering committee. 27 of 29 institutions endorsed the plan of establishing a national park, and on 29 March 2003, the French Prime Minister signed a decree acknowledging the project. Debates and negotiations on

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1596-459: A partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as maria (the darker patches seen on the Moon), rilles and domes . The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt , indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from

1729-705: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on

1862-480: A phreatic eruption, it expands at supersonic speeds, up to 1,700 times its original volume. This can be enough to shatter solid rock, and hurl rock fragments hundreds of metres. A phreatomagmatic eruption occurs when hot magma makes contact with water, creating an explosion. One mechanism for explosive cryovolcanism is cryomagma making contact with clathrate hydrates . Clathrate hydrates, if exposed to warm temperatures, readily decompose. A 1982 article pointed out

1995-597: A project had already been considered and later abandoned. Both sites fall in the aire d'adhésion outside the park's core area, but proposals have also been made for sites within the World Heritage site boundary. In February 2016, the conservative majority in the Regional Council of Réunion with president Didier Robert announced plans to transform the national park into a regional nature park . Too restrictive rules, which hindered tourism development,

2128-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in

2261-494: A rigid open channel, in the lithosphere and settles at the level of hydrostatic equilibrium . Despite how it explains observations well (which newer models cannot), such as an apparent concordance of the elevation of volcanoes near each other, it cannot be correct and is now discredited, because the lithosphere thickness derived from it is too large for the assumption of a rigid open channel to hold. Unlike silicate volcanism, where melt can rise by its own buoyancy until it reaches

2394-587: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and

2527-526: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only

2660-941: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as

2793-446: A uniform subsurface ocean, may instead take place from discrete liquid reservoirs. The first way these can form is a plume of warm ice welling up and then sinking back down, forming a convection current. A model developed to investigate the effects of this on Europa found that energy from tidal heating became focused in these plumes, allowing melting to occur in these shallow depths as the plume spreads laterally (horizontally). The next

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2926-547: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in

3059-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French

3192-592: Is a switch from vertical to horizontal propagation of a fluid filled crack. Another mechanism is heating of ice from release of stress through lateral motion of fractures in the ice shell penetrating it from the surface, and even heating from large impacts can create such reservoirs. When material of a planetary body begins to melt, the melting first occurs in small pockets in certain high energy locations, for example grain boundary intersections and where different crystals react to form eutectic liquid , that initially remain isolated from one another, trapped inside rock. If

3325-472: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English

3458-489: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given

3591-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including

3724-462: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share

3857-447: Is driven by exsolution of volatiles that were previously dissolved into the cryomagma, similar to what happens in explosive silicate volcanism as seen on Earth, which is what is mainly covered below. Silica-rich magmas cool beneath the surface before they erupt. As they do this, bubbles exsolve from the magma. As the magma nears the surface, the bubbles and thus the magma increase in volume. The resulting pressure eventually breaks through

3990-652: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in

4123-609: Is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as cryovolcanism , and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the Solar System . In 1989, the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton , a moon of Neptune , and in 2005 the Cassini–Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus ,

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4256-465: Is external (heat from the Sun) rather than internal. Decompression melting happens when solid material from deep beneath the body rises upwards. Pressure decreases as the material rises upwards, and so does the melting point. So, a rock that is solid at a given pressure and temperature can become liquid if the pressure, and thus melting point, decreases even if the temperature stays constant. However, in

4389-477: Is formed when fluids and gases under pressure erupt to the surface, bringing mud with them. This pressure can be caused by the weight of overlying sediments over the fluid which pushes down on the fluid, preventing it from escaping, by fluid being trapped in the sediment, migrating from deeper sediment into other sediment or being made from chemical reactions in the sediment. They often erupt quietly, but sometimes they erupt flammable gases like methane. Cryovolcanism

4522-503: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English

4655-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from

4788-503: Is much more than the ambient pressure. Not only that, but any volatiles in the water will exsolve. The combination of these processes will release droplets and vapor, which can rise up the fracture, creating a plume. This is thought to be partially responsible for Enceladus's ice plumes. On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example,

4921-469: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in

5054-828: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for

5187-460: Is pressurised in the same way. For a crack in the ice shell to propagate upwards, the fluid in it must have positive buoyancy or external stresses must be strong enough to break through the ice. External stresses could include those from tides or from overpressure due to freezing as explained above. There is yet another possible mechanism for ascent of cryovolcanic melts. If a fracture with water in it reaches an ocean or subsurface fluid reservoir,

5320-576: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,

5453-461: Is the eruption of volatiles into an environment below their freezing point. The processes behind it are different to silicate volcanism because the cryomagma (which is usually water-based) is normally denser than its surroundings, meaning it cannot rise by its own buoyancy. Sulfur lavas have a different behaviour to silicate ones. First, sulfur has a low melting point of about 120 degrees Celsius. Also, after cooling down to about 175 degrees Celsius

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5586-553: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure

5719-483: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in

5852-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially

5985-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism

6118-410: Is to share knowledge and welcome visitors, and to work together with local communes. It is a popular destination for hiking and mountaineering . Controversies have emerged over economic development in the park, notably the exploitation of geothermal power . In 2016, the Regional Council of Réunion had plans to downgrade the national park to a regional nature park to ease tourism development. This

6251-764: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of

6384-462: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as

6517-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of

6650-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains

6783-559: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,

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6916-588: The French Hiking Federation , with mountain lodges along the trail. More than 400,000 people each year visit the Piton de la Fournaise volcano, for which a discovery trail has been established. The park's visitor's centre, Maison du parc at La Plaine-des-Palmistes , was inaugurated on 21 August 2014 by French President François Hollande . The park is governed by an administrative council ( Conseil d'administration, CA ) composed of 88 members,

7049-877: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It

7182-626: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It

7315-616: The Reunion Island day gecko . Plans for a park date back to 1985, and in a public survey in 2004, the communes of Réunion approved the creation of a national park. It officially came into existence in 2007. The park's volcanic landscape, including the Piton de la Fournaise , an active volcano, was designated a World Heritage Site in 2010, under the name " Pitons , cirques and remparts of Reunion Island" for its imposing rugged terrain and exceptional biodiversity. The park's mission, other than preserving landscape and biodiversity,

7448-1012: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin

7581-436: The contact angle of the melted material allows the melt to wet crystal faces and run along grain boundaries , the melted material will accumulate into larger quantities. On the other hand, if the angle is greater than about 60 degrees, much more melt must form before it can separate from its parental rock. Studies of rocks on Earth suggest that melt in hot rocks quickly collects into pockets and veins that are much larger than

7714-644: The core–mantle boundary , 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in hotspot volcanism , of which the Hawaiian hotspot is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. In 1912–1952, in the Northern Hemisphere, studies show that within this time, winters were warmer due to no massive eruptions that had taken place. These studies demonstrate how these eruptions can cause changes within

7847-405: The grain size, in contrast to the model of rigid melt percolation . Melt, instead of uniformly flowing out of source rock, flows out through rivulets which join to create larger veins. Under the influence of buoyancy , the melt rises. Diapirs may also form in non-silicate bodies, playing a similar role in moving warm material towards the surface. A dike is a vertical fluid-filled crack, from

7980-555: The 1600s. Human arrival led to massive extinction and introduced species, such as giant land snails in Réunion, which threatened native habitats and species. Less than 25% of Réunion is thought to be covered with original vegetation according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), mostly restricted to higher altitudes. The forests of Réunion and the other two islands have been classified as the "Mascarene forests" ecoregion by

8113-506: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;

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8246-836: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed

8379-432: The Administration Council took office; between 2007 and 2009, personnel were employed and installations made on the site. In 2008, work began to set up the charter of the national park. On 1 August 2010, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee acknowledged the value of the natural sites within Réunion National Park, and included the "Pitons, cirques and remparts of Réunion Island" in its World Heritage list. In its charter,

8512-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French

8645-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,

8778-414: The Earth's atmosphere. Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the Sun and cool Earth's troposphere . Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by volcanic winters which have caused catastrophic famines. Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess

8911-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of

9044-435: The European Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well. Jupiter 's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur , sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. There are only two planets in

9177-416: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained

9310-461: The WWF, with a conservation status of "endangered". Conservation International includes Réunion in the "Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands" biodiversity hotspot , a priority area for conservation. Nearly as many exotic plants as native ones, 830, have become naturalised on the island, and 50 are considered invasive , threatening native flora and habitats. The isolation of the island and its diversity of habitats and microclimates have favoured

9443-655: The bird fauna are introduced cats and rats . Of mammals, the Mauritian flying fox recolonised the Réunion after going extinct from the island. Notable butterfly species include Papilio phorbanta and Salamis augustina , and an endemic reptile is the Reunion Island day gecko . The national park constitutes one of Réunion's major attractions. Its mountains are a popular destination for hiking and mountaineering ; there are more than 900 km (560 mi) of marked trails, crossing such different landscapes as rain forests, sugar cane plantations and volcanic fields. They include three long-distance trails approved by

9576-455: The case of water, increasing pressure decreases melting point until a pressure of 0.208 GPa is reached, after which the melting point increases with pressure. Flux melting occurs when the melting point is lowered by the addition of volatiles, for example, water or carbon dioxide. Like decompression melting, it is not caused by an increase in temperature, but rather by a decrease in melting point. Cryovolcanism , instead of originating in

9709-419: The core of the area, are stated in its charter. Since the national park's creation, debates have arisen on its management and the impacts on the population of the upland. Inhabitants of the area, which live in small hamlets, so called îlets, criticized management for not respecting their history and traditions, and cited farming activities banned on several occasions. Park officials maintained that every activity

9842-523: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Volcanic activity For volcanism to occur, the temperature of the mantle must have risen to about half its melting point. At this point, the mantle's viscosity will have dropped to about 10 Pascal-seconds . When large scale melting occurs, the viscosity rapidly falls to 10 Pascal-seconds or even less, increasing

9975-416: The cryomagma less dense), or with the presence of a densifying agent in the ice shell. Another is to pressurise the fluid to overcome negative buoyancy and make it reach the surface. When the ice shell above a subsurface ocean thickens, it can pressurise the entire ocean (in cryovolcanism, frozen water or brine is less dense than in liquid form). When a reservoir of liquid partially freezes, the remaining liquid

10108-466: The deformation of a body's shape due to mutual gravitational attraction, which generates heat. Earth experiences tidal heating from the Moon , deforming by up to 1 metre (3 feet), but this does not make up a major portion of Earth's total heat . During a planet's formation , it would have experienced heating from impacts from planetesimals , which would have dwarfed even the asteroid impact that caused

10241-519: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French

10374-543: The density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano Maat Mons , in

10507-532: The difference in height between the basin and the height of the surrounding terrain could allow eruption of magma which otherwise would have stayed beneath the surface. A 2011 article showed that there would be zones of enhanced magma ascent at the margins of an impact basin. Not all of these mechanisms, and maybe even none, operate on a given body . Silicate volcanism occurs where silicate materials are erupted. Silicate lava flows, like those found on Earth, solidify at about 1000 degrees Celsius. A mud volcano

10640-631: The diversification of a highly endemic flora: Of the 850 known native plant species, 230 are endemic, and half of those are endangered . This native flora is found at various altitudes. The rough topography of the park has also allowed for the allopatric speciation of many bird species, such as Barau's petrel , the Réunion harrier , the Réunion cuckooshrike , and the Réunion grey white-eye , as well as genetic differentiation within those species. In total, 18 bird species are found at Réunion, half of which are endemic. At least 22 bird species have already gone extinct since human colonisation. A major threat to

10773-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French

10906-594: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as

11039-433: The enrichment of magma at the top of a dike by gas which is released when the dike breaches the surface, followed by magma from lower down than did not get enriched with gas. The reason the dissolved gas in the magma separates from it when the magma nears the surface is due to the effects of temperature and pressure on gas solubility . Pressure increases gas solubility, and if a liquid with dissolved gas in it depressurises,

11172-544: The extinction of dinosaurs . This heating could trigger differentiation , further heating the planet. The larger a body is, the slower it loses heat. In larger bodies, for example Earth, this heat, known as primordial heat, still makes up much of the body's internal heat, but the Moon, which is smaller than Earth, has lost most of this heat. Another heat source is radiogenic heat, caused by radioactive decay . The decay of aluminium-26 would have significantly heated planetary embryos, but due to its short half-life (less than

11305-516: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of

11438-427: The form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned. There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars , four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons , Ascraeus Mons , Hecates Tholus , Olympus Mons , and Pavonis Mons . These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but

11571-915: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,

11704-605: The gas in the ash as it expands chills the magma fragments, often forming tiny glass shards recognisable as portions of the walls of former liquid bubbles. In more fluid magmas the bubble walls may have time to reform into spherical liquid droplets. The final state of the colloids depends strongly on the ratio of liquid to gas. Gas-poor magmas end up cooling into rocks with small cavities, becoming vesicular lava . Gas-rich magmas cool to form rocks with cavities that nearly touch, with an average density less than that of water, forming pumice . Meanwhile, other material can be accelerated with

11837-432: The gas will tend to exsolve (or separate) from the liquid. An example of this is what happens when a bottle of carbonated drink is quickly opened: when the seal is opened, pressure decreases and bubbles of carbon dioxide gas appear throughout the liquid. Fluid magmas erupt quietly. Any gas that has exsolved from the magma easily escapes even before it reaches the surface. However, in viscous magmas, gases remain trapped in

11970-462: The gas, becoming volcanic bombs . These can travel with so much energy that large ones can create craters when they hit the ground. A colloid of volcanic gas and magma can form as a density current called a pyroclastic flow . This occurs when erupted material falls back to the surface. The colloid is somewhat fluidised by the gas, allowing it to spread. Pyroclastic flows can often climb over obstacles, and devastate human life. Pyroclastic flows are

12103-829: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being

12236-425: The heat transport rate a million-fold. The occurrence of volcanism is partially due to the fact that melted material tends to be more mobile and less dense than the materials from which they were produced, which can cause it to rise to the surface. There are multiple ways to generate the heat needed for volcanism. Volcanism on outer solar system moons is powered mainly by tidal heating . Tidal heating caused by

12369-405: The interior of the island, corresponding to 42% of its surface and extending over the land of 23 communes. This core area also includes some inhabited and cultivated land. Adjacent to the core is an area of voluntary commitment ( aire d'adhésion , buffer zone) covering 876.96 km (338.60 sq mi) and touching all 24 communes on the island. Altogether, the park extends over more than 75% of

12502-461: The island. The island of Réunion is volcanic in origin and sits over a hotspot . Two volcanoes form its backbone: The Piton des Neiges , over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) high, and the still active Piton de la Fournaise . Four major areas form the heart of the national park, listed as World Heritage site: Réunion shares a common natural history with the other Mascarene Islands , Mauritius and Rodrigues . All three islands were uninhabited before

12635-454: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French

12768-479: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon

12901-612: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,

13034-479: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what

13167-433: The lava rapidly loses viscosity, unlike silicate lavas like those found on Earth. When magma erupts onto a planet's surface, it is termed lava . Viscous lavas form short, stubby glass-rich flows. These usually have a wavy solidified surface texture. More fluid lavas have solidified surface textures that volcanologists classify into four types. Pillow lava forms when a trigger, often lava making contact with water, causes

13300-422: The limits and objectives of the future national park intensified. Between August and September 2004, the plan was the subject of a public survey, organised by the prefect in the 24 communes of the island. The communes responded positively to the project, adding some recommendations. The park officially came into existence on 5 March 2007 through a decree taken after advice by the Council of State . In April 2007,

13433-426: The magma even after they have exsolved, forming bubbles inside the magma. These bubbles enlarge as the magma nears the surface due to the dropping pressure, and the magma grows substantially. This fact gives volcanoes erupting such material a tendency to ‘explode’, although instead of the pressure increase associated with an explosion, pressure always decreases in a volcanic eruption. Generally, explosive cryovolcanism

13566-625: The majority of them local representatives. It is elected for 6-year terms. A 15-member executive committee ( Bureau ) was established during the first administrative council's term and acts on its behalf. A scientific council ( Conseil scientifique, CS ), with 18 members from various disciplines and 11 outside experts, advises the administrative council and the park's director. Further, there is an economic, social, and cultural council ( Conseil économique, social et culturel, CESC ) composed of public figures and representatives from local institutions and associations. The park's regulations, notably regarding

13699-806: The minister for her decision. French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are

13832-426: The national park identifies four main objectives: First, to preserve the diversity of landscapes and accompany their evolution. Second, to inverse the loss of biodiversity. Third, to preserve and add value to the culture of the highlands and ensure the transmission of its values. Fourth, to foster economic development for the highland. The core of Réunion National Park covers 1,053.84 km (406.89 sq mi) in

13965-550: The national park's director, Marylène Hoarau , announced her withdrawal upon pressure from Ségolène Royal , head of the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy . This led the park's president, Daniel Gonthier , to suspect political interference; Hoarau had criticised Robert for launching a call for proposals on the future of the park. In an interview, Robert denied involvement in Hoarau's departure and criticised

14098-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by

14231-589: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;

14364-570: The other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French

14497-534: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of

14630-672: The other terrestrial planets. It has a smooth surface, with mounds, hollows and folds. A volcanic eruption could just be a simple outpouring of material onto the surface of a planet, but they usually involve a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases which behave in equally complex ways. Some types of explosive eruptions can release energy a quarter that of an equivalent mass of TNT . Volcanic eruptions on Earth have been consistently observed to progress from erupting gas rich material to gas depleted material, although an eruption may alternate between erupting gas rich to gas depleted material and vice versa multiple times. This can be explained by

14763-443: The possibility that the production of pressurised gas upon destabilisation of clathrate hydrates making contact with warm rising magma could produce an explosion that breaks through the surface, resulting in explosive cryovolcanism. If a fracture reaches the surface of an icy body and the column of rising water is exposed to the near-vacuum of the surface of most icy bodies, it will immediately start to boil, because its vapor pressure

14896-471: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French

15029-509: The pressure of the rock is greater than that of the dike at its bottom. So the magma thus pushes the crack upwards at its top, but the crack is squeezed closed at its bottom due to an elastic reaction (similar to the bulge next to a person sitting down on a springy sofa). Eventually, the tail gets so narrow it nearly pinches off, and no more new magma will rise into the crack. The crack continues to ascend as an independent pod of magma. This model of volcanic eruption posits that magma rises through

15162-471: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in

15295-417: The shallow crust, in cryovolcanism, the water (cryomagmas tend to be water based) is denser than the ice above it. One way to allow cryomagma to reach the surface is to make the water buoyant, by making the water less dense, either through the presence of other compounds that reverse negative buoyancy, or with the addition of exsolved gas bubbles in the cryomagma that were previously dissolved into it (that makes

15428-503: The solar system where volcanoes can be easily seen due to their high activity, Earth and Io. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io. Europa , the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean moons , also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity

15561-415: The surface, and the release of pressure causes more gas to exsolve, doing so explosively. The gas may expand at hundreds of metres per second, expanding upward and outward. As the eruption progresses, a chain reaction causes the magma to be ejected at higher and higher speeds. The violently expanding gas disperses and breaks up magma, forming a colloid of gas and magma called volcanic ash . The cooling of

15694-466: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In

15827-679: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French

15960-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by

16093-485: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of

16226-439: The water to exsolve into gas. The elastic nature of the ice shell would likely prevent the fracture reaching the surface, and the crack would instead pinch off, enclosing the gas and liquid. The gas would increase buoyancy and could allow the crack to reach the surface. Even impacts can create conditions that allow for enhanced ascent of magma. An impact may remove the top few kilometres of crust, and pressure differences caused by

16359-459: The water would rise to its level of hydrostatic equilibrium, at about nine-tenths of the way to the surface. Tides which induce compression and tension in the ice shell may pump the water farther up. A 1988 article proposed a possibility for fractures propagating upwards from the subsurface ocean of Jupiter's moon Europa. It proposed that a fracture propagating upwards would possess a low pressure zone at its tip, allowing volatiles dissolved within

16492-536: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of

16625-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as

16758-437: Was cited as a motive. A regional nature park, unlike a national park, functions on the basis of mutual agreements and has no power to establish its own regulations. Park officials and opposition politicians rejected the plan, saying it would threaten the island's biodiversity, the World Heritage listing, and critical access to state funding. It would be the first case of a national park in France being downgraded. In September 2016,

16891-601: Was contested by the park authorities and opposition politicians. Proposals to create a park were first raised beginning in 1985. The Réunion Environmental Charter and the Regional Development Plan formally established the principle that a park should be created in Les Hauts , the mountainous interior of the island. The French Ministry of the Environment was officially consulted for the creation of

17024-819: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but

17157-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul

17290-652: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates

17423-462: Was possible under certain conditions. The volcanic setting holds potential for renewable energy production from geothermal power . However, this conflicts with the national park's vocation of preserving the natural and cultural landscape. As of 2016, pilot studies were carried out for two 5 MW geothermal power plants, at the foot of the Piton des neiges and on the Plaine des Sables , on which

17556-594: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of

17689-570: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,

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