WEVD was the call sign held by three New York City commercial radio stations, with related ownership, from 1927 until 2003. This call sign was formed from the initials of recently deceased Socialist Party of America leader Eugene Victor Debs .
143-607: During the first half of the 1920s, radio broadcasting developed as a new form of influential mass media . The Socialist Party of America saw radio as a potential means of reaching an increasingly apathetic public to aid it financially. At its December 1926 quarterly meeting, the governing National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party decided to erect a radio broadcasting station as a memorial to its recently deceased co-founder, Eugene V. Debs , who had died in October of
286-430: A soft cover . Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals , distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising. Magazines can be classified as: A newspaper
429-518: A "monument" which was to be "a living instrument of social service... to be operated in the interests of all progressive movements and ideas and in aid of all struggles for social justice in the tolerant and broad-minded spirit of Gene Debs." The Radio Fund's trustees estimated cost of launching a station at $ 100,000 and hoped to invest the additional balance of $ 150,000 to generate sufficient interest income to allow for perpetual operations. The Debs Memorial Radio Fund launched its fundraising campaign with
572-488: A book resembling a photo album. The first collection of records to be called an "album" was Tchaikovsky 's Nutcracker Suite , release in April 1909 as a four-disc set by Odeon Records . It retailed for 16 shillings —about £ 15 in modern currency. A music video (also promo) is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly a song . Modern music videos were primarily made and used as
715-408: A catch-all district for workers in fields related to coal mining, such as the chemical and energy industries. This district gained organizational independence in 1961, and then fell into dispute with the remainder of the union, leading in 1968 to its expulsion. Diana Baldwin and Anita Cherry , hired as miners in 1973, are believed to have been the first women to work in an underground coal mine in
858-438: A catchall phrase that encompasses the aforementioned along with any game made for any other device, including, but not limited to, advanced calculators, mobile phones, PDAs , etc. Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical re-creation or amplification of sound , often as music . This involves the use of audio equipment such as microphones, recording devices and loudspeakers. From early beginnings with
1001-464: A competitive and dangerous place to work. With the owners imposing reduced wages on a regular basis, in response to fluctuations in pricing, miners sought a group to stand up for their rights. American Miners' Association The first step in starting the union was the creation of the American Miners' Association . Scholars credit this organization with the beginning of the labor movement in
1144-492: A device used to access a mass medium (the Internet). Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium. Video games (for example, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as RuneScape ) provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online. Excluding
1287-442: A difficult financial position, as unions and other left-wing institutions were difficult to motivate to make donations due to the station's limited broadcast time and poor signal coverage, but without these donations it would be impossible to improve the visability that would encourage donations. To make up the financial shortfall the station became aggressive in pushing for contributions from its listeners. The FRC continued to seek
1430-499: A formal license application by January 15, 1928, as the first step in determining whether they met the new "public interest, convenience, or necessity" standard. On May 25, 1928, the FRC issued General Order 32 , which notified 164 stations, including WEVD, that "From an examination of your application for future license it does not find that public interest, convenience, or necessity would be served by granting it." Critics saw this as part of
1573-450: A group of leaders who had been most recently rank and file miners. Led by new president Arnold Miller , the new leadership enacted a series of reforms which gave UMWA members the right to elect their leaders at all levels of the union and to ratify the contracts under which they worked. Decreased faith in the UMW to support the rights of the miners caused many to leave the union. Coal demand
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#17327768964951716-422: A mailing of 15,000 letters soliciting funds for the establishment of a Socialist Party-owned radio station. However, this first round brought in just over $ 2,650 — only slightly more than 1% of the goal. While this grand vision of substantial funding proved overly optimistic, the necessary funds for a station acquisition was raised from party members and sympathetic labor unions during the first half of 1927. Around
1859-684: A marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings. Although the origins of music videos go back much further, they came into their own in the 1980s, when Music Television 's format was based on them. In the 1980s, the term "rock video" was often used to describe this form of entertainment, although the term has fallen into disuse. Music videos can accommodate all styles of filmmaking, including animation , live-action films, documentaries , and non-narrative, abstract film . The Internet (also known simply as "the Net" or less precisely as "the Web")
2002-419: A militant, fighting champion of the rights of the oppressed, of all those who toil by hand or brain to produce the wealth of this world." The desire for the assignment of WDEBS as the station's call letters was vetoed by FRC, which ruled that only aircraft could have five-letter call signs, while ground radio stations were limited to four letters or fewer. Eugene V. Debs' initials were thus substituted, and WEVD
2145-404: A more centrist orientation, paralleling the political perspective of The Forward itself. The Forward also underwrote the 1938 purchase of WFAB. Free access to the airwaves by trade unions was increasingly restricted and left wing political broadcasting sometimes faced preemption in favor of sponsored commercial content. The station ultimately emerged as the radio arm of The Forward, while
2288-424: A more powerful media than either TV or the internet, starting with mobile being permanently carried and always connected. Mobile has the best audience accuracy and is the only mass media with a built-in payment channel available to every user without any credit cards or PayPal accounts or even an age limit. Mobile is often called the 7th Mass Medium and either the fourth screen (if counting cinema, TV and PC screens) or
2431-574: A national level. In the 1920s, about 12,000 Nova Scotia miners were represented by the UMWA. These workers lived in very difficult economic circumstances in company towns . The Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation , also known as the British Empire Steel Corporation, or BESCO, controlled most coal mines and every steel mill in the province. BESCO was in financial difficulties and repeatedly attempted to reduce wages and bust
2574-457: A newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people can log onto the internet to get the news they want, when they want it. For example, many workers listen to the radio through the Internet while sitting at their desk. Even the education system relies on the Internet. Teachers can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They may have web pages on which students can get another copy of
2717-612: A number of technologies combined to produce podcasting . Podcasting is an asynchronous broadcast/narrowcast medium. Adam Curry and his associates, the Podshow , are principal proponents of podcasting. The term ' film ' encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name comes from the photographic film (also called film stock ), historically the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms for film exist, such as motion pictures (or just pictures and "picture"),
2860-462: A particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog), sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog) and audio (podcasting), are part of
3003-451: A plan to rationalize the distribution of radio assignments by forcing out small stations catering to niche audiences in favor of fewer high powered stations broadcasting commercially to a mass market. Representatives of WEVD and 109 other threatened stations made their way to Washington, D.C. in July 1928 for two weeks of regulatory hearings on the issue. Station manager Gerber responded with
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#17327768964953146-544: A reduction in the number of stations to more closely match the limited number of broadcast frequencies and saw weak and underfinanced stations such as WEVD as candidates for elimination. A number of complaints about the station began to be accumulated. In October 1930 a new set of hearings began with respect to the license renewal of the socialist radio station. A range of violations of the Radio Act of 1927 were cited, including repeated failure to announce station call letters on
3289-464: A secret and unified group would not turn into a successful union. The founders, John McBride , Chris Evans and Daniel McLaughlin , believed that creating an eight-hour work day would not only be beneficial for workers, but also as a means to stop overproduction , which would in turn help operators. The union was able to get cooperation from operators because they explained that the miners wanted better conditions because they felt as if they were part of
3432-603: A significant following among the Yiddish-speaking immigrant community of New York City. Finances were tight throughout the entire period of the Socialist Party's operation of the station. Operating costs were minimized through the generosity of the ILGWU, which allowed the station free use of the entire 6th floor of its headquarters building in New York City. A network of studios and reception rooms were created in
3575-507: A statement emphasizing the importance of defending free speech and the right of political minorities to submit their ideas to a broad public. Party leader Norman Thomas echoed this perspective, declaring the value of WEVD and other community stations as a bulwark against a "big chain system" which tended to "standardize — to make robots and Babbitts of the American people." The efforts of Gerber and Thomas ultimately proved successful, with
3718-461: A theme, which can be exampled with The Wall Street Journal as they offer news on finance and business related-topics. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up
3861-463: A wider network of social media. Microblogging is another type of blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts. RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like Wired , news-oriented community sites like Slashdot , and personal blogs. It is a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts. An RSS document (which
4004-486: A worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the original language. A video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television set, is the primary feedback device. The term "computer game" also includes games which display only text or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device. There always must also be some sort of input device , usually in
4147-436: Is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint . It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The most important function of newspapers is to inform the public of significant events. Local newspapers inform local communities and include advertisements from local businesses and services, while national newspapers tend to focus on
4290-674: Is a North American labor union best known for representing coal miners. Today, the Union also represents health care workers, truck drivers, manufacturing workers and public employees in the United States and Canada. Although its main focus has always been on workers and their rights, the UMW of today also advocates for better roads, schools, and universal health care . By 2014, coal mining had largely shifted to open pit mines in Wyoming, and there were only 60,000 active coal miners. The UMW
4433-490: Is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email , online chat , file transfer, and
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4576-506: Is accessible through the Internet, along with many other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below. Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media. Anyone with a web site has the potential to address a global audience, although serving to high levels of web traffic
4719-494: Is called a "feed" or "web feed" or "channel") contains either a summary of content from an associated web site or the full text. RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated manner that can be piped into special programs or filtered displays. A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to
4862-403: Is not seen because of an effect known as persistence of vision , whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as beta movement . Film has emerged as an important art form. They entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. Any film can become
5005-433: Is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for " mainstream media ". Mainstream media are distinguished from alternative media by their content and point of view. Alternative media are also "mass media" outlets in the sense that they use technology capable of reaching many people, even if the audience is often smaller than the mainstream. In common usage, the term "mass" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives
5148-836: Is sometimes misunderstood in this way. It can be used for various purposes: Journalism is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events , trends , issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists . News -oriented journalism is sometimes described as the "first rough draft of history" (attributed to Phil Graham ), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organisations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organisation's standards of accuracy, quality and style. Many news organisation claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to
5291-422: Is still relatively expensive. It is possible that the rise of peer-to-peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of bandwidth manageable. Although a vast amount of information, imagery, and commentary (i.e. "content") has been made available, it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in web pages (in many cases, self-published). The invention of
5434-604: The Forward had invested $ 200,000 in WEVD by the end of that year. In a split decision the FRC renewed the license for WEVD at the end of October 1931. Preparations immediately began for the transfer of the station's operations from the 6th floor of the ILGWU building in Manhattan to a new home located on Long Island , and the station's management was shuffled. The grand opening of the new studio took place on September 28, 1932, and
5577-542: The North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement on March 29, 1941. The newspaper's extensive financial support gave it a primary role in the functioning of the "Debs radio". The Jewish Daily Forward's investment in the station soon swelled to nearly $ 250,000 and its influence over programming increased commensurately. Throughout the 1930s the station's editorial line moved steadily away from explicitly socialist politics to
5720-909: The United Mine Workers of America , the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union , the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America , the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers , the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters , and the United Hebrew Trades . Also joining the fundraising effort were the left wing fraternal benefit society the Workmen's Circle and the financially successful Yiddish language social democratic daily, The Jewish Daily Forward , headed by Abraham Cahan . While
5863-651: The 1930s he used UMW activists to organize new unions in autos, steel and rubber. He was the driving force behind the founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). It established the United Steel Workers of America and helped organize millions of other industrial workers in the 1930s. After resigning as head of the CIO in 1941, he took the Mine Workers out of the CIO in 1942 and in 1944 took
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6006-415: The 1969 murder of Joseph Yablonski , a reform candidate who lost a race for union president against incumbent W. A. Boyle , along with his wife and 25-year-old daughter. Boyle was later convicted of ordering these murders. The killing of Yablonski resulted in the birth of a pro-democracy movement called the " Miners for Democracy " (MFD) which swept Boyle and his regime out of office, and replaced them with
6149-442: The 52-year time-share on 1330 as of December 31, 1984. WNYM evolved into WWRV, broadcasting around the clock on 1330 AM. In 1951, FM sister station WEVD-FM was added to the airwaves, first broadcasting on 107.5 Mhz , then moving to 97.9 a year later, where it remained for the next 36 years. Because it did not share its frequency, WEVD-FM could operate for unlimited hours. However, very few people had FM receivers at this time. After
6292-494: The AFL, yet was widely criticized as he called nationwide coal strikes damaging the American economy in the middle of World War II. Coal miners for 40 years hailed him as the benevolent dictator who brought high wages, pensions and medical benefits. The union's history has numerous examples of strikes in which members and their supporters clashed with company-hired strikebreakers and government forces. The most notable include: By June
6435-492: The AFL. The UMW grew to 800,000 members and was an element in the New Deal Coalition supporting Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Lewis broke with Roosevelt in 1940 and left the CIO, leaving the UMW increasingly isolated in the labor movement. During World War II the UMW was involved in a series of major strikes and threatened walkouts that angered public opinion and energized pro-business opponents. After
6578-499: The American labor movement. In an era in which few stations did likewise, WEVD produced programming dealing with African-American history and culture, including the broadcast of a weekly Pullman Porters Hour sponsored by the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, which included both entertainment and talks on serious topics of interest to the black community of New York City. WEVD's Educational Director, Paul Blanshard , expanded
6721-524: The Debs Memorial Radio Fund lacked sufficient financial resources to meet minimum standards established by the FRC. The uniqueness of WEVD's broadcast content was also denied. Regulators thus sought to award the WEVD frequency to station WFOX , owned by Paramount Pictures , arguing that station's "superior fitness to serve the public convenience, necessity and welfare." In response to the FRC's hostile action, efforts were made to address
6864-679: The FRC approving the WEVD renewal application one month later. In the FRC's judgment WEVD had followed a "very satisfactory policy" of representing a range of political and economic perspectives befitting "the mouthpiece of a substantial political or religious minority." An editor at the New York Times concurred with the radio regulators' assessment, noting that revoking WEVD's license on the basis of its political views "would be both unjust and stupid." WEVD won praise for its news reporting and commentary, taking an array of issues relating to world affairs, American foreign policy, and activities of
7007-502: The Forward Association for WEVD-FM. Until the latter transaction was approved, SBS operated 1050 as a Spanish-language station called WUKQ. When the deal was finally consummated, WEVD moved its call letters and programming to 1050 and the former WEVD-FM became WSKQ-FM . The station carried brokered programming with some news-talk . WEVD gradually replaced much of its brokered ethnic programming with liberal talk shows over
7150-452: The Internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minutes. This rapid growth of instantaneous, decentralised communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society. "Cross-media" means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels. A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as "convergence". Many authors understand cross-media publishing to be
7293-516: The Internet, however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually. It is possible to discuss in great detail the events of a video game with a friend one has never played with, because the experience is identical to each. The question, then, is whether this is a form of mass communication. Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University : The term "mass media"
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#17327768964957436-692: The Master Settlement Agreement between the US and the tobacco industries prohibited the billboard advertising of cigarettes. In a 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her colleagues revealed how tobacco- and alcohol-based billboards were concentrated in poor neighbourhoods. In other urban centers, alcohol and tobacco billboards were much more concentrated in African-American neighbourhoods than in white neighbourhoods. Mass media encompasses much more than just news, although it
7579-580: The NPU set up a joint conference for all miners. John McBride, the president of NPU, suggested that the Knights of Labor should join the NPU to form a stronger union. John B. Rae reluctantly agreed and decided that the merged groups would meet on January 22, 1890. When the union was founded, the values of the UMWA were stated in the preamble: We have founded the United Mine Workers of America for
7722-634: The National Progressive Miners Union. Adopting the model of the union was initially established as a three-pronged labor tool: to develop mine safety; to improve mine workers' independence from the mine owners and the company store ; and to provide miners with collective bargaining power. After passage of the National Recovery Act in 1933 during the Great Depression , organizers spread throughout
7865-533: The National Progressive Union of Miners and Mine Laborers (NPU). Although the goal of the NPU in 1888 was ostensibly to create unity between the miners, it instead drew a stronger line distinguishing members of the NPU against those of the NTA #135. Because of the rivalry, miners of one labor union would not support the strikes of another, and many strikes failed. In December 1889, the president of
8008-585: The Pittston company at the time, Paul Douglas, left the BCOA because he wanted to be able to produce coal seven days a week and did not want his company to pay the fee for the insurance. The Pittson company was seen as having inadequate safety standards after the Buffalo Creek flood of 1972 in which 125 people were killed. The company also was very financially unstable and in debt. The mines associated with
8151-517: The Pittston company to court. Miners worked from January 1988 to April 1989 without a contract. Tension in the company grew and on April 5, 1989, the workers declared a strike. Many months of both violent and nonviolent strike actions took place. On 20 February 1990 a settlement was finally reached between the UMWA and the Pittston Coal Company. The union's history has sometimes been marked by internal strife and corruption, including
8294-610: The Socialist Party turned to the airwaves of the National Broadcasting Company and other channels in its efforts to make its political message heard on a mass basis. WEVD did not become completely apolitical in this period, however, as during the 1930s a weekly talk show was launched hosted by Chester M. Wright of the International Labor News Service. This show paid its way through a commercial sponsorship by Avalon Cigarettes and
8437-538: The United States to organize all coal miners into labor unions. Under the powerful leadership of John L. Lewis , the UMW broke with the American Federation of Labor and set up its own federation, the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations). Its organizers fanned out to organize major industries, including automobiles, steel, electrical equipment, rubber, paint and chemical, and fought a series of battles with
8580-531: The United States. The membership of the group grew rapidly. "Of an estimated 56,000 miners in 1865, John Hinchcliffe claimed 22,000 as members of the AMA. In response, the mine owners sought to stop the AMA from becoming more powerful. Members of the AMA were fired and blacklisted from employment at other mines. After a short time the AMA began to decline, and eventually ceased operations. Workingman's Benevolent Association Another early labor union that arose in 1868
8723-537: The United States. Gerber declared: "The purchase of a labor station ... will guarantee to minority opinion in America its right to be heard without censorship. With radio now privately owned and controlled, a station like WDEBS is the only cry in the wilderness... We promise that, as soon as we can proceed with full operation, Station WDEBS will be not merely a chronicler of events, nor a vehicle of music and entertainment, though we hope not to fail even in these matters, but
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#17327768964958866-545: The United States. They were the first female members of UMWA to work inside a mine. Cherry and Baldwin were hired by the Beth-Elkhorn Coal Company in Jenkins, Kentucky . However, more pervasive were hiring practices discriminatory against women. The superstition that a woman even entering a mine was bad luck and resulted in disaster was pervasive among male miners. In 1978 a discrimination complaint
9009-566: The WEVD renewal controversy a national free speech campaign. The final report of the FRC examiner was filed on December 11, 1930 and the station was notified of the decision a week later. Within two weeks the station had submitted a 17-page challenge of the FRC examiner's ruling, which combined with public pressure from listeners compelled the FRC to temporarily reverse its decision on January 13, 1931. Additional regulatory hearings about WEVD were held in March and May 1931, with regulators charging that
9152-470: The West to oppose any support for nations at war with Nazi Germany. ) Lewis was an effective strike leader who gained high wages for his membership while suppressing his opponents, including the United States government. He was one of the most controversial and innovative leaders in the history of labor, gaining credit for building the industrial unions of the CIO into a political and economic powerhouse to rival
9295-399: The ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort. An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective "create once, publish many". The Internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything is becoming accessible via the internet. Rather than picking up
9438-521: The activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers . With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet , the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites , blogs and the like. United Mine Workers of America The United Mine Workers of America ( UMW or UMWA )
9581-544: The air every 15 minutes and inability to stay on its assigned wavelength. A recommendation was made by the FRC examiner assigned to the case to deny the station's license renewal application. Once again Norman Thomas, August Gerber, and Morris Hillquit jumped to action, painting the station's woes as part of a political vendetta aimed at homogenization of the radio airwaves at the expense of political minorities. The American Civil Liberties Union promised its aid in making
9724-639: The broadcast frequency with WEVD: WHAZ , the radio station of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York , which was on-air only on Monday evenings, and WBBR , also of New York, New York , owned by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society , publishing arm of the religious group Jehovah's Witnesses . From the time of the 1932 broadcasting agreement through the 1970s the Socialist and Yiddish-language WEVD continued to share its station frequency with
9867-592: The bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing. The internet has challenged the press as an alternative source of information and opinion but has also provided a new platform for newspaper organisations to reach new audiences. According to the World Trends Report , between 2012 and 2016, print newspaper circulation continued to fall in almost all regions, with
10010-517: The class outline or assignments. Some classes have class blogs in which students are required to post weekly, with students graded on their contributions. Blogging , too, has become a pervasive form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order, with most recent posts shown on top. Many blogs provide commentary or news on
10153-520: The company were located mostly in Virginia, with mines also in West Virginia and Kentucky. On 31 January 1988 Douglas cut off retirement and health care funds to about 1500 retired miners, widows of miners, and disabled miners. To avoid a strike, Douglas threatened that if a strike were to take place, that the miners would be replaced by other workers. The UMW called this action unjust and took
10296-409: The conference, they were not able to vote against actions which they thought detrimental to gain rights for workers. The conference passed resolutions requiring the Knights of Labor to give up their secrecy and publicize material about its members and locations. The National Federation held another conference in 1887 attended by both groups. But it was unsuccessful in gaining agreement by the groups as to
10439-491: The definition. In the early 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" came into use. In order of introduction, they are: Each mass medium has its own content types, creative artists, technicians and business models. For example, the Internet includes blogs , podcasts , web sites and various other technologies built atop the general distribution network. The sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media ; and
10582-414: The demand for coal began to increase, and some operators decided to pay the workers their original salaries before the wage cut. However, not all demands across the country were met, and some workers continued to strike. The young union suffered damage in this uneven effort. The most important goal of the 1894 strike was not the restoration of wages, but rather the establishment of the UMWA as a cooperation at
10725-469: The diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication . Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films , radio , recorded music, or television . Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email , social media sites, websites , and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on
10868-411: The driving force to change the way workers were organized, and the UMW was one of the charter members when the new Congress of Industrial Organizations was formed in 1935. However, the AFL leadership did not agree with the philosophy of industrial unionization, and the UMW and nine other unions that had formed the CIO were kicked out of the AFL in 1937. In 1942, the UMW chose to leave the CIO, and, for
11011-561: The evening on WEVD radio. In 1975, WEVD was approved to begin using the transmitting facilities of its shared-time partner, WPOW, on Rossville, Staten Island . By 1978, the Forward was analyzing the sale of the unprofitable AM outlet. In 1981, the Forward Association sold WEVD (AM) to Salem Media , which changed the station's format and on March 2, 1981 its call letters, making it the Christian station WNYM . Salem subsequently purchased WPOW, merging that station into WNYM and eliminating
11154-837: The exception of Asia and the Pacific , where the dramatic increase in sales in a few select countries has offset falls in historically strong Asian markets such as Japan and the Republic of Korea . Most notably, between 2012 and 2016, India 's print circulation grew by 89 per cent. Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting, AR advertising. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums. Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively. However, in 1998,
11297-649: The first of August 1927 the "Debs Memorial Radio Fund" trustees announced the purchase of WSOM, owned by Union Course Laboratories, which transmitted from Woodhaven in the New York City borough of Queens . WSOM had been on the air since 1926; the station had moved into New York City just six months prior. An immediate application was made to the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) for a change of call letters to WDEBS, as well as for an increase of transmission power from 500 to 1,000 watts, to enable
11440-412: The form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games), a keyboard and mouse/ trackball combination (computer games), a controller ( console games), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input, e.g., the player's motion. Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of
11583-412: The fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media . Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media. While a telephone is a two-way communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a cell phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply
11726-432: The great vision for which Gene Debs gave his life. I am glad to observe that you have invited and obtained the acceptance of men and women as trustees who are not members of the Socialist Party. Such ... [shall] guarantee that the Debs Memorial Radio Fund will be free from a narrow and intolerant partisanship. Thomas and Hillquit envisioned the radio station as a memorial to the late Debs. In a joint statement, they called for
11869-481: The interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web . Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is the system of interconnected computer networks , linked by copper wires, fibre-optic cables, wireless connections etc.; the Web is the contents, or the interconnected documents , linked by hyperlinks and URLs . The World Wide Web
12012-414: The invention of digital recording and the compact disc in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality. The most recent developments have been in digital audio players . An album is a collection of related audio recordings, released together to the public, usually commercially. The term record album originated from the fact that 78 RPM phonograph disc records were kept together in
12155-414: The invention of the phonograph using purely mechanical techniques, the field has advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the 78 record , the magnetic wire recorder followed by the tape recorder , the vinyl LP record . The invention of the compact cassette in the 1960s, followed by Sony's Walkman , gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and
12298-731: The labor union. He did everything in his power to produce the cheapest product and to ensure that non-union workers would benefit. As conditions for the miners of the WBA worsened, the union broke up and disappeared. After the fall of the WBA, miners created many other small unions, including the Workingman's Protective Association (WPA) and the Miner's National Association (MNA). Although both groups had strong ideas and goals, they were unable to gain enough support and organization to succeed. The two unions did not last long, but provided greater support by
12441-443: The late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings and television. The explosion of digital communication technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question: what forms of media should be classified as "mass media"? For example, it is controversial whether to include mobile phones and video games in
12584-458: The liberal, labor and socialist community were appointed as a board of trustees including such publicly recognized figures as pacifist minister - John Haynes Holmes , Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters founder A. Philip Randolph , Amalgamated Clothing Workers leader Sidney Hillman , novelist Upton Sinclair and American Civil Liberties Union head Roger Baldwin . G. August Gerber, son of New York Socialist Party functionary Julius Gerber ,
12727-579: The looting and arson of company property. This crisis led to the Nova Scotia government acting in 1937 to improve the rights of all wage earners, and these reforms served as a model across Canada, at both provincial and federal levels. In the summer of 1973, workers at the Duke Power -owned Eastover Mining Company's Brookside Mine and Prep Plant in Harlan County, Kentucky , voted to join
12870-753: The miners for a union which could withstand and help protect the workers' rights. Although many labor unions were failing, two predominant unions arose that held promise to become strong and permanent advocates for the miners. The main problem during this time was the rivalry between the two groups. Because the National Trade Assembly #135, better known as the Knights of Labor , and the National Federation of Miners and Mine Laborers were so opposed to one another, they created problems for miners rather than solving key issues. This union
13013-761: The mines and reactivated the railroad haulers in time for Christmas. These events are depicted in the documentary film Harlan County, USA . The Pittston Coal strike of 1989-1990 began as a result of a withdrawal of the Pittston Coal Group also known as the Pittston Company from the Bituminous Coal Operators Association (BCOA) and a refusal of the Pittston Coal group to pay the health insurance payments for miners who were already retired. The owner of
13156-428: The mining industry and also wanted the company to grow. But in order for the company to grow, the workers must have better conditions so that their labor could improve and benefit the operators. The union's first priority was to get a fair weighing system within the mines. At a conference between the operators and the union, the idea of a new system of scaling was agreed upon, but the system was never implemented. Because
13299-401: The most part it was impossible to tell how many trade and mixed LAs there were at a given time. Local assemblies began to arise and fall all around, and many members began to question whether or not the Knights of Labor was strong enough to fight for the most important issue of the time, achieving an eight-hour work day. This Union was formed by members of the Knights of Labor who realized that
13442-430: The next actions to take. In 1888, Samuel Gompers was elected as President of the National Federation of Miners, and George Harris first vice president. Throughout 1887–1888 many joint conferences were held to help iron out the problems that the two groups were having. Many leaders of each groups began questioning the morals of the other union. One leader, William T. Lewis , thought there needed to be more unity within
13585-412: The next five years, were an independent union. In 1947, the UMW once again joined the AFL, but the remarriage was a short one, as the UMW was forced out of the AFL in 1948, and at that point, became the largest non-affiliated union in the United States. In 1982, Richard Trumka was elected the leader of the UMW. Trumka spent the 1980s healing the rift between the UMW and the now-conjoined AFL–CIO (which
13728-488: The next several years; it gained some loyal listeners, but not enough to keep the station economically viable. In 2001, the Forward Association entered into a local marketing agreement with ESPN Radio , and WEVD began broadcasting that network's programming on September 2 of that year. In 2003, the station was sold outright to ESPN and its call letters changed to WEPN , ending the 76-year history of WEVD call letters in New York City. Mass media Mass media include
13871-481: The other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day, such as the Cartoon Network / Adult Swim . Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble . When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. In 2004, a new phenomenon occurred when
14014-422: The picket lines. Many were arrested, some hit by baseball bats, shot at, and struck by cars. One striking miner, Lawrence Jones, was shot and killed by a Strikebreaker . Three months after returning to work, the national UMWA contract expired. On November 12, 1974, 120,000 miners nationwide walked off the job. The nationwide strike was bloodless and a tentative contract was achieved three weeks later. This opened
14157-523: The previous year. In March 1927, the Socialist Party of America launched a fundraising drive aimed at generating $ 250,000 for the purchase of a station. Party leader and head of the League for Industrial Democracy Norman Thomas was chosen as chairman of the board of trustees for the new enterprise and venerated party founder Morris Hillquit was appointed as treasurer. A total of 21 others from
14300-416: The production of anthracite to keep its price profitable. Because the efforts of the WBA benefited the operators, they did not object when the union wanted to take action in the mines; they welcomed the actions that would secure their profit. Because the operators trusted the WBA, they agreed to the first written contract between miners and operators. As the union became more responsible in the operators' eyes,
14443-420: The products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients. The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule . With all technological endeavours a number of technical terms and slang have developed. Radio and television programs are distributed over frequency bands which are highly regulated in the United States. Such regulation includes determination of
14586-418: The public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable to the standards of professional journalism. Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organisation and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image. Examples include: Publishing is the industry concerned with the production of literature or information –
14729-424: The purchase price of the station was not revealed, August Gerber indicated that the bulk of the $ 250,000 operating fund — which had still not been fully met — was to be used to cover ongoing operating expenses. Gerber expressed a belief that the station would become self-supporting in fairly short order and indicated a desire to make the new New York station the flagship of a network of "labor radio stations" throughout
14872-438: The purpose of ... educating all mine workers in America to realize the necessity of unity of action and purpose, in demanding and securing by lawful means the just fruits of our toil. The UMWA constitution listed eleven points as the union's goals: John L. Lewis (1880–1969) was the highly combative UMW president who thoroughly controlled the union from 1920 to 1960. A major player in the labor movement and national politics, in
15015-415: The religious group, transmitting 86 hours per week while leaving Sundays and early mornings until 8 o’clock to WBBR (sold and changed to WPOW in 1957), and Monday nights to WHAZ. WHAZ was sold to the owners of WPOW in 1967 and turned into a non-interfering, daytime-only station, with WPOW taking the old WHAZ Monday night hours. All of these stations moved from 1300 to 1330 kHz with the coming into force of
15158-471: The sale of the original WEVD on AM 1330, WEVD-FM remained on the air under The Forward's ownership, until its 1989 sale to Spanish Broadcasting System. In 1988, Emmis Broadcasting acquired the license of WNBC and moved the WFAN call letters and sports format from 1050 to 660 AM. Emmis sold the license for AM 1050 to Spanish Broadcasting System (SBS), which quickly agreed to trade that license with cash to
15301-468: The second half of 1931 was answered by Abe Cahan, editor and publisher of the social democratic Jewish Daily Forward, the largest Yiddish-language newspaper in the world. Cahan was firmly committed to the importance of the project and he made the newspapers funds freely available, depositing $ 70,000 on account in the fall of 1931 for the expansion of the station assuming the renewal of its broadcast license. Together with previous and subsequent cash infusions,
15444-552: The series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster. Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones, tablets and other portable devices, and today
15587-404: The silver screen , photoplays , the cinema , picture shows , flicks and, most commonly, movies . Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras , or by creating them using animation techniques or special effects . Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created. Flickering between frames
15730-510: The situation at WEVD through a fundamental reorganization of the operation. Problems to be addressed included inadequate equipment, poor broadcast location, insufficient funding, and a haphazard planning of station content. Party leader Morris Hillquit was particularly instrumental in the reorganization, coming up with the idea of selling $ 50,000 in WEVD stock in order to pay off standing obligations and invest in new capacity and content. The need to raise funds to improve and expand operations during
15873-640: The space, providing a fully adequate base of operations for the station. Operating funds came from small-scale listener contributions, regular donations from the American Civil Liberties Union and other organizations interested in the station's mission, and the left wing philanthropic trust, the American Fund for Public Service , commonly known as the Garland Fund. Station manager Gerber dedicated much of his time to keeping
16016-515: The station to broadcast with less effect from the skyscrapers of New York. The broadcast studio was to be located somewhere in Manhattan , it was reported. The Socialist Party and its partners received assurances from the FRC that a broadcasting license would be promptly granted. Joining the Socialist Party with the Debs radio project were a number of national and international trade unions, including
16159-455: The station's educational content following its August 1928 license renewal, including weekly courses on economics conducted by A.J. Muste of Brookwood Labor College . Sunday afternoons the station broadcast a regular speakers' forum which included such prominent liberal voices as journalist Walter Lippman , Rabbi Stephen S. Wise , and Oswald Garrison Villard , publisher of The Nation magazine. Late in 1928, by General Order 40 , WEVD
16302-454: The station's meager revenue stream flowing, although by January 1928 Norman Thomas was opining that the Socialist Party and its radio station "can't go on living like this." On top of the Socialist Party's financial troubles came regulatory problems with the FRC. Stations were initially issued a series of temporary authorizations starting on May 3, 1927. In addition, they were informed that if they wanted to continue operating, they needed to file
16445-665: The ten best-selling printed books were originally released as mobile phone books. Similar to the internet, mobile is also an interactive media , but has far wider reach, with 3.3 billion mobile phone users at the end of 2007 to 1.3 billion internet users (source ITU). Like email on the internet, the top application on mobile is also a personal messaging service, but SMS text messaging is used by over 2.4 billion people. Practically all internet services and applications exist or have similar cousins on mobile, from search to multiplayer games to virtual worlds to blogs. Mobile has several unique benefits which many mobile media pundits claim make mobile
16588-434: The third screen (counting only TV and PC). A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly , biweekly , monthly , bimonthly or quarterly , with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in colour on coated paper , and are bound with
16731-456: The time, a strike was the only way that they believed they would be heard. The Knights of Labor tried to establish a strong and organized union, so they set up a system of local assemblies, or LAs. There were two main types of LAs, trade and mixed, with the trade LA being the most common. Although this system was put into place to create order, it did the opposite. Even though there were only two categories of LAs, there were many sub-divisions. For
16874-477: The total value of media consumed on mobile vastly exceeds that of internet content, and was worth over $ 31 billion in 2007 (source Informa). The mobile media content includes over $ 8 billion worth of mobile music (ringing tones, ringback tones, truetones, MP3 files, karaoke, music videos, music streaming services, etc.); over $ 5 billion worth of mobile gaming; and various news, entertainment and advertising services. In Japan mobile phone books are so popular that five of
17017-478: The trucks. With more machines that could do the same labor, unemployment in the mines grew and wages were cut back. As the problems grew, many people did not believe that the UMW could ever become as powerful as it was before the start of the war. The decline in the union began in the 1920s and continued through the 1930s. Slowly the membership of the UMWA grew back up in numbers, with the majority in District 50 ,
17160-498: The union . Led by J. B. McLachlan , miners struck in 1923, and were met by locally and provincially-deployed troops. This would eventually lead to the federal government introducing legislation limiting the civil use of troops. In 1925 BESCO announced that it would not longer give credit at their company stores and that wages would be cut by 20%. The miners responded with a strike. This led to violence with company police firing on strikers, killing miner William Davis , as well as
17303-430: The union did not deliver what it had promised, it lost support and members. During this time, the rivalry between the two unions increased and eventually led to the formation of the UMW. The first of many arguments arose after the 1886 joint conference. The Knights of Labor did not want the NTA #135 to be in control, so they went against a lot of their decisions. Also, because the Knights of Labor were not in attendance at
17446-552: The union into the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Lewis was a Republican, but he played a major role in helping Franklin D. Roosevelt win re-election with a landslide in 1936, but as an isolationist supported by Communist elements in the CIO, Lewis broke with Roosevelt in 1940 on anti-Nazi foreign policy. (Following the 1939 German-Soviet pact of nonaggression, the Comintern had instructed communist parties in
17589-470: The union was given more freedoms. As a result, the health and spirits of the miners significantly improved. The WBA could have been a very successful union had it not been for Franklin B. Gowen . In the 1870s Gowen lead the Reading Railroad , and bought several coal mines in the area. Because he owned the coal mines and controlled the means of transporting the coal, he was able to slowly destroy
17732-412: The union, and that competition for members between the two groups was not accomplishing anything. As a result of taking this position, he was replaced by John B. Rae as president of the NTA #135. This removal did not stop Lewis however; he got many people together who had been also thrown out of the Knights of Labor for trying to belong to both parties at once, along with the National Federation, and created
17875-430: The union. Eastover management refused to sign the contract and the miners went on strike. Duke Power attempted to bring in replacement non-union workers or " scabs " but many were blocked from entering the mine by striking workers and their families on the picket line. Local judge F. Byrd Hogg was a coal operator himself and consistently ruled for Eastover. During much of the strike the mine workers' wives and children joined
18018-407: The unions, loss of control over jobs, drop in demand, and competition—decreased the faith of miners in their union. By 1998 the UMW had about 240,000 members, half the number that it had in 1946. As of the early 2000s, the union represents about 42 percent of all employed miners. At some point before 1930, the UMW became a member of the American Federation of Labor . The UMW leadership was part of
18161-458: The virtual universe. In common usage, an " arcade game " refers to a game designed to be played in an establishment in which patrons pay to play on a per-use basis. A "computer game" or " PC game " refers to a game that is played on a personal computer. A " Console game " refers to one that is played on a device specifically designed for the use of such, while interfacing with a standard television set. A "video game" (or "videogame") has evolved into
18304-542: The war, the UMW concentrated on gaining large increases in wages, medical services and retirement benefits for its shrinking membership, which was contending with changes in technology and declining mines in the East. The UMW was founded at Columbus City Hall in Columbus, Ohio , on January 25, 1890, by the merger of two earlier groups, the Knights of Labor Trade Assembly No. 135 and the National Progressive Miners Union. It
18447-1171: The web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmits information via such media as augmented reality (AR) advertising ; billboards ; blimps ; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting . Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books , comics , magazines , newspapers , or pamphlets . Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. Mass media organisations or mass media companies that control these technologies include movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations (the latter are also sometimes known as mass media networks ); they often form media conglomerates . In
18590-570: The width of the bands, range, licensing, types of receivers and transmitters used, and acceptable content. Cable television programs are often broadcast simultaneously with radio and television programs, but have a more limited audience. By coding signals and requiring a cable converter box at individual recipients' locations, cable also enables subscription -based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs simultaneously, through several channels ( frequencies ), for example BBC One and Two . On
18733-462: Was born. The Debs Memorial Radio Fund began operating WEVD on August 18, 1927. In addition to English-language broadcasts, one of the organizations providing funding, the widely circulated and financially successful Jewish Daily Forward newspaper, launched what would become what one radio historian called "the most famous Yiddish radio program of all time" — The Forward Hour. This show was first broadcast every Sunday morning at 11 o'clock, and gained
18876-410: Was curbed by competition from other energy sources. The main cause of the decline in the union during the 1920s and 1930s was the introduction of more efficient and easily produced machines into the coal mines. In previous years, less than 41% of coal was cut by the machines. However, by 1930, 81% was being cut by the machines and now there were machines that could also surface mine and load the coal into
19019-504: Was filed by the Coal Employment Project , a women's advocacy organization, against 153 coal companies. This action was based upon Executive Order 11246 signed in 1965 by U.S. President Lyndon Johnson , which bars sex discrimination by companies with federal contracts. The complaint called for the hiring of one woman for every three inexperienced men until women constituted 20 percent of the workforce. This legal strategy
19162-461: Was left with 35,000 members, of whom 20,000 were coal miners, chiefly in underground mines in Kentucky and West Virginia. However it was responsible for pensions and medical benefits for 40,000 retired miners, and for 50,000 spouses and dependents. The UMW was founded in Columbus, Ohio , on January 25, 1890, with the merger of two old labor groups, the Knights of Labor Trade Assembly No. 135 and
19305-734: Was marked by an array of liberal and socialist worthies who spoke at the occasion, including Hillquit, Cahan, educator John Dewey , magazine publisher Oswald Garrison Villard , and writer Heywood Broun . In 1938, WEVD bought one of its time-sharing partners on AM 1300, WHAP/WFAB; an FCC examiner recommended the Debs Memorial Fund be allowed to buy the WFAB assets for $ 85,000 from the Fifth Avenue Broadcasting Corporation, expanding its weekly broadcast hours from 50 to 86. However, two other stations shared
19448-401: Was modeled after the American Federation of Labor (AFL). The Union's emergence in the 1890s was the culmination of decades of effort to organize mine workers and people in adjacent occupations into a single, effective negotiating unit. At the time coal was one of the most highly sought natural resources, as it was widely used to heat homes and to power machines in industries. The coal mines were
19591-501: Was more commonly known as the Knights of Labor and began around 1870 in the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania area. The main problem with the Knights of Labor was its secrecy. The members kept very private their affiliation and goals of the Knights of Labor. Because both miners and operators could become members, there was no commonality to unite the members. Also, the union did not see strikes as a means to attain rights. To many people of
19734-608: Was moved to a new frequency by the Federal Radio Commission, 1300 kilocycles, and was able to boost its power somewhat. While the move had been sought by the Debs Memorial Radio Fund, which remained the legal entity owning the station, the change ultimately solved little — WEVD remained underpowered and forced to share its frequency with three other stations. The station broadcast 50 hours per week, ranging from as little as two hours on Fridays to 18 hours on Wednesdays. WEVD'a limited power and hours of operation created
19877-428: Was named as secretary of the board and director of the fundraising drive. At the fundraising drive's launch, Norman Thomas remarked: The usefulness of a well established radio station open to full and frank discussion of great economic and social issues is beyond doubt. Past experience combines with common sense in assuring us that the commercial broadcasting stations cannot be expected to give much time or attention to
20020-477: Was not prepared economically to deal with such a drop in demand for coal. Demand for coal was very high during World War II, but decreased dramatically after the war, in part due to competition from other energy sources. In efforts to improve air quality, municipal governments started to ban the use of coal as household fuel. The end of wartime price controls introduced competition to produce cheaper coal, putting pressure on wages. These problems—perceived weakness of
20163-413: Was successful. Almost 3,000 women were hired by the close of 1979 as underground miners. A general decline in union effectiveness characterized the 1970s and 1980s, leading to new kinds of activism, particularly in the late 1970s. Workers saw their unions back down in the face of aggressive management. Other factors contributed to the decline in unionism generally and UMW specifically. The coal industry
20306-422: Was syndicated to a national audience through electrical transcription . On January 9, 1950, Harold Cammer , Burton Zorn, Edwin M. Ottenbourg, Samuel Harris Cohen spoke with Stanley G. House as moderator on "Should New York State Have a Little Taft-Hartley Law?" On February 6, 1953, New York University philosophy professor Sidney Hook discussed "The Threat to Academic Freedom" with Victor Riesel and others in
20449-457: Was the Workingmen's Benevolent Association . This union was distinguished as a labor union for workers mining anthracite coal. The laborers formed the WBA to help improve pay and working conditions. The main reason for the success of this group was the president, John Siney , who sought a way both to increase miners benefits while also helping the operators earn a profit. They chose to limit
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